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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Serie: Blackwell Handbooks in Linguistics
- Sprache: Englisch
The Handbook of Technology and Second Language Teaching and Learning presents a comprehensive exploration of the impact of technology on the field of second language learning. The rapidly evolving language-technology interface has propelled dramatic changes in, and increased opportunities for, second language teaching and learning. Its influence has been felt no less keenly in the approaches and methods of assessing learners' language and researching language teaching and learning. Contributions from a team of international scholars make up the Handbook consisting of four parts: language teaching and learning through technology; the technology-pedagogy interface; technology for L2 assessment; and research and development of technology for language learning. It considers how technology assists in all areas of language development, the emergence of pedagogy at the intersection of language and technology, technology in language assessment, and major research issues in research and development of technologies for language learning. It covers all aspects of language including grammar, vocabulary, reading, writing, listening, speaking, pragmatics, and intercultural learning, as well as new pedagogical and assessment approaches, and new ways of conceiving and conducting research and development. The Handbook of Technology and Second Language Teaching and Learning demonstrates the extensive, multifaceted implications of technology for language teachers, learners, materials-developers, and researchers.
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Seitenzahl: 1322
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Notes on Contributors
Acknowledgments
1 Introduction to the
Handbook of Technology and Second Language Teaching and Learning
Part I: Language teaching and learning through technology
Part II: Innovation at the Technology‐Pedagogy Interface
Part III: Technology for L2 assessment
Part IV: Research and development of technology for language learning
REFERENCES
2 From Past to Present: A Hundred Years of Technology for L2 Learning
Early 20th century: Progressive eclecticism
Mid‐century: Repetition as the mother of learning
The 1960s to early 1980s: Interactivity and authenticity
The 1980s: Compelling new contexts
The 1990s: Toward new competencies
Early 21st century: The social turn
Conclusion
REFERENCES
3 Technologies for Teaching and Learning L2 Grammar
Introduction
Four technology‐based pedagogies for L2 grammar
Research on the use of technologies for L2 grammar teaching and learning
Conclusion
REFERENCES
4 Technologies for Teaching and Learning L2 Vocabulary
Introduction
A memory‐based strategic model for vocabulary learning: How many essential stages?
A framework for categorizing technology‐mediated L2 vocabulary learning/teaching
Emerging mobile assisted vocabulary learning
Training and self‐regulating the learner for CAVL and MAVL
Conclusion
Acknowledgment
REFERENCES
5 Technologies for Teaching and Learning L2 Reading
Introduction
Theoretical bases for technological applications to L2 reading
Technologies in use for teaching and learning of L2 reading
Challenges
Future directions
REFERENCES
6 Technology and L2 Writing
Introduction
Technologies for L2 writing
Empirical research on L2 writing technologies
Future research and development
Conclusion
REFERENCES
7 Technologies for Teaching and Learning L2 Listening
Background
Digital affordances and new listening contexts
Technologies for listening
Technology, listening, and SLA theory
Technology‐mediated listening: Research and practice
Current trends and future directions
REFERENCES
8 Technologies for Teaching and Learning L2 Speaking
Introduction
Theoretical frameworks
Sociocultural theory
CALL pedagogical frameworks for speaking: Task‐based instruction (TBI)
CALL learning environments
Tutorial CALL and speaking
CMC
Conclusions
REFERENCES
9 Technologies for Teaching and Learning Intercultural Competence and Interlanguage Pragmatics
Introduction
A focus on meaning: Intercultural communicative competence, transnational languaculture, and interlanguage pragmatics
Technology, instructed contexts, and interlanguage pragmatics
Emergent pragmatic behaviors
REFERENCES
10 Distance Language Teaching with Technology
Introduction: Defining the field
Technologies, tools, and learning environments
Enquiry into pedagogical issues
Research trajectories and a future agenda
Conclusion
REFERENCES
11 Blended Language Learning: Research and Practice
Introduction
Blended learning: Definition
The beginnings of blended learning research: 2000–2005
Review of blended learning research: 2006–2014
Blended learning: Important considerations
Conclusion
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
REFERENCES
12 Telecollaboration
Introduction
Definition(s) of Telecollaboration
Historical overview of telecollaboration in language education
Paradigms of telecollaboration in language education
Conclusion
REFERENCES
Further Reading
13 The Continuing Evolution of Virtual Worlds for Language Learning
Introduction
A brief history of VWs
Overview and categorization of virtual worlds today
Research on virtual worlds
The future of VWs
REFERENCES
14 Digital Gaming in L2 Teaching and Learning
Introduction: A rekindled interest
A survey of digital games in CALL
Interpreting research on games in CALL
Implications for future research and practice
REFERENCES
15 Mobile Learning Revolution: Implications for Language Pedagogy
Introduction
Adapting language teaching to mobile learning
Mobile language learning beyond the classroom
A pedagogical framework for mobile assisted language teaching and learning
Conclusions
REFERENCES
16 Technology for Task‐based Language Teaching
Introduction
Task‐based language teaching/learning (TBLT/TBLL)
Technology‐mediated tasks
Research on tasks and technology
Challenges for technology‐mediated TBLT
Research agenda
REFERENCES
17 Language for Specific Purposes and Corpus‐based Pedagogy
LSP corpora for reference
LSP corpora for data‐driven exploration
LSP corpora for interactive computer‐assisted language learning
Future expectations
REFERENCES
18 Technology, New Literacies, and Language Learners
Introduction
Origins and theoretical bases of new literacies
Affordances of new literacies
Contemporary domains of research on new literacies
Challenges of the new literacies landscape
Future directions
REFERENCES
19 Language Teacher Education and Technology
The emergence of CALL in teacher education
Research into CALL teacher education
Evolving technologies and practice
Challenges facing CALL teacher education
Conclusion
REFERENCES
20 Integrating Assessment with Instruction through Technology
Low‐stakes assessment design
Language‐learning programs’ online assessments
Thirty‐six language textbooks’ online assessments
Evaluation and future directions
REFERENCES
21 Technology and High‐stakes Language Testing
Defining technology‐mediated high‐stakes testing
The use of technology across three stages of high‐stakes testing
Key issues for future research
REFERENCES
22 Validation of Technology‐assisted Language Tests
Argument‐based approaches to validation in language testing
Technology and validity arguments
Evaluation inference
Conclusion
REFERENCES
23 Authoring Language‐Learning Courseware
What is language courseware?
Courseware at the core of early CALL
Personal computers and authoring tools
Multimedia courseware
Intelligent language tutors
Commercial courseware and open educational resources (OER)
Web delivered courseware
REFERENCES
24 Design‐based Research
Origins of DBR
The expected outputs of DBR
The potential of DBR in CALL
Some challenges of DBR
Conclusion
REFERENCES
25 Evaluation of Technology and Language Learning
Evaluation as argument
Five types of argument
Improving evaluation
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
REFERENCES
26 Research Methods for Investigating Technology for Language and Culture Learning
Introduction
Brief overview of research methods
Research methods for teaching and learning different aspects of languaculture
Research methodologies for teaching and learning L2 pragmatics and intercultural competence
Summary and conclusions
REFERENCES
27 CALL Meta‐analyses and Transparency Analysis
Introduction
Procedures for conducting a meta‐analysis
A brief survey of established meta‐analysis reporting guidelines
Transparency of CALL meta‐analyses
Results
Discussion
Conclusion
Appendix
REFERENCES
28 Researching Technology‐mediated Multimodal Interaction
Multimodality in online learning
The need to analyze multimodal data in education
Methodology for developing CMILL research
Conclusion
REFERENCES
29 Technology‐Enhanced SLA Research
Defining SLA and SLA research
Defining SLA‐relevant research in computer‐assisted language learning (CALL)
Data in SLA‐relevant CALL research
Conclusion
REFERENCES
30 Toward Langua‐technocultural Competence
Technology has arrived!
Communicative competence is multimodal
To boldly go: L2 teaching and learning issues for the future
Conclusion
REFERENCES
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 06
Table 6.1 Example technologies for L2 writing.
Table 6.2 Empirical research on L2 writing technologies.
Chapter 07
Table 7.1 Mediating characteristics of digital devices and networks.
Chapter 09
Table 9.1 Online curricular materials for the teaching and learning of pragmatics.
Table 9.2 Key findings from research on ILP in tellecollaboration.
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 A sample of early blended learning studies in foreign language programs.
Table 11.2 Comparative studies in foreign language programs.
Table 11.3 Classes in comparative studies of blended and non‐blended courses.
Table 11.4 Findings of comparative studies of blended and non‐blended courses.
Table 11.5 Teacher perceptions studies in foreign language programs.
Table 11.6 Learner perceptions studies
Table 11.7 Non‐comparative technology tools studies in foreign language programs.
Table 11.8 Non‐comparative course implementation studies.
Table 11.9 Annotated categories used in the review.
Chapter 15
Table 15.1 Example MALL activities, CEFR descriptors and digital technologies required.
Chapter 17
Table 17.1 Examples of bottom‐up register analysis studies.
Table 17.2 Examples of top‐down genre analysis studies.
Table 17.3 Examples of combined bottom‐up and top‐down corpus studies.
Chapter 19
Table 19.1 Basic and Advanced CALL skills for classroom teachers.
Chapter 20
Table 20.1 Range of languages covered in learning programs.
Table 20.2 Language content coverage in an introductory lesson of online programs.
Table 20.3 Types of assessments in online language programs.
Table 20.4 Content coverage by textbooks for 5 most studied U.S. languages.
Table 20.5 Content coverage by textbooks for most studied U.S. languages after top 5.
Table 20.6 Comprehensive online resources including assessments
Chapter 21
Table 21.1 Opportunities and challenges presented by technology for stages of high‐stakes testing.
Chapter 24
Table 24.1 A synopsis of empirical DBR studies in CALL (in chronological then alphabetical order)
Chapter 27
Table 27.1 Possible sources to locate potential meta‐analysis and their examples.
Table 27.2 Summary of coding categories (items) and coding processes
Table 27.3 Summary of the 13 CALL meta‐analytic reports.
Table 27.4 Transparency scores for each included meta‐analysis (N = 13).
Table 27.5 Percentages of meta‐analysis papers (n = 13) reporting research question and literature searching.
Table 27.6 Percentages of meta‐analysis papers (n = 13) reporting aspects in methods sections.
Table 27.7 Percentages of meta‐analysis papers (n = 13) reporting in result section.
Table 27.8 Percentages of meta‐analysis papers (n = 13) reporting in discussion and conclusion section.
Chapter 28
Table 28.1 Modality as a set of relationships among objectives, tools, and modes in CMILL. Adapted from Lamy (2012b).
Table 28.2 Decision steps with their respective main features and comments for transcription and coding.
List of Illustrations
Chapter 03
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Chapter 04
Figure 4.1 A memory‐based strategic framework for vocabulary learning.
Figure 4.2 A framework for technology‐mediated L2 lexical applications.
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 Chateau Renoir in Second Life.
Figure 13.2 Opening scene in Colossal Cave Adventure.
Figure 13.3 Avatars communicating via text chat in a Habitat region.
Figure 13.4 Increase in MMORPGs and VWs over four years.
Figure 13.5 Increase in VWs by age group: 2009–2014.
Figure 13.6 Woogi World.
Figure 13.7 Club Penguin illustrating the Ultimate Safe Chat feature.
Figure 13.8 Habbo Spain waiting lounge.
Figure 13.9 Four Second Life venues: Paris, Mont Saint‐Michel, Inevitability of Fate, and Virtlantis.
Figure 13.10 Oculus Rift headset.
Chapter 15
Figure 15.1 Pedagogic skills and competencies implied by mobile assisted language learning and teaching. 2016 (original artwork designed by Helen Lee).
Figure 15.2 Mobile task‐based framework for workplace language learning: an iterative cycle illustrating autonomous ‘on the job’ learning integrated with pedagogical input and opportunities for reflection. 2016 (original artwork designed by Helen Lee).
Figure 15.3 A pedagogical framework for mobile assisted language teaching and learning. 2015.
Chapter 17
Figure 17.1 KWIC concordance output from COCA.
Chapter 20
Figure 20.1 Screen shot of Milestone quiz.
Figure 20.2 Performance report.
Figure 20.3 Fill‐in‐the‐blank reading assessment item.
Figure 20.4 Audio‐recorded, speaking assessment item.
Figure 20.5 Screenshot of delayed feedback on a student’s pronunciation.
Figure 20.6 Screenshot of gradebook with names blacked out.
Chapter 22
Figure 22.1 An argument‐based validation framework.
Chapter 24
Figure 24.1 A schematic view of design‐based research.
Chapter 25
Figure 25.1 Schematic diagram of the logic behind the use of second language acquisition theory to guide research for supporting claims about the success of technology for language learning.
Figure 25.2 Schematic diagram of the logic behind the use of pedagogical principles to guide research for supporting claims about the success of technology for language learning.
Figure 25.3 Schematic diagram of the logic behind the use of second language acquisition theory connected with pedagogical principles to guide research for supporting claims about the success of technology for language learning.
Chapter 28
Figure 28.1 Schematic diagram showing components Mediation in CMILL.
Figure 28.2 Multimodal acts as collected and studied within Mulce corpora repository (2013).
Guide
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The Handbook of Technology and Second Language Teaching and Learning
Edited by
Carol A. Chapelle and Shannon Sauro
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Notes on Contributors
Robert J. Blake (PhD University of Texas) is Distinguished Professor of Spanish linguistics and director of the Spanish Language Program at the University of California, Davis. He has developed online Spanish courses for the first and second years, authored Brave New Digital Classroom (2013, GUP), and co‐authored El español y la lingüística aplicada (2016, GUP). He was inducted as a member of the North American Academic of the Spanish Language in 2004.
Thierry Chanier is Professor of Applied Linguistics at Université Blaise Pascal, Clermont‐Ferrand, France. His main research interest over the past 25 years has been CALL and, since 1999, online learning in telecollaborative situations. He coordinated the Mulce project which developed an open‐access repository of Learning and Teaching Corpora
Carol A. Chapelle is Distinguished Professor of Liberal Arts and Sciences at Iowa State University. She is editor of the Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics (Wiley, 2013) as well as co‐editor of Language Testing and of the Cambridge Applied Linguistics Series. She is past‐president of the American Association for Applied Linguistics and former editor of TESOL Quarterly. Her research investigates the use of technology in language learning and assessment, the topic of many of her books and research articles.
Dorothy M. Chun is Professor of Applied Linguistics at the University of California, Santa Barbara. Her research areas include: L2 phonology and intonation, L2 reading and vocabulary acquisition, computer‐assisted language learning (CALL) and telecollaboration for intercultural learning. She has conducted studies on cognitive process in learning with multimedia, has authored courseware for language and culture acquisition, and recently edited a volume on intercultural learning via telecollaboration. She edits the journal Language Learning & Technology.
Yoo‐Ree Chung is a Postdoctoral Research Associate at the Center for Communication Excellence at Iowa State University. She coordinates the International Teaching Assistants (ITA) program, which includes the administration and management of the Oral English Certification Testing for ITAs enrolled in the university. Her research interests include validity/validation, computer‐assisted language testing, assessment of productive grammatical writing ability, speaking assessment, learning‐oriented language testing, and interfaces between language testing and second language acquisition research.
Elena Cotos is Assistant Professor in the English Department and the Director of the Center for Communication Excellence of the Graduate College, Iowa State University. Her research interests include EAP/ESP genre analysis, automated writing evaluation, CALL, learner corpora and language assessment. Her work was published in a number of professional journals, edited volumes, and a book‐length monograph.
Melinda Dooly holds a Serra Húnter fellowship as teacher and researcher at the Education Faculty of the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (Spain) where she teaches English as a Foreign Language Methodology (TEFL) and research methods courses. Her principal research addresses technology enhanced project‐based language learning in teacher preparation. Her current research interest is in project‐based telecollaborative language learning and very young learners.
Ahmet Dursun is the Assessment Coordinator at the University of Chicago Language Center’s Office of Language Assessment, where he is responsible for developing and managing the University’s language assessment programs. His research interests include language assessment, language assessment through technology, test design, test development and validation, and CALL. He has presented his work at a number of professional conferences, including TESOL, CALICO, AAAL, EALTA, and MwALT.
Kathryn English is a Maître de conférences at the Université Panthéon Assas (Paris II) and the École Polytechnique. She holds a PhD in Sciences du Langage and has designed, co‐authored and participated in cross‐cultural, computer‐mediated language teaching projects based in the United States, France, Finland and Taiwan. She also worked as a conference interpreter for the European Union, German Television and Radio, the French National Assembly.
Maja Grgurović is Clinical Assistant Professor and Clinical Director of the MA TESOL Program at the University of Illinois at Chicago. She holds a PhD in Applied Linguistics and Technology from Iowa State University. Maja has worked in the field of blended language learning as a researcher and teacher trainer for a number of years. Her other professional interests include CALL, language assessment, and language teacher education.
Volker Hegelheimer is Professor of English at Iowa State University. He researches applications of emerging technologies in language learning and language testing. His publications have appeared in journals such as Language Learning & Technology, Language Testing, System, Computer‐Assisted Language Learning, ReCALL, CALICO Journal, and he contributed to several edited volumes on CALL. He co‐edited the CALICO Journal special issue on automated writing evaluation and has presented at numerous national and international conferences.
Trude Heift is Professor of Linguistics in the Department of Linguistics at Simon Fraser University, Canada. Her research focuses on the design as well as the evaluation of CALL systems with a particular interest in learner‐computer interactions and learner language. Her work has appeared in leading CALL/SLA journals and she is co‐author, with Mathias Schulze, of Errors and Intelligence in Computer‐Assisted Language Learning: Parsers and Pedagogues (Routledge). She is co‐editor of Language Learning & Technology.
Philip Hubbard is Senior Lecturer in Linguistics and Director of English for Foreign Students in the Stanford University Language Center. He has published articles on CALL theory, research, methodology, courseware evaluation, teacher education, learner training, mobile learning, and listening. He is associate editor of Computer Assisted Language Learning and Language Learning & Technology. His current work focuses on content curation and learner training for technology environments with an emphasis on online listening.
Joan Jamieson, Professor of English at Northern Arizona University, teaches in the MA‐TESL and PhD in Applied Linguistics programs. Her areas of specialty include second language testing, research design and statistics, and CALL.
Agnes Kukulska‐Hulme is Professor of Learning Technology and Communication in the Institute of Educational Technology at the Open University and past‐president of the International Association for Mobile Learning. She is on the editorial boards of the International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning, ReCALL, and SYSTEM, and co‐editor of Mobile Learning: The Next Generation. Her current research focuses on technology‐supported learning for migrants, intelligent personal assistants, and language learning in smart cities.
Robert Godwin‐Jones is Professor of World Languages and International Studies at Virginia Commonwealth University. His research is principally in applied linguistics, in the areas of language learning and technology, and intercultural communication. He has published four books, multiple articles and book chapters, and writes a regular column for Language Learning & Technology on emerging technologies for language learning.
Greg Kessler is the Director of the Language Resource Center and Associate Professor of Computer‐Assisted Language Learning in the Department of Linguistics at Ohio University. He is also an affiliated faculty member in Instructional Technology in the Patton College of Education. His research addresses instructional technology, teacher preparation, language teaching, and associated human behavior. He has published widely and delivered featured talks around the world.
Marie‐Noëlle Lamy is Emeritus Professor of Distance Language Learning at the Open University. She has more than 20 years’ experience of designing and implementing courses involving synchronous voice‐enabled e‐tutorials. Her research focuses on methodologies for the description of online learning conversations, the co‐construction of group cultures by language learners in social networking environments, and cultural hegemonies in global CALL.
Helen Lee has worked as a business language trainer for global organizations. She holds a Masters degree in TESOL and ICT from the University of Brighton and has presented at the University of Oxford, the British (BAAL), and the American Association for Applied Linguistics (AAAL). Helen is a member of the BAAL Special Interest Group in Language and New Media. Her doctoral research at the Open University focuses on language learning with mobiles.
Zhi Li is Language Assessment Specialist at Paragon Testing Enterprises, British Columbia, Canada. He holds a PhD in applied linguistics and technology from Iowa State University. His research interests include language assessment, CALL, corpus linguistics, and systemic functional linguistics. He has presented his work at a number of professional conferences such as AAAL, LTRC, and TESOL. His research papers have been published in System and Language Learning &Technology.
Meei‐Ling Liaw is Professor of English at National Taichung University of Education. Her research focuses on intercultural learning, teacher education, and using computer technology to facilitate EFL teaching and learning. Her publications have appeared in professional journals including System, Foreign Language Annals, Computer‐Assisted Language Learning, ReCALL, and Language Learning & Technology. She is the chief editor of Taiwan International ESP Journal.
Hui‐Fen Lin is Professor of Foreign Languages and Literature, National TsingHua University in Hsinchu, Taiwan. She has published three meta‐analyses on CALL. Her research interests include computer‐mediated communication, automated writing assessment, and animated instruction.
Hsien‐Chin Liou, is Professor of Foreign Languages and Literature, Feng Chia University, Taichung, Taiwan. He specializes in CALL and related topics such as corpus use, academic writing, and vocabulary learning. She has published quite a few articles in various CALL or language learning journals as well as book volumes.
Marta González‐Lloret is Professor of Spanish at the University of Hawai’i. She investigates CALL and its intersections with task‐based language teaching (TBLT), second language pragmatics, and conversation analysis for SLA. She is currently one of the associate editors of the Wiley Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, co‐editor of the Pragmatics and Language Learning series. She co‐edited a volume with Lourdes Ortega (2014) entitled Technology‐mediated TBLT: Researching Technology and Tasks (John Benjamins), and recently published A Practical Guide to Integrating Technology into Task‐Based Language Teaching with Georgetown University Press (2015).
Qing Ma is Assistant Professor of Linguistics and Modern Language Studies at the Hong Kong Institute of Education. Her main research interests include second language vocabulary acquisition, corpus linguistics, and CALL. More recently, she moved on to mobile assisted language learning (MALL) and is particularly interested in how students self‐regulate their MALL when they are left on their own to explore online learning resources.
Matteo Musumeci, Senior Instructional Specialist, at Northern Arizona University, has focused his research on oral languaging on writing feedback in the foreign language classroom (with emphasis in Italian language teaching), and on the effects of video‐subtitles for English language learners.
Lucy Norris is an independent international education consultant in the field of language teacher development and training, formerly Research Associate at the Institute of Educational Technology of the Open University, and author of English language course book materials for adults and younger learners. Her research and professional interests include teacher development and digital literacies, and the role of technologies in supporting learning and teaching. She tweets as http://twitter.com/@MobilePedagogy
Sue E. K. Otto is Adjunct Associate Professor Emerita of Spanish, former co‐Director of the FLARE Second Language Acquisition doctoral program and former Director of the Language Media Center at the University of Iowa. For nearly four decades, she devoted her research and development efforts to CALL authoring tools and to the use of authentic video materials for language learning. Her email address is: sue‐[email protected]
Donald E. Powers is Principal Managing Research Scientist in the Educational Testing Service’s Research and Development Center for English Language Learning and Assessment. Powers has directed a wide variety of research projects in support of numerous ETS‐sponsored testing programs, and he has served as the research coordinator for several of these programs, including the TOEIC, TOEFL, and GRE testing programs.
Jonathon Reinhardt is Associate Professor at the University of Arizona. His research interests lie in the relationship between technology and the epistemologies of CALL theory and practice, and focus on technology enhanced second and foreign language pedagogy and learning, especially with emergent technologies like digital gaming and social media.
Julio C. Rodríguez directs the Center for Language & Technology and the National Foreign Language Resource Center and co‐directs the Language Flagship Technology Innovation Center at the University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa. Within the broad area of instructional technology, he is primarily focused on faculty development, project‐based learning, materials development, online course design, and design‐based research. Julio leads several design‐based research projects and has published and presented extensively in this area.
Randall W. Sadler is Associate Professor of Linguistics at the University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign, where he teaches courses on Computer‐Mediated Communication and Language Learning (CMCLL), Virtual Worlds and Language Learning (VWLL), and the Teaching of L2 Reading and Writing. His main research area is on the role of technology in language learning, with a particular focus on how CMC and Virtual Worlds may be used to enhance that process.
Shannon Sauro is Associate Professor in the Department of Culture, Languages, and Media at Malmö University, Sweden. Her areas of research include computer‐mediated second language acquisition, TBLT in online environments, and the intersection of online media fandoms and language learning. She is a past‐president of the Computer‐Assisted Language Instruction Consortium (CALICO).
Jonathan E. Schmidgall is Associate Research Scientist in the Educational Testing Service’s Research and Development Center for English Language Learning and Assessment. Jonathan’s research has focused on the assessment of oral proficiency, the affordances of new technology for learning‐oriented assessment, and designing comprehensive research programs to support large‐scale international language assessment.
Bryan Smith is Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics in the Department of English at Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona. His research focuses on the nexus of CALL and SLA. He is the co‐editor of the CALICO Journal (along with Mat Schulze) and has published widely in the areas of computer‐mediated communication, research methods, and learner interaction in instructed second language learning contexts.
Julie M. Sykes is the Director of the Center for Applied Second Language Studies and Associate Professor in Linguistics at the University of Oregon. Her research focuses on the development of interlanguage pragmatics and the use of digital technologies for language acquisition. She has published on CALL‐related topics, including synchronous computer‐mediated communication and pragmatic development, gaming and CALL, and lexical acquisition in digitally mediated environments.
Nina Vyatkina is Associate Professor of German and Applied Linguistics at the University of Kansas. She is the 2009 co‐recipient of the ACTFL/MLJ Paul Pimsleur Award for Research in Foreign Language Education. Her research interests include instructed SLA, applied corpus research, computer‐mediated communication, and interlanguage pragmatics. Her articles have appeared in leading Applied Linguistics journals and she serves on the editorial boards of Language Learning & Technology and International Journal of Learner Corpus Research.
Paige Ware is Professor in the Department of Teaching and Learning at Southern Methodist University. She earned her PhD at the University of California at Berkeley and taught English as a second/foreign language for many years. Her research focuses on intercultural communication, second language writing, and adolescent literacy practices. She has received a National Academy of Education/Spencer Postdoctoral Grant, a TIRF English Language Teaching grant, and an OELA professional development grant.
Cynthia J. White is Professor of Applied Linguistics, Massey University, New Zealand. She has published widely on distance and online learning, learner autonomy, learning strategies, and teacher identity and agency in online language teaching. She is a member of Editorial Boards of seven international journals, and has been plenary speaker at international conferences in Germany, Thailand, Singapore, China, the United Kingdom, Hawai’I, and Malaysia.
Acknowledgments
A large handbook project such as this one is the result of diligent work on the part of many. We would like to gratefully acknowledge in particular the perseverance of the authors as they worked through multiple drafts of their papers to achieve the right length, content, and accessibility for the The Handbook of Technology and Second Language Teaching and Learning. Their efforts have resulted in a collection that we expect will serve as an authoritative reference work for years to come. We would also like to acknowledge with gratitude the foresight of Danielle Descoteaux, who recognized the need for The Handbook of Technology and Second Language Teaching and Learning and encouraged us to pursue it years ago. As the project moved forward, we have been consistently supported by the editorial team at Wiley Blackwell. We most graciously appreciate their steady presence throughout the project. We would also like to thank Yundeok Choi for her careful editorial assistance in the final phases of the project.
1Introduction to the Handbook of Technology and Second Language Teaching and Learning
Carol A. Chapelle and Shannon Sauro
The Handbook of Technology and Second Language Teaching and Learning was conceived in response to the fact that technology has become integral to the ways that most language learners in the world today access materials in their second and foreign language, interact with others, learn in and out of the classroom, and take many language tests. In the title for this volume, we have used the expression “second language” as shorthand for all of the many language teaching and learning situations that include both children and adults learning additional languages beyond their mother tongue (which may be third, fourth, or more languages for them) in settings where the language being studied is the medium of daily life, education, business, or only a subject in the language classroom. We include both learning and teaching in the title to make explicit our concern with the two related but distinct areas—the pedagogy that teachers and materials designers are preoccupied with and the processes that students engage in both in an out of the classroom.
For the many diverse learners, the use of computer technology for all facets of second language learning has dramatically increased as the reach of the internet continues to spread, providing access to social media, reference materials, online instruction, and more. The implications for language teachers, learners, materials developers, and researchers are extensive. Our goal in creating the Handbook of Technology and Second Language Teaching and Learning was to communicate to a broad range of readers, within the field and beyond, the shape and texture of the technology‐rich environments that language learners inhabit today as well as the relevance of these environments for second language teaching and learning. The chapters in the Handbook demonstrate that technology has added multifaceted new dimensions to teaching and learning, which include new ways of teaching every aspect of language, new pedagogical and assessment approaches, as well as new ways of conceiving and conducting research and development.
Reference works are needed to gather and synthesize the scholarly treatment of these dynamic practices and research that are so central to the profession. In view of the central role it plays, technology and language learning needs to be represented among the other areas of study in applied linguistics through its appearance in major reference works such as the Wiley‐Blackwell Handbooks in Applied Linguistics. In fact another such handbook, The Routledge Handbook of Language Learning and Technology (Farr and Murray 2016) was recently published in the Routledge Handbooks in Applied Linguistics. Technology and language learning is also well‐represented in the Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics (Chapelle 2013) with its own section (edited by Thomas Cobb) as well as entries that include technology‐related issues across the entire Encyclopedia. With these major reference works now available, our goal was to provide another, different point of entry into this area of applied linguistics for the broad range of learners, teachers, materials developers, and researchers who want to learn more about this as an area of research and practice. Anyone with an interest in languages and cultures today has recognized that technology has affected their potential for access to more and more of their language interests. This recognition can evolve into professional knowledge and action when personal interests meet the history, practices, theory and research of the profession.
The Handbook was designed to create the opportunity for such meetings to take place. Its organization reflects the goal of inviting in and engaging readers with little professional knowledge of how technologies are transforming practices. The first section contains chapters that explain the ways that technology is integrated in the teaching and learning of specific aspects of language knowledge and skills, most or all of which are familiar to all readers. Each of these chapters includes how technology‐based tutors, tools, and pedagogy contribute to language development. The second section builds on discussion of methodology for teaching and learning to identify new pedagogies that have been developed by exploring the language and communication affordances of various technologies. Integral to but distinct from pedagogy, the third part contains chapters pertaining to issues of language assessment that are important in teaching and learning practice. Broadly speaking, the fourth section addresses the areas that converge in research and development of technology‐mediated pedagogy for language learning. The final chapter provides an analysis of the contribution these chapters make to the profession and a looks toward their implications for the future.
The remainder of this chapter provides a more detailed introduction of the chapters in the Handbook to situate each one within one of these four areas of language abilities, pedagogies, assessment, and research and development. As background to the four areas, the first chapter provides a historical account of the development of language learning and technology as an area of practice and research in applied linguistics. One of the pioneers, Sue E. K. Otto, who worked in research and development in computer‐assisted language learning (CALL) at the University of Iowa for over 40 years, provides a chronological view of how technologies have intersected with and served in the evolution of practices in language teaching and learning. Her broad view begins with the printed text, drawings, photos, audio, and video technologies that teachers and learners have taken for granted for years. Otto describes the gradual evolution of recording and delivery formats, for example, that have given way to today’s digital, computer‐based formats that are contributing to evolving language pedagogies. From photos passed around the classroom, to those broadcast on Twitter, this chronology sets the stage for the many technologies that come into play in the rest of the volume. New technologies seldom replace the old; instead, they create more options for technology users. The past practices therefore hold their place with the present technologies, inviting language learners and teachers to explore how to select, mix, and create new practices using them all. The new practices that appear to be most influential are included in this Handbook.
Part I: Language teaching and learning through technology
Most learners studying another language hope to be able to use the language to communicate with other speakers. Their end goals are communication, but most teachers and learners approach language teaching and learning through a multi‐strand process targeting particular areas of language knowledge and skills. The first section is divided according to these areas of language abilities that readers will recognize as forming the basis of most instructional programs: grammar, vocabulary, reading, writing, listening, speaking, and pragmatics and intercultural competence. Each of these chapters reviews practices for use of technologies as well as the theoretical and research bases for these practices.
In Chapter 3, Trude Heift and Nina Vyatkina provide an overview of technologies for teaching and learning L2 grammar by focusing on four distinct CALL environments: tutorial CALL, intelligent CALL (ICALL), data‐driven learning (DDL), and computer‐mediated communication (CMC). They situate these approaches to grammar teaching and learning within discussion of pedagogical approaches to teaching and learning L2 grammar more broadly and with theoretical perspectives from second language acquisition. They provide examples of each of the four types of technologies and describe the research studies that have focused on learner feedback in Tutorial CALL, ICALL and CMC, and on learner autonomy in DDL. Throughout their examples, it is clear that grammar cannot be seen as a separate or isolated activity. In particular, readers will see the integration between grammar and vocabulary learning in this chapter and in the next one, which covers vocabulary learning.
In Chapter 4, Qing Ma describes how new technologies have expanded pedagogical options for teaching and learning second language vocabulary. She describes the affordances technology provides in view of a memory‐based model of L2 vocabulary learning. She introduces software tools for desktop and mobile learning technologies, explaining their rationales in view of the vocabulary learning model. She draws upon the theory and research of self‐regulated learning to describe how teachers can offer strategy training that helps students make the most of technology‐mediated vocabulary learning.
In Chapter 5, Meei‐Ling Liaw and Kathryn English introduce second language reading technologies that support second language reading development. The description of technologies is based on their theoretical conception technology‐assisted second language reading as a process that engages particular cognitive processes and strategies involved in second language reading. An important characteristic of second language reading is that is must extend beyond the classroom; students need to read materials that are interesting to them outside the classroom to get sufficient exposure and practice. Thus, the primary challenge for current language teachers that the authors identify is how language educators can leverage students’ intense use of social media and consumption of a vast and diverse quality of reading materials on the Web for learning second language reading. The chapter ends with suggestions for applying technologies to help second language learners to engage in independent, autonomous reading that may help promote their active global participation in the digital age.
Continuing to examine pedagogical practices for teaching the written language, Chapter 6, by Zhi Li, Ahmet Dursun, and Volker Hegelheimer explores the implications for second language teaching and learning that are based upon the reality that all writing practices today are shaped by new technologies. Li, Dursun, and Hegelheimer introduce three types of technologies for teaching and learning second language writing: Web 2.0 applications, automated writing evaluation systems, and corpus‐based tools. The authors explain that the effects of these tools have begun to be explored in research on writing, and they provide an overview of the research results for each of the three types of tools. The chapter concludes with a description of promising but not yet widely incorporated technologies for second language writing research and a discussion of the directions for future research and development of technologies and pedagogies for writing.
Chapter 7 shifts from the written to the spoken with Philip Hubbard’s discussion of CALL for L2 listening. Hubbard traces the development of technology and technology‐enhanced listening activities for second language learning, paying particular attention to the affordances and mediating characteristics of different tools as well as the potential they hold for facilitating comprehension and learning. His overview of approximately 20 years of research on technology for L2 listening draws upon a typology of four help options found in different learning and communication technologies that have been examined for affecting listening in a second language. Looking forward, Hubbard concludes with a call for the development of curated collections of listening material assembled from freely available online materials that could be organized by L2 listening experts in a manner that reflects the language proficiency needs, interests and digital skills of L2 learners.
Moving from language comprehension to production in Chapter 8, Robert J. Blake discusses CALL for support of students’ learning to speak a second language. Blake describes two types of technology‐assisted activities: tutorial exercises and CMC. Blake’s analysis of the principles for designing good CALL activities are consonant with best practices for teaching oral language in the classroom; they include providing opportunities for the negotiation of meaning, focus on form, and a heightened sense of learner autonomy and agency. CALL activities can be used to foster all aspects of second language speaking proficiency including the dimensions of accuracy, complexity, and/or fluency, depending on the type of assigned task. Blake notes that students no longer need to rely on classroom activities to engage in these speaking activities because they can use CMC tools to exchange text, sound, and video in a variety of formats, each with its own set of affordances.
In Chapter 9, Julie Sykes describes how technology has changed and expanded the teaching of pragmatics, which refers to the expression and understanding of meaning in the contexts of language use. Pragmatic abilities are important for meeting the goals of intercultural competence because they govern the selection of how and what to communicate to a particular person in specific contexts. Many contexts where interlocutors use their second languages are created and mediated by the very technologies that may help learners to develop their second language pragmatic abilities. Sykes explores ways in which technology can facilitate the multilingual online and face‐to‐face interactions, provide opportunities for meaningful teaching and learning of interlanguage pragmatics, and extend professional knowledge of pragmatic behaviors from a transnational perspective.
Together these chapters introduce the technologies that are being used to address specific areas of the big project of learning to communicate in a second language. The following section builds upon these pieces to describe pedagogical tools, configurations, and approaches that draw upon combinations of affordances of one or more of these technologies for teaching language.
Part II: Innovation at the Technology‐Pedagogy Interface
This section develops the new issues, concepts and practices that have emerged at the interface of technology and language pedagogy. Each chapter takes a particular vantage point on pedagogy that assumes a new character and significance in view of the options provided by technology. Accordingly, each chapter provides an extended definition of pedagogy issues with examples showing how the technology creates new practices or transforms existing ones for second language teaching. Summaries of research in each area present findings to‐date about the effects on learning and directions for future research and development.
In Chapter 10, Cynthia J. White situates technology within a history of distance learning which originated years before the digital technologies that are widely used in distance education today. She identifies distinctive features of distance learning as well as practices and forms of enquiry into distance language teaching with technology. The technologies she sees as important for shaping and expanding distance education today are CMC, audiographic‐ and video‐conferencing, learning management systems, and telecollaboration. She argues that the development of quality distance language education relies on increasing professional knowledge in many of the areas covered in the Handbook, including task design, assessment of student learning, teacher education, and evaluation of distance learning programs.
Blended learning, defined as a combination of face‐to‐face classroom meetings and computer‐mediated learning, is commonplace in many language classes today. Such configurations arise out of teachers’ desire for innovation, by mandate, or because of circumstances that have made blended learning normal practice. In Chapter 11, Maja Grgurović demonstrates why some researchers are looking at blended learning as anything but ordinary. Grgurović’s summary of the recent research investigating blended language learning from 2006 through 2014 uncovers studies examining comparisons with other forms of learning, teacher perceptions, learner perceptions, specific technology tools, and course implementation. Grgurović argues that the research results warrant developing a better understanding of blended language learning through theoretical grounding of studies, better approaches to assessing effectiveness, and engagement with the teachers’ and students’ needs.
Potentially instrumental in both distance and blended language learning, telecollaboration has become an important component of many second language classes, particularly for intercultural learning. In Chapter 12, Melinda Dooly defines telecollaboration in education as the use of the computer and/or other digital tools to promote learning through social interaction and collaboration. Dooly outlines pedagogical approaches used in telecollaboration for language learning including task‐based language teaching, project‐based language learning, and communication‐oriented language teaching. She emphasizes the value of telecollborative exchanges for developing learners’ autonomy and providing opportunities for cross‐cultural interactions. She outlines the considerable opportunities for future research and practice in telecollaboration.
Virtual environments and gaming are two other areas that have been the focus of research in many subject areas, but authors in the Handbook describe how these two domains have been explored for language learning. In Chapter 13, Randall W. Sadler introduces Virtual Worlds (VWs) in language education, illustrating the VWs language learners are using today. He describes what researchers have found in their studies of language learners’ use of VWs and the ongoing developments that may impact the future of language teaching and learning. There can be and often is an element of play when learners participate in VWs. In this sense, some overlap exists between VWs and language learning games. As Jonathon Reinhardt points out in Chapter 14, however, digital gaming can be undertaken in many different forms. Reinhardt lays the groundwork for understanding gaming in language education by reviewing the history and theory of games in CALL. He describes examples of games used by language learners and findings from research into language learners’ use of games. He points to the need for collaboration among the stakeholders in the field—CALL researchers, second language instructors, and the language education gaming industry.
Implementation of all of the above configurations for learning may rely on mobile technologies including cell phones and tablets. Use of these commonplace mobile technologies for learning is referred to as “mobile pedagogy.” Agnes Kukulska‐Hulme, Helen Lee, and Lucy Norris introduce the mobile learning “revolution” as a response to learners’ natural attachment to their interactive mobile devices. The idea is that their social media devices can be used for learning if they know how to do so. The know‐how required to repurpose mobile devices into learning devices requires new conceptualizations of what is to be learned and reconceived activities for learning. The authors explain that because learners may act with more self‐determination beyond the classroom walls, where online interactions and mobile encounters typically take place, learning tasks need to address students’ interests and needs. Never has needs analysis been as important as when learners are outside class, on their own devices, and left to their own discretion as to how to engage with learning materials and activities. The authors provide a number of ideas for out‐of‐class mobile language learning that offer the learner the opportunity to promote communication and outline some of the implications for mobile language learning.
Pedagogical configurations such as distance, hybrid, or mobile learning are shared with all subjects in education. In contrast, the following three chapters describe technology‐enhanced pedagogical approaches and issues that focus specifically on language education. In Chapter 16, Marta González‐Lloret describes how task‐based language teaching (TBLT) is implemented through the use of technology. TBLT is informed by second language acquisition theory and research, which hypothesizes how the learning of both language form and function can occur. González‐Lloret presents key principles of TBLT stemming from these hypotheses and defines the concept of technology‐mediated tasks. In Chapter 17, Elena Cotos introduces corpus‐based pedagogies used for teaching language for specific purposes (LSP). By drawing upon corpus linguistics methods, she describes how individualized CALL materials can be developed to allow students to engage in hands‐on explorations of texts relevant to their needs. In Chapter 18, Paige Ware examines the new literacies that have evolved through CMC and the language learning contexts and practices where these new literacies develop. Ware situates new literacies conceptually and historically and describes new literacy research focusing on texts, learners, classrooms, and connected sites for learning. Research on new literacies has raised issues of differential access to technology and linguistic and cultural hegemony, which are particularly relevant to second language learners. All three of these chapters identify directions for future research to better understand pedagogical practices.
The chapters in this section present a wealth of material to form the basis for pedagogical innovation in language teaching and learning. In order to bring these ideas to life, however, teachers play the central role, and therefore teacher education has been a critical topic in any discussion of new pedagogical practices. In Chapter 19
