The Handbook of Stress E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: Blackwell Handbooks of Behavioral Neuroscience
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1410

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

The Handbook of Stress: Neuropsychological Effects on the Brain is an authoritative guide to the effects of stress on brain health, with a collection of articles that reflect the most recent findings in the field. * Presents cutting edge findings on the effects of stress on brain health * Examines stress influences on brain plasticity across the lifespan, including links to anxiety, PTSD, and clinical depression * Features contributions by internationally recognized experts in the field of brain health * Serves as an essential reference guide for scholars and advanced students

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Wiley-Blackwell Handbooks of Behavioral Neuroscience

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Contributors

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

Abbreviations

Part I: Basics of the Stress Response

1 The Basics of the Stress Response

An Introduction to Stress

The Road to Conceptualizing Stress

Overview of Stress-response Physiology

Overview of Key Stress Response Mediators

Overview of the Stress Response Following Chronic Stress

Emotional Response to Stress

Stress and Cognition

Neuroanatomy of Emotional Regulation

Stress Pathology: Brain Structure and Function

Stress Resilience: Genes, Endophenotype, and Neuropsychological Functioning

Concluding Remarks

2 Central Nervous System Regulation of the Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis Stress Response

The Problem of Stress

Acute Stress Responses

Chronic Stress Responses

Perspective: Stress, Chronic Stress, and Disease

3 Corticosteroid Receptor Involvement in the Stress Response

Basal and Stress-induced Secretory Patterns

Receptor and Action Patterns

Brain MRs

Brain GRs

MR and GR Polymorphisms

MR, GR, and CRH

Future Directions

Acknowledgment

4 Nongenomic Cellular Actions of Corticosteroids in the Brain

Introduction

Slow, Gene-mediated Effects of Glucocorticoids

Rapid, Nongenomic Effects of Glucocorticoids

Putative Mechanism of Action

Concluding Remarks

5 Stress Effects on the Brain

Introduction

The Inter-relationship of Stress and Cognition

NMDA Receptor-mediated Signaling and Neuroplasticity

Epigenetic Mechanisms in Gene Transcription

Emotional Challenges Result in Transcription-related Histone Modifications in the Brain

The Dentate Gyrus Shows Sparse Epigenetic Responses

Integration of Extracellular and Intracellular Pathways Signaling to the Chromatin

Significance of H3S10p/K14ac-associated Gene Expression in Dentate Gyrus Granule Neurons in Hippocampus-related Memory Formation

Concluding Remarks

6 Mechanisms of Glucocorticoid Receptor Regulation of Gene Expression

Introduction

Mechanisms of Glucocorticoid-regulated Gene Expression

Concluding Remarks

Part II: Stress Influences on Brain Plasticity and Cognition

7 Stress and Adult Neurogenesis

Adult Neurogenesis in the Dentate Gyrus

Effects of Aversive Experience on Adult Neurogenesis

Age, Species, and Sex Differences

Stress Effects on Adult Neurogenesis: a Role for Glucocorticoids?

A Role for Interleukin-1?

Paradoxical Effects of Stress on Adult Neurogenesis

Potential Functions of Adult Neurogenesis

Summary

8 Neurobiological Basis of the Complex Effects of Stress on Memory and Synaptic Plasticity

Progress in the Study of Stress, Memory, and Brain Function

Stress Effects on Memory Consolidation and Retrieval

Influence of Extrinsic and Intrinsic Stress on Memory

Stress-induced Modulation of Synaptic Plasticity

Stress, Memory, Synaptic Plasticity, and Corticosteroids

Stress and Multiple Brain Memory Systems

Temporal Dynamics Model of the Stress-induced Modulation of Memory

Extending the Temporal Dynamics Model to Address Stress Effects on Retrieval

Summary and Speculation on the Neural Basis of Traumatic Memory Processing

Acknowledgment

9 Acute Glucocorticoids Interact with Arousal State in Regulating Long-term Memory Formation

Introduction

Acute Glucocorticoid Effects on Memory Consolidation

Fast and Slow Glucocorticoid Actions

Role of the Amygdala in Mediating Glucocorticoid Effects on Memory Consolidation

Glucocorticoid Interactions with Noradrenergic Mechanisms in the BLA

Rapid Glucocorticoid Interactions with Endocannabinoid Mechanisms

Concluding Remarks

10 Chronic Stress Effects on Corticolimbic Morphology

Introduction

Hippocampus

Amygdala

Striatum

Prefrontal Cortex

Mechanisms of Stress-induced Dendritic Remodeling

Functional Implications of Stress-induced Dendritic Remodeling

Future Directions

11 Effects of Chronic Stress on Memory and Neuroplasticity: Animal Studies

Hippocampus-related Learning Processes: Spatial Learning

Amygdala-related Learning: Fear Conditioning

Learning Tasks Related to Prefrontal Cortical Function

Individual Differences

Latent Vulnerability to Stress across the Life span

Stress Effects on Neuroplasticity Mediating the Behavioral Effects: a Focus on the Neural Cell Adhesion Molecule

Conclusions

12 Stress and Glucocorticoid Effects on Learning and Memory

History and Definitions of Stress

The Stress Response: Catecholamines and Glucocorticoids

Stress Methodology

Emotions: an Important Modulator of Human Memory

Acute Effects of GCs on Memory

Is That the End of the Story?

Conclusion

Part III: Stress Effects Across the Life Span

13 Adolescence and Stress

Introduction

Stages of Development

Maturation of HPA Axis during the Juvenile to Adult Transition

Stress and the Hippocampal Formation

Stress and the PFC

Conclusions

14 Effect of Early Environment and Separation Animal Models on Neurobiological Development

Shaping Brain and Behavior Through Experience

Behavioral Effects of Social Isolation Rearing in Rodents

Neuroanatomical Correlates of Social Isolation-rearing

Postweaning Social Isolation and Central Neurotransmitter Function

Neuroendocrine Adaptations and Importance of Early-life Environment

Neuropeptide Neuromodulation and Early Social Environment

Other Paradigms involving Early-environment Manipulation

Conclusions

Acknowledgment

15 Clinical Implications of Childhood Stress

Introduction

Family Environment Stressors

Emotion Regulation

Common Family Stressors

Stress Inoculation

Methodological Considerations

Future Research

Concluding Comments

16 Chronic Stress and Hippocampus Vulnerability to Functional Changes and Health in the Adult

Introduction

Glucocorticoid Cascade Hypothesis and Recent Developments

Investigating Hippocampal Structural Changes Beyond Neuronal Loss

Hippocampal CA3 Dendritic Retraction: Consequences on Spatial Ability

Model for Chronic Stress and CA3 Dendritic Retraction in Spatial Ability

Hippocampal CA3 Dendritic Retraction: Consequences on Hippocampal Health

Glucocorticoid Vulnerability Hypothesis and Implications

Acknowledgment

17 Stress and Aging

Introduction

Neuroendocrine Mechanisms and Aging in Resilience and Vulnerability

Role of Cellular Plasticity Mechanisms in Stress and Aging

Potential Interventions that Might Increase Resilience to Stress and Aging: Caloric Restriction and Exercise

Conclusions and Summary

Part IV: Stress Involvement in Anxiety, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Depression

18 Social Stress Effects on Defensive Behavior and Anxiety

Introduction

Resource Conflict as a Focal Feature of Social Stress

Social Stress from the Lack of Social Interaction

Defensive Behaviors and Anxiety

Defensive Behaviors and Anxiety Measures Following Social Stress

Social Stress and Glucocorticoids

Summary

19 Stress and Animal Models of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder

Animal Models of PTSD

Selected CBC-based Studies

Can PTSD Be Prevented?

Conclusions

20 What Can Fear Conditioning Tell Us About Posttraumatic Stress Disorder?

Introduction

The Neurocircuitry of Fear Conditioning

Biochemical Pathways and Synaptic Changes Underlying Fear Learning

Stress Hormones and Fear Conditioning

Extinction and Reconsolidation of Conditioned Fear

Conclusion

21 Stress and Glucocorticoid Effects on Memory

Introduction

Glucocorticoid Effects on Memory Consolidation

Glucocorticoid Effects on Memory Retrieval

Glucocorticoid Effects on Working Memory

Modulatory Effects of Glucocorticoids on Emotional Memory: Implications for Anxiety Disorders

Conclusion

22 Stress and Human Neuroimaging Studies

Lasting Effects of Traumatic Stress on the Brain and Behavior

Neural Circuits of Trauma-spectrum Disorders

Changes in Brain Structure in PTSD

Functional Neuroimaging Studies in PTSD

Neuroreceptor Studies in PTSD

Brain-imaging Findings in Other Trauma-spectrum Disorders

Summary and Conclusions

23 Chronic Stress and Depression

Introduction

Acute Versus Chronic Stress

Animal Models of Chronic Stress

Brain Cells Under Stress

Plasticity of the Mature Brain

Neuroplasticity at the Level of Gene Transcription

Sex-specific Differences in Reactions to Stress

Plasticity of Astrocytes

Conclusions

24 How Can Stress Alter Emotional Balance Through Its Interaction with the Serotonergic System?

Introduction

HPA Axis, Corticotropin-releasing Factor, and Corticosteroids

The 5-HT System and 5-HT Receptors Involved in Anxiety and Depression

Regulation of the Serotonergic System via the HPA Axis

Beyond the HPA–5-HT Interactions: Stress-related Changes in Neurotrophic and Epigenetic Factors

Overview

25 Stress, Prefrontal Cortex Asymmetry, and Depression

Overview of Prefrontal Cortical Involvement in Stress and Depression

Lateralization of Stress Regulatory Systems: Autonomic Function

Asymmetric Regulation of Neuroendocrine Function

Brain-imaging Studies, Depression, and Laterality

Brain Damage, Laterality, and Depression

Frontal Brain Asymmetry, Electroencephalographic Studies, and Depression

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

Some Relevant Animal Findings on Prefrontal Lateralization

The Question of Gender

Summary

Part V: Stress, Coping, Predisposition, and Sex Differences

26 Chronic Stress and Sex Differences on Cognition

Introduction

Chronic Stress: Daily Restraint Model

Spatial Memory Tasks in Rodents

Age Affects Cognitive Responses to Stress in a Sex-dependent Manner

Influence of Psychological and Performance Parameters on Cognitive Responses to Stress

Stress-induced Changes in Neural Processing/Strategies by the Sexes

Sex-dependent Neural Changes Following Chronic Stress

Conclusion

27 Effects of Stress on Learning and Memory

Introduction

Effects of Stress on Episodic Memory: Evidence for Sex Differences?

Effects of Stress on Working Memory: Evidence for Sex Differences?

Effects of Stress on Classical Conditioning: Evidence for Sex Differences?

Summary

When Do We See Sex Differences? Some Hypotheses

Outlook

28 Influence of Diet on Stress Response and Behavior

Introduction

Effects of Fat Diets on the Neuroendocrine Stress Response

Effects of Fat Diets on Behavioral Stress Response

Implication of Metabolic Regulators

Effect of Dietary Fat in Cognitive Function

Closing Remarks

29 Influence of Appraisal and Coping Following Extreme Stress

Introduction

Individual Differences in the Stress Response

A Model of Stress Coping

Conceptualization of Appraisal and Coping Processes

Neuroendocrine Consequences of Appraisal and Coping

Clinical Implications

Name Index

Subject Index

Color plates

Wiley-Blackwell Handbooks of Behavioral Neuroscience

The rapidly expanding field of behavioral neuroscience examines neurobiological aspects of behavior, utilizing techniques from molecular biology, neuropsychology, and psychology. This series of handbooks provides a cutting-edge overview of classic research, current scholarship, and future trends in behavioral neuroscience. The series provides a survey of representative topics in this field, suggesting implications for basic research and clinical applications.

Series editor: David Mostofsky, Boston University

The Handbook of Stress: Neuropsychological Effects on the Brain

Edited by Cheryl D. Conrad

Forthcoming:

The Handbook of the Neuropsychology of Language (2 Volumes)

Edited by Miriam Faust

The Handbook of Alzheimer’s Disease and Other Dementias

Edited by Neil W. Kowall and Andrew E. Budson

This edition first published 2011

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The handbook of stress : neuropsychological effects on the brain / edited by Cheryl D. Conrad.

p. ; cm. – (Wiley-Blackwell handbooks of behavioral neuroscience)

 Includes bibliographical references and index.

 ISBN 978-1-4443-3023-6 (hardcover : alk. paper) – ISBN 978-1-118-07865-5 (ePDF) – ISBN 978-1-118-08322-2 (Wiley online library) – ISBN 978-1-118-07871-6 (ePub) – ISBN 978-1-118-08320-8 (mobi)

 1. Stress (Psychology) 2. Anxiety disorders. 3. Brain. 4. Neuropsychiatry. I. Conrad, Cheryl D. II. Series: Wiley-Blackwell handbooks of behavioral neuroscience.

 [DNLM: 1. Stress, Psychological–complications. 2. Anxiety Disorders–complications. 3. Brain Diseases–etiology. 4. Brain Diseases–physiopathology. WM 172]

 RC455.4.S87H36 2011

 616.9'8–dc22

2011006755

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

This book is published in the following electronic formats: ePDFs 9781118078655; Wiley Online Library 9781118083222; ePub 9781118078716; mobi 9781118083208

To my son and husband, Ely and Stuart, for your understanding in allowing me the guiltless pleasure to pursue my passion.

You are the Yin to my Yang.

Contributors

D. Caroline Blanchard, Department of Psychology, Pacific Biosciences Research Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA

Robert J. Blanchard, Department of Psychology, Pacific Biosciences Research Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA

Erik B. Bloss, Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, USA

J. Douglas Bremner, Departments of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences and Radiology, Emory University, School of Medicine, Atlanta, USA

Patrizia Campolongo, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Rome “La Sapienza,” Italy

John A. Cidlowski, Laboratory of Signal Transduction, NIEHS/NIH/DHHS, Research Triangle Park, USA

Hagit Cohen, Beer-Sheva Mental Health Center, The State of Israel Ministry of Health, Anxiety and Stress Research Unit, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel

Andrew Collins, Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

Cheryl D. Conrad, Department of Psychology and Division of Natural Sciences, College of Liberal Arts and Sciences, Arizona State University, USA

Jacek Dbiec, Department of Psychiatry, New York University School of Medicine – Bellevue Hospital Center, New York, USA

E. Ronald de Kloet, Division of Medical Pharmacology/LACDR-LUMC, University of Leiden, The Netherlands

Dominique J.-F. de Quervain, Department of Psychology, Division of Cognitive Neuroscience, and Psychiatric University Clinic, University of Basel, Switzerland

Roel H. DeRijk, Division of Medical Pharmacology/LACDR-LUMC, University of Leiden, The Netherlands

David M. Diamond, Medical Research Service, VA Hospital, Tampa, FL, Departments of Psychology and Molecular Pharmacology & Physiology, and Center for Preclinical & Clinical Research on PTSD, University of South Florida, Tampa, USA

Michael N. Dretsch, Cognitive Assessment and Diagnostics Branch, United States Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory (USAARL), Fort Rucker, USA

Gabriele Flügge, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany

Eberhard Fuchs, German Primate Center, Leibniz Institute for Primate Research, Göttingen, Germany

Allison Jane Fulford, Centre for Comparative and Clinical Anatomy, School of Medical Sciences, University of Bristol, UK

Elizabeth Gould, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, USA

Femke Groeneweg, Department of Neuroscience & Pharmacology, Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, UMC Utrecht, The Netherlands

María Gutièrrez-Mecinas, Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, University of Bristol, UK

Michel Hamon, INSERM UMR S894, and UPMC Université Paris 06, France

James P. Herman, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Cincinnati, USA

Marian Joëls, Department of Neuroscience & Pharmacology, Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, UMC Utrecht, The Netherlands

Ilia N. Karatsoreos, Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Rockefeller University, New York, USA

Henk Karst, Department of Neuroscience & Pharmacology, Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, UMC Utrecht, The Netherlands

Efthymia Kitraki, Department of Basic Sciences, School of Dentistry, University of Athens, Greece

Laurence Lanfumey, INSERM UMR S894, and UPMC Université Paris 06, France

François Laplante, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada

Joseph E. LeDoux, Center for Neural Science, New York University, USA

Linda J. Luecken, Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, USA

Victoria N. Luine, Hunter College of CUNY, Department of Psychology, New York, USA

Sonia J. Lupien, Centre for Studies on Human Stress, Fernand-Seguin Research Center, Louis-H. Lafontaine Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada

Marie-France Marin, Centre for Studies on Human Stress, Fernand-Seguin Research Center, Louis-H. Lafontaine Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, Université de Montréal, Quebec, Canada

Bruce S. McEwen, Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology, Rockefeller University, New York, USA

Onno C. Meijer, Division of Medical Pharmacology/LACDR-LUMC, University of Leiden, The Netherlands

Raymond Mongeau, INSERM UMR S894, and UPMC Université Paris 06, France

John H. Morrison, Fishberg Department of Neuroscience, Kastor Neurobiology of Aging Laboratories, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York, USA

Miranda Olff, Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Collin R. Park, Medical Research Service, VA Hospital, Tampa, FL, and Department of Psychology and Center for Preclinical & Clinical Research on PTSD, University of South Florida, USA

Brandon L. Pearson, Department of Psychology, Pacific Biosciences Research Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, USA

Catherine Purdom, Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, USA

Johannes M. H. M. Reul, Henry Wellcome Laboratories for Integrative Neuroscience and Endocrinology, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK

Gal Richter-Levin, The Institute for the Study of Affective Neuroscience (ISAN), The Brain and Behavior Research Center, Department of Psychology & Department of Neurobiology and Ethology, University of Haifa, Israel

Russell D. Romeo, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience and Behavior Program, Barnard College of Columbia University, New York, USA

Benno Roozendaal, Department of Neuroscience, Section Anatomy, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, The Netherlands

Danielle S. Roubinov, Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, USA

Carmen Sandi, Laboratory of Behavioral Genetics, Brain Mind Institute, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (EPFL), Lausanne, Switzerland

Timothy J. Schoenfeld, Department of Psychology and Neuroscience Institute, Princeton University, USA

Alyson B. Scoltock, Laboratory of Signal Transductionk, NIEHS/NIH/DHHS, Research Triangle Park, USA

Ron M. Sullivan, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada

Kenneth J. Thiel, Cognitive Assessment and Diagnostics Branch, United States Army Aeromedical Research Laboratory (USAARL), Fort Rucker, USA

Cara L. Wellman, Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, Indiana University, Bloomington, USA

Oliver T. Wolf, Department of Cognitive Psychology, Ruhr-University Bochum, Germany

Joseph Zohar, The Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Sackler Medical School, Tel-Aviv University, Tel Hashomer, Israel

Phillip R. Zoladz, Department of Psychology and Sociology, Ohio Northern University, Ada, USA

Foreword

The superb book you hold in your hand concerns two domains of stress research. One domain is mechanistic in nature, with implications for understanding disease; the other domain is a remnant of a neurosis that plagued the field in its youth.

The mixed contribution first. Around the 1960s, stress physiology suffered a crisis of self-definition and self-confidence. From its start in the primordial ooze of Cannon and Selye, the field was just that—physiology. This was the era where the flashiest scientists obsessed over vaccines, microbes, and drug development. In contrast, the basic stress concept, the notion that generic “challenges” could result in generic “poor health,” felt squishy—less scientific. Thus, the early stress physiologists had a strong incentive to study hard-nosed things like whether there was a linear relationship between the magnitude of hypotension and the magnitude of the stress-response. Real science.

But then, the trauma of the 1960s, as room had to be made for psychologists and the fact that the magnitude of the stress-response could be modulated by things like whether an organism felt a sense of control over the stressor … by what the organism felt!

Despite becoming more reductive, the physiological tradition of stress research has still had to accommodate the embarrassing and growing relevance of the imprecise world of affect and subjectivity and personality.

This timely book summarizes an emerging détente. Mothering style causes epigenetic changes in an infant; depression alters telomere length; anxiety modulates gene transcription. Psychobiological and molecular approaches are utterly intertwined.

This book is also an advance in a second domain, helping to resolve a seeming paradox: a) stressful events in life, beginning with fetal life, can have adverse consequences that are life-long, even multigenerational; b) numerous environmental interventions mitigate against those life-long effects. In other words, lots of stress and you’re potentially screwed for a long, long time … but rarely irreparably. How to understand extremely persistent biological footprints that, nonetheless, can be erased? Understanding the biology of why humans develop with opposable thumbs but not antlers—easy. Understanding the biology of why muscle mass increases if you exercise—easy. But it’s not easy to understand how stress can have consequences as persistent as the days we will spend without antlers, while those consequences can be lessened by the equivalents of doing push-ups regularly.

And what this book does is present the cutting-edge mechanisms that enable the simultaneity of persistence and reversibility. Phosphorylation and dephosphorylation. Up- and down-regulation of receptors. LTP and LTD, synapses that come and go, dendritic atrophy and sprouting. And of course the two most exciting realms of plasticity—epigenetics and adult neurogenesis.

It is the duty of every writer of book forewords to argue that this is an especially auspicious time for progress in their field, so I might as well do the same, arguing that what once seemed “squishy” with mixed recognition is now center stage. That is, the pathogenicity of sadness, anxiety, or social isolation is fast becoming as much a molecular phenomenon as is the pathogenicity of, say, clogged arteries. And the specific knowledge being gained emphasizes the imperative of environmental—individual and societal—interventions that can lessen the impact of stress.

Robert Sapolsky

Preface

The purpose of this book is to serve as a comprehensive and authoritative guide to the central issues and state-of-the-art research on the effects of stress on brain health. It fills a void in the literature, coalescing works from leading international scholars in the field of stress and brain function. Contributing scholars investigate stress actions in the brain at all levels of analysis, stemming from those who work at the level of the molecular stage, the cellular phase, systems interactions, and function using animal models and clinical settings. The breadth of the topics covered include the basics of the stress response (Part I) to introduce the reader to terms and concepts that are used throughout the book, which are followed by the variety of ways that stress can influence brain plasticity and cognition (Part II) and its actions across the life span (Part III). Subsequent chapters cover pathological outcomes such as anxiety, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and depression (Part IV). The final chapters (Part V) reveal that many factors contribute to brain plasti­city and pathology in response to stress, called resilience, and these include coping strategies, predictability, and genetic factors such as gender. This book is unique because it focuses on both the beneficial and detrimental effects of stress on brain health. Readers will gain an appreciation for the brain’s ability to adapt and respond to stress in ways that maximize brain function in a dynamic world, but will also come to understand that the brain has limits, with maladaptive outcomes occurring when exceeding these limits.

To conceptualize the theme of balance, the cover art of this book was chosen to visualize the integration of stress and the brain, to represent the universal theme of balance, or yin yang. Yin is characterized as soft, cold, wet, and tranquil. In contrast, Yang is hard, fast, edgy, and dry. These two forces are somewhat opposite, but they are not opposing: they balance each other. In a similar parallel, stress also has a balance: it is needed to produce energy and motivation so that an individual can survive challenges. However, persistent or unregulated stress can lead to maladaptive outcomes. The key is finding mechanisms that allow for harmony.

In Part I, Basics of the Stress Response, the fundamentals of the stress response are covered to allow readers the opportunity to become familiar with the terms and concepts that follow in the subsequent chapters. In Chapter 1 by Thiel and Dretsch, a historical context is presented before core themes in stress research are outlined. In Chapter 2, Herman presents the latest findings on the central nervous system regulation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis. de Kloet, DeRijk, and Meijer (Chapter 3) discuss the role of the corticosteroid steroid receptors in endocrine regulation and behavioral balance. Joëls, Groeneweg, and Karst (Chapter 4), Reul, Collins, and Gutièrrez-Mecinas (Chapter 5), and Scoltock and Cidlowski (Chapter 6) present novel findings about nontraditional mechanisms for corticosteroid actions and processes by which the genome can be regulated through epigenetics; that is, the facilitation or hindrance of gene expression. Despite the introductory role of this section, the authors present some of the most novel and cutting-edge findings in the field of stress research today.

Part II is entitled Stress Influences on Brain Plasticity and Cognition. The effects of stress are discussed along many different levels of plasticity, from actions on hippocampal neurogenesis by Schoenfeld and Gould (Chapter 7) to actions on cognition, the latter of which falls along many dimensions. Zoladz, Park, and Diamond (Chapter 8) describe the neurobiological effects of stress on synaptic plasticity and memory in animal models. Campolongo and Roozendaal (Chapter 9) discuss how glucocorticoids influence memory as a function of arousal. Wellman (Chapter 10) introduces the consequences of chronic stress on limbic morphology and Sandi (Chapter 11) describes the consequences of chronic stress on memory. This section concludes with Marin and Lupien (Chapter 12) integrating the most recent studies on how stress and glucocorticoids influence learning and memory in humans.

The goal of Part III, Stress Effects Across the Life Span, is to demonstrate that stress has unique actions that depend upon the age of the subject. Sections were chosen to capture concepts across most developmental milestones and these include early life by Romeo and Karatsoreos (Chapter 13), Fulford (Chapter 14), and Luecken, Roubinov, and Purdom (Chapter 15). The effects of chronic stress on altering the brain, such as the hippocampus, are described by Conrad (Chapter 16) to emphasize that vulnerability to stress continues in adulthood. Finally, Bloss, Morrison, and McEwen (Chapter 17) conclude this section to highlight that stress and environment have a relationship that can increase or decrease pathology to disease.

Within the last decade, a huge number of research papers have shown connections between the stress system and pathology and these are showcased in Part IV, Stress Involvement in Anxiety, Posttraumatic Stress Disorder, and Depression. Pearson, Blanchard, and Blanchard (Chapter 18) summarize how social conflict and defeat can contribute to anxiety. Cohen, Richter-Levin, and Zohar (Chapter 19), Dbiec and LeDoux (Chapter 20), and de Quervain (Chapter 21) focus on parallels between stress and PTSD with unique niches: Cohen and colleagues use a unique model for a behavioral cut-off that allows for individual differences to be factored into outcome measures. Debiec and LeDoux present work with fear conditioning, a procedure that is simple with well described pathways and mediators. De Quervain offers insights for a glucocorticoid-mediated process in PTSD in humans. Bremner (Chapter 22) demonstrates changes in the human brain diagnosed with PTSD, based upon functional neuroimaging studies. The last three chapters focus on the connection between stress and depression. Despite depression being projected as the second leading cause of disability and disease burden throughout the world, according to the World Health Organization, little progress has been made in the last few decades to produce new antidepressant therapies. Fuchs and Flügge (Chapter 23) describe the latest findings on chronic stress and depression. Mongeau, Hamon, and Lanfumey (Chapter 24) draw parallels between chronic stress and depression through the serotonergic system. Last, Sullivan and Laplante (Chapter 25) discuss the link between stress and depression through lateralized alterations in the prefrontal cortex. These outcomes are not mutually exclusive and most likely demonstrate the numerous etiologies of stress-related pathology.

The last part, Part V on Stress, Coping, Predisposition, and Sex Differences, illustrates that the effects of stress on brain health occur with mitigating factors, as many variables contribute to brain plasticity, resilience, and pathology. These variables include sex/gender, which is described by Luine (Chapter 26) and Wolf (Chapter 27). Moreover, age of the subject is important as described by Luine (Chapter 26), as well as the type of diet consumed, as described by Kitraki (Chapter 28), and appraisal of the stressor and coping strategies employed as reported by Olff (Chapter 29). These reports highlight the importance in the multitude of variables that can significantly impact how stress influences the brain.

Cheryl D. Conrad

Tempe, Arizona

Acknowledgments

I give my heartfelt gratitude to David Mostofsky for initiating the process and inviting me to become the editor of this volume in the Wiley-Blackwell Handbooks of Behavioral Neuroscience series. This endeavor was the furthest from my mind when I was approached to embark on the project, but has evolved into one of the most gratifying intellectual experiences in my career. The process was not without its ups and downs, ironically reflecting a microchasm of the yin yang perspective. But as the project reaches its completion, I now reflect fondly upon the experience and am immensely proud of the final book. It is important to recognize that the book is a group effort, with every author deserving of my warmest appreciation and deepest respect. Each author showed a profound and dedicated work ethic toward the final goal, and each produced an outstanding chapter. I also want to recognize the help of my husband, Stuart Greenstein and my son, Ely Conrad Greenstein, for helping to conceptualize the cover art and allowing me time on weekends and late nights to work on the book, which has been long and reached nearly 2 years from its inception. Finally, this book could not have come to fruition without the enormous help from the Wiley-Blackwell publishing staff and freelance writers, which includes Christine Cardone, Constance Adler, Nicole Benevenia, Matthew Bennett, Nik Prowse, and Joanna Pyke.

Abbreviations

Aβ

amyloid-β

ACTH

adrenocorticotrophic hormone

AD

Alzheimer’s disease

ADX

adrenalectomy

AF

activation function

AMPA

α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionate

AP-1

activator protein 1

APP

amyloid precursor protein

Arc

activity-regulated cytoskeletal-associated protein

ASR

acoustic startle response

avBST

anteroventral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis

AVP

arginine vasopressin

B

basal nuclei of the amygdala

BDNF

brain-derived neurotrophic factor

BLA

basolateral amygdala

BNST

bed nucleus of the stria terminalis

BPD

borderline personality disorder

BrdU

bromodeoxyuridine

BRG-1

Brahma-related gene 1

BSA

bovine serum albumin

CA

cornu ammonis

CaMK

calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase

cAMP

adenosine 3′,5′-cyclic monophosphate

CARM

coactivator-associated arginine methyltransferase

CB1R

cannabinoid type-1 receptor

CBG

corticosteroid-binding globulin (also known as transcortin)

CBP

CREB-binding protein

CDK

cyclin-dependent kinase

CE

central nuclei of the amygdala