The LTE-Advanced Deployment Handbook E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 982

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

LTE-Advanced is the new Global standard which is expected to create a foundation for the future wireless broadband services. The standard incorporates all the latest technologies recently developed in the field of wireless communications. Presented in a modular style, the book provides an introductory description for beginners as well as practical guidelines for  telecom specialists. It contains an introductory module that is suitable for the initial studies of the technology based on the 3GPPRelease 10, 11 and beyond of LTE and SAE. The latter part of the book is suitable for experienced professionals who will benefit from the practical descriptions of the physical core and radio network planning, end-to-end performance measurements, physical network construction and optimization of the system.

The focus of the book is in the functioning, planning, construction, measurements and optimization of the radio and core networks of the Release 10 and beyond of the 3GPP LTE and SAE standards. It looks at the practical description of the Advanced version of the LTE/SAE, how to de-mystify the LTE-Advanced functionality and planning, and how to carry out practical measurements of the system. In general, the book describes "how-to-do-it" for the 4G system which is compliant with the ITU-R requirements.

Leseprobe

CONTENTS

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgments

Abbreviations

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Overview

1.2 The Structure of the Book

1.3 Mobile Telecommunications Development

1.4 Motivation for LTE-Advanced Deployment

References

Chapter 2: LTE-Advanced Principles

2.1 Introduction

2.2 LTE and SAE Standardization

2.3 3GPP Evolution Path

2.4 LTE-A Spectrum Allocation

2.5 Standards LTE Requirements

2.6 LTE Key Features

References

Chapter 3: LTE-Advanced Architecture

3.1 Introduction

3.2 LTE/EPC Main Elements

3.3 Functional Blocks and Interfaces

3.4 Interfaces

3.5 Protocol Layers

References

Chapter 4: Advanced Core Network

4.1 Introduction

4.2 LTE/LTE-A Core Network Evolution

4.3 Functionality of Transport Elements

4.4 Transport Network

4.5 Core Network

4.6 IP Multimedia Subsystem

4.7 LTE/SAE Roaming

References

Chapter 5: LTE-A Radio Network

5.1 Introduction

5.2 LTE Spectrum

5.3 Device Band Support Strategies

5.4 OFDM and OFDMA

5.5 SC-FDM and SC-FDMA

5.6 Reporting

5.7 LTE Radio Resource Management

5.8 RRM Principles and Algorithms Common to UL and DL

5.9 Uplink RRM

5.10 Downlink RRM

5.11 Intra-LTE Handover

5.12 LTE-A Items

References

Chapter 6: Terminals and Applications

6.1 Introduction

6.2 The Device

6.3 Applications for Terminals

6.4 USIM

References

Chapter 7: LTE-A Functionality

7.1 Introduction

7.2 States and Signaling Flows

7.3 Interworking

7.4 LTE/LTE-A Protection and Security

References

Chapter 8: Planning of the LTE-Advanced Core Network

8.1 Introduction

8.2 LTE/LTE-A Core Network Planning

8.3 Network Evolution from 2G/3G PS Core to EPC

8.4 Multi-Mode Operation

8.5 SGSN/MME Evolution

8.6 Mobile Gateway Evolution

8.7 GGSN/S-GW/P-GW

8.8 EPC Network Deployment

8.9 LTE Access Dimensioning

8.10 Ethernet Transport

8.11 Cloud Computing and Transport

8.12 Microwave Links

References

Chapter 9: Planning of the LTE-Advanced Radio Network

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Overview of Dimensioning

9.3 Coverage Planning

9.4 Radio Capacity Planning

9.5 Frequency Planning

9.6 Effects of HeNodeB

References

Chapter 10: Optimization of LTE-A

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Early Phase Optimization

10.3 Operational Phase Optimization

10.4 MIMO

10.5 SON

10.6 Adaptive Antenna Systems

References

Chapter 11: Measurements

11.1 Introduction

11.2 LTE/LTE-A Performance Monitoring

11.3 Measurement Methodology

References

Chapter 12: Recommendations

12.1 Introduction

12.2 LTE Deployment Aspects

12.3 Effect of the Advanced GSM Features on the Fluent LTE Deployment

12.4 Migration from TDD Networks

12.5 Alternative Network Migration Path (Multi-Operator Case)

12.6 Hardware Migration Path

12.7 Mobile Backhaul – Towards “All-IP” Transport

12.8 LTE Interworking with Legacy Networks for the Optimal Voice and Data Services

12.9 Multiple Antenna Techniques for Capacity Increase in LTE

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Table 1.1

Table 1.2

Table 1.3

Table 2.1

Table 2.2

Table 2.3

Table 2.4

Table 2.5

Table 2.6

Table 2.7

Table 2.8

Table 4.1

Table 4.2

Table 4.3

Table 5.1

Table 5.2

Table 5.3

Table 5.4

Table 5.5

Table 5.6

Table 5.7

Table 5.8

Table 5.9

Table 5.10

Table 5.11

Table 5.12

Table 5.13

Table 5.14

Table 6.1

Table 6.2

Table 6.3

Table 6.4

Table 6.5

Table 6.6

Table 9.1

Table 9.2

Table 9.3

Table 9.4

Table 9.5

Table 9.6

Table 9.7

Table 9.8

Table 9.9

Table 9.10

Table 9.11

Table 9.12

Table 10.1

Table 10.2

Table 11.1

Table 11.2

Table 12.1

Table 12.2

Table 12.3

Table 12.4

Table 12.5

Table 12.6

Table 12.7

Table 12.8

Table 12.9

Table 12.10

List of Illustrations

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2

Figure 1.3

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.6

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4

Figure 2.5

Figure 2.6

Figure 2.7

Figure 2.8

Figure 2.9

Figure 2.10

Figure 2.11

Figure 2.12

Figure 2.13

Figure 2.14

Figure 2.15

Figure 2.16

Figure 2.17

Figure 2.18

Figure 2.19

Figure 2.20

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.3

Figure 3.4

Figure 3.5

Figure 3.6

Figure 3.7

Figure 3.8

Figure 3.9

Figure 3.10

Figure 3.11

Figure 3.12

Figure 3.13

Figure 3.14

Figure 3.15

Figure 3.16

Figure 3.17

Figure 3.18

Figure 3.19

Figure 3.20

Figure 3.21

Figure 3.22

Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

Figure 4.4

Figure 4.5

Figure 4.6

Figure 4.7

Figure 4.8

Figure 4.9

Figure 4.10

Figure 4.11

Figure 4.12

Figure 4.13

Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

Figure 5.3

Figure 5.4

Figure 5.5

Figure 5.6

Figure 5.7

Figure 5.8

Figure 5.9

Figure 5.10

Figure 5.11

Figure 5.12

Figure 5.13

Figure 5.14

Figure 5.15

Figure 5.16

Figure 5.17

Figure 5.18

Figure 5.19

Figure 5.20

Figure 5.21

Figure 5.22

Figure 5.23

Figure 5.24

Figure 5.25

Figure 5.26

Figure 5.27

Figure 5.28

Figure 5.29

Figure 5.30

Figure 5.31

Figure 5.32

Figure 5.33

Figure 5.34

Figure 5.35

Figure 5.36

Figure 5.37

Figure 5.38

Figure 5.39

Figure 5.40

Figure 5.41

Figure 5.42

Figure 5.43

Figure 6.1

Figure 6.2

Figure 6.3

Figure 6.4

Figure 6.5

Figure 6.6

Figure 6.7

Figure 6.8

Figure 6.9

Figure 6.10

Figure 6.11

Figure 6.12

Figure 6.13

Figure 6.14

Figure 6.15

Figure 7.1

Figure 7.2

Figure 7.3

Figure 7.4

Figure 7.5

Figure 7.6

Figure 7.7

Figure 7.8

Figure 7.9

Figure 7.10

Figure 7.11

Figure 7.12

Figure 7.13

Figure 7.14

Figure 7.15

Figure 7.16

Figure 7.17

Figure 7.18

Figure 7.19

Figure 7.20

Figure 7.21

Figure 7.22

Figure 7.23

Figure 7.24

Figure 7.25

Figure 7.26

Figure 8.1

Figure 8.2

Figure 8.3

Figure 8.4

Figure 8.5

Figure 8.6

Figure 8.7

Figure 8.8

Figure 8.9

Figure 8.10

Figure 8.11

Figure 8.12

Figure 8.13

Figure 8.14

Figure 8.15

Figure 9.1

Figure 9.2

Figure 9.3

Figure 9.4

Figure 9.5

Figure 9.6

Figure 9.7

Figure 9.8

Figure 9.9

Figure 9.10

Figure 9.11

Figure 9.12

Figure 9.13

Figure 9.14

Figure 9.15

Figure 10.1

Figure 10.2

Figure 10.3

Figure 10.4

Figure 10.5

Figure 10.6

Figure 10.7

Figure 10.8

Figure 10.9

Figure 10.10

Figure 10.11

Figure 10.12

Figure 10.13

Figure 10.14

Figure 10.15

Figure 10.16

Figure 10.17

Figure 11.1

Figure 11.2

Figure 11.3

Figure 11.4

Figure 11.5

Figure 11.6

Figure 11.7

Figure 11.8

Figure 11.9

Figure 11.10

Figure 11.11

Figure 11.12

Figure 11.13

Figure 11.14

Figure 11.15

Figure 11.16

Figure 11.17

Figure 11.18

Figure 11.19

Figure 11.20

Figure 11.21

Figure 11.22

Figure 12.1

Figure 12.2

Figure 12.3

Figure 12.4

Figure 12.5

Figure 12.6

Figure 12.7

Figure 12.8

Figure 12.9

Figure 12.10

Figure 12.11

Figure 12.12

Figure 12.13

Figure 12.14

Figure 12.15

Figure 12.16

Figure 12.17

Figure 12.18

Figure 12.19

Figure 12.20

Figure 12.21

Figure 12.22

Figure 12.23

Figure 12.24

Figure 12.25

Figure 12.26

Figure 12.27

Figure 12.28

Figure 12.29

Figure 12.30

Figure 12.31

Figure 12.32

Figure 12.33

Figure 12.34

Figure 12.35

Figure 12.36

Figure 12.37

Figure 12.38

Figure 12.39

Figure 12.40

Figure 12.41

Figure 12.42

Figure 12.43

Figure 12.44

Figure 12.45

Figure 12.46

Figure 12.47

Figure 12.48

Figure 12.49

Figure 12.50

Figure 12.51

Figure 12.52

Figure 12.53

Figure 12.54

Figure 12.55

Figure 12.56

Figure 12.57

Figure 12.58

Figure 12.59

Figure 12.60

Figure 12.61

Figure 12.62

Figure 12.63

Figure 12.64

Figure 12.65

Figure 12.66

Figure 12.67

Figure 12.68

Figure 12.69

Figure 12.70

Figure 12.71

Figure 12.72

Figure 12.73

Figure 12.74

Figure 12.75

Figure 12.76

Figure 12.77

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

List of Contributors

Chapter 1

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The LTE-Advanced Deployment Handbook

The Planning Guidelines for the Fourth Generation Networks

Edited By

Jyrki T. J. Penttinen

Giesecke & Devrient, USA

This edition first published 2016

© 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Registered office

John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom

For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com.

The right of the author to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

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The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation. In view of ongoing research, equipment modifications, changes in governmental regulations, and the constant flow of information relating to the use of experimental reagents, equipment, and devices, the reader is urged to review and evaluate the information provided in the package insert or instructions for each chemical, piece of equipment, reagent, or device for, among other things, any changes in the instructions or indication of usage and for added warnings and precautions. The fact that an organization or Website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or Website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that Internet Websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. No warranty may be created or extended by any promotional statements for this work. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for any damages arising herefrom.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The LTE-advanced deployment handbook : the planning guidelines for the fourth generation networks / edited by Jyrki T. J. Penttinen.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-118-48480-7 (cloth)

1. Long-Term Evolution (Telecommunications) 2. Cell phone systems--Design and construction. I. Penttinen, Jyrki T. J., editor.

TK5103.48325.L7344 2016

621.3845'6–dc23

2015027994

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN: 9781118484807

List of Contributors

Parth Amin, Ericsson, Finland

Mohmmad Anas, Flextronix, Canada

Jonathan Borrill, Anritsu, Sweden

Francesco D. Calabrese, Huawei, Sweden

Jacek Góra, Nokia, Poland

Marcin Grygiel, Nokia, Poland

Piotr Grzybowski, Nokia, Poland

Tero Jalkanen, TeliaSonera, Finland

Juha Kallio, Nokia, Finland

Ilkka Keisala, TeliaSonera, Finland

Damian Kolmas, Huawei, Sweden

Krystian Krysmalski, Nokia, Poland

Jarosław Lachowski, Wilabs, Poland

Sebastian Lasek, Nokia, Poland

Grzegorz Lehmann, Nokia, Poland

Luis Maestro, Nokia, USA

Krystian Majchrowicz, Nokia, Poland

Guillaume Monghal, Huawei, Sweden

Maciej Pakulski, Nokia, Poland

Jyrki T. J. Penttinen, Giesecke & Devrient, USA

Pertti Penttinen, Ifolor, Finland

Mateusz Rączkowiak, Nokia, Poland

Olli Ramula, Nokia, Finland

Katarzyna Rybiańska, Nokia, Poland

Krystian Safjan, Nokia, Poland

Szymon Stefanski, Samsung Electronics, Poland

Stanisław Strzyz, Datax, Poland

Agnieszka Szufarska, Nokia, Poland

Dariusz Tomeczko, Nokia, Poland

Elpiniki Tsakalaki, Aalborg University, Denmark

Krzysztof Wiśniowski, Nokia, Poland

Preface

Mobile communications technologies are developing in giant leaps especially in the current LTE era. The initial phase of the enhanced 3G system driven by 3GPP resulted in LTE/SAE, as defined in Release 8. It has already opened doors for a much more fluent user experience, thanks to the considerably higher data rates and lower response times compared to any other previous cellular system. The first LTE deployments took place in 2010–11, and the pace has been breathtaking ever since. According to 4G Americas (www.4gamericas.org), there were 755 Million LTE subscribers by June 2015, which proves there is high demand for mobile data.

Further development has resulted in the 3GPP Release 10 standards which represent the first set for the LTE-Advanced (LTE-A) system. The ITU (International Telecommunications Union) has defined demanding criteria for the use of the term 4G, including requirements for the capability of the mobile network to transfer a minimum of 1 Gb/s data rate in the downlink. 3GPP LTE in Release 10 starts to include enough components that jointly contribute to the total performance so efficiently that it can already be called an ITU-compliant 4G system. In practice, the term 4G has been used already for some time to distinguish even between basic LTE and the previous 3G variants. This market interpretation is of course justified as the LTE as such opens the door to the next generation via the gradual upgrading of the network and user device functionalities. Nevertheless, in this book, the term 4G refers to the 3GPP LTE Release 10 and beyond, while earlier LTE variants in Release 8 and 9 are referred to in this book as “evolved 3G, or pre-4G” systems.

At the time of writing, there have already been 32 LTE-Advanced networks in 23 countries by the end of 2014, according to 4G Americas. The deployments are still expanding so it can be expected that Release 10 and beyond networks will be widely available for we mobile users to enjoy fluent connectivity and to consume high-quality multimedia contents globally easier than ever.

Observing all the accelerating developments of mobile communications technologies, it is in fact almost impossible to keep track of the advances even in real-time web discussion forums. Nevertheless, I believe it is totally justified to summarize technical areas in a single package, as The LTE-Advanced Deployment Handbook aims to do, to aid studies in capturing the complete picture and the key set of relevant details. Even with the further advances beyond this book contents, the basics described here will be an important building block for the investigations of the next releases. As an additional aim to ensure the contents of this book are up to date, there also are updates provided in www.tlt.fi which collects further key data and useful information about the development of LTE and LTE-Advanced systems.

This book is the result of innumerable hours of work by the team, and there are many highly relevant real-world experiences behind each chapter. I hope our creation of this information package on LTE-Advanced principles, functionality and planning has been worth the effort and you will find it useful in your studies and work. As was the case with the previous LTE/SAE Deployment Handbook, published by Wiley in 2011, I would be glad to receive your valuable feedback about this book directly via my e-mail address [email protected].

Jyrki Penttinen

Morristown, NJ, USA

Acknowledgments

The LTE-Advanced Deployment Handbook is a follow-on to the previously published LTE/SAE Deployment Handbook which describes key aspects of the initial LTE phase. This LTE-Advanced Deployment Handbook details the now essential functionality of the system and provides planning guidelines for the developed phase of LTE in Release 10 and beyond.

This book is the result of our contributor team's efforts as well as our collaboration with many LTE subject matter experts and seasoned professionals. I would like to thank the whole team and the participating colleagues for the most valuable information sharing and contribution, often sacrificing their precious private time. I know that the team has succeeded excellently in our mission to provide an up-to-date, practical and useful guide for both academic as well as operational LTE-Advanced environments.

Warm thanks go to the Wiley team which guided and made sure the project was finalized successfully; I want to give my special thanks to Mark Hammond, Sandra Grayson, Teresa Netzler, Sarah Keegan and Clarissa Lim, and all others from the Wiley team who have worked on this project, as well as Shikha Pahuja at Thomson Digital.

I also want to express my warmest gratitude to the Finnish Association of Non-fiction Writers for the most welcome support.

Finally, I thank Elva, Stephanie, Carolyne, Miguel, Katriina and Pertti for all their support.

Jyrki Penttinen

Abbreviations

2G

Second Generation of mobile communication technologies

3G

Third Generation of mobile communication technologies

3GPP

3rd Generation Partnership Project

4G

Fourth Generation of mobile communication technologies

16-QAM

16-state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

64-QAM

64-state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

AAA

Authentication, Authorization & Accounting

AAS

Active/Adaptive Antenna System

ABS

Almost Blank Subframes

AC

Admission Control

ACIR

Adjacent Channel Interference Rejection

ACK

Acknowledgment

ACLR

Adjacent Channel Leakage Ratio

ACS

Adjacent Channel Selectivity

ACS

Advanced Communications Services

ADC

Analogue/Digital Conversion

ADSL

Asynchronous Digital Subscriber Line

AF

Application Function

A-GNSS

Assisted Global Navigation Satellite System

aGW

Access Gateway

AKA

Authentication and Key Agreement

AMBR

Aggregated Maximum Bit Rate

AMC

Adaptive Modulation and Coding

ANDSF

Access Network Discovery and Selection Function

ANR

Automatic Neighbor Relation

AoA

Angle of Arrival

APAC

Asia Pacific, Africa and China

APN

Access Point Name

ARFCN

Absolute Radio Frequency Channel Number

ARP

Allocation Retention Priority

ARPU

Average Revenue Per User

ARQ

Automatic Repeat request

AS

Application Server

ATB

Adaptive Transmission Bandwidth

ATCF

Access Transfer Control Function

ATGW

Access Transfer Gateway Function

ATM

Asynchronous Transfer Mode

AWS

Advanced Wireless Services (band)

BBIC

Baseband Integrated Circuit

BCCH

Broadcast Control Channel

BCH

Broadcast Channel

BE

Best Effort

BER

Bit Error Rate

BICC

Bearer Independent Call Control

BIP

Bearer Independent Protocol

BLEP

Block Error Probability

BLER

Block Error Rate

BPSK

Binary Phase Shift Keying

BQS

Bad Quality Sample

BS

Base Station

BSC

Base Station Controller

BSR

Buffer Status Report

BSS

Business Support System

BTS

Base Transceiver Station

BW

Bandwidth

CA

Carrier Aggregation

CAMEL

Customised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced Logic

CAPEX

Capital Expenditure

CAT

Category (user equipment)

CAZAC

Constant Amplitude Zero AutoCorrelation

CB

Coordinated Beam forming

CC

Component Carrier

CCCH

Common Control Channel

CCN

Cell Change Notification

CCO

Cell Change Order

CCO

Coverage and Capacity Optimization

CDMA

Code Division Multiple Access

CDP

Charging Downstream Port

CDR

Call Drop Rate

CDR

Charging Data Record

CDR

Clock Drift Ratio

CES

Circuit Emulated Services

CET

Carrier Ethernet Transport

C/I

Carrier per Interference

CIO

Cell Individual Offset

CLF

Contactless Frontend

CMAS

Commercial Mobile Alert System

CN

Core Network

CoMP

Coordinated Multipoint

CoS

Class of Service

CP

Cyclic Prefix

CPE

Customer Premises Equipment

CPICH

Common Pilot Channel

CQI

Channel Quality Indicator

CRC

Cyclic Redundancy Check

CRE

Cell Range Expansion

CS

Circuit Switched

CS

Coordinated Scheduling

CSFB

Circuit Switched Fall Back

CSI

Channel State Information

CT

Core Network and Terminals (TSG)

CTIA

Cellular Telecommunications and Internet Association

CVAA

Communications and Video Accessibility Act

DAB

Digital Audio Broadcasting

DCCH

Dedicated Control Channel

DCP

Dedicated Charging Port

DCR

Dropped Call Rate

DCS

Dynamic Cell Selection

DD

Digital Dividend

DDoS

Distributed DoS

DeNodeB

Donor eNodeB element

DFCA

Dynamic Frequency and Channel Allocation

DFT

Discrete Fourier Transform

DFTS-OFDM

Discrete Fourier Transform Spread-OFDM

DHR

Dual Half Rate (voice codec)

DL

Downlink

DLDC

Downlink Dual Carrier

DL-SCH

Downlink Shared Channel

DMRS

Demodulation Reference Symbol

DM-RS

Demodulation Reference Signal

DoS

Denial of Service

DPI

Deep Packet Inspection

DRS

Dedicated Reference Symbol

DRX

Discontinuous Reception

DSCP

DiffServ Code Point

DSL

Digital Subscriber Line

DSMIPv6

Dual-Stack Mobile IPv6

DTM

Dual Transfer Mode

DTMF

Dual Tone Multi-Frequency

DTX

Discontinuous Transmission

DUT

Device Under Test

DVB-H

Digital Video Broadcasting, Handheld

DVB-T

Digital Video Broadcasting, Terrestrial

DwPTS

Downlink Pilot Timeslot

eBM-SC

Evolved Broadcast/Multicast Service Center

E-CID

Enhanced Cell ID

ECM

EPS Connection Management

E-CSCF

Emergency Call State Control Function

EDGE

Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution

EFL

Effective Frequency Load

EGAN

Enhanced GAN

EHPLMN

Equivalent HPLMN

eHRPD

Evolved High Rate Packet Data

eICIC

Enhanced Inter-Cell Interference Coordination

EIRP

Effective Isotropic Radiating Power

eMBMS

Evolved MBMS

EMM

EPS Mobility Management

EMR

Enhanced Measurement Reporting

eNB

Evolved NodeB

EOL

End of Life (product phase)

EPC

Evolved Packet Core

ePDG

Evolved Packet Data Gateway

EPS

Evolved Packet System

ERP

Effective Radiated Power

eSE

Embedded Secure Element

E-SMLC

Enhanced Serving Mobile Location Centre

ET

Envelope Tracking

ETSI

European Telecommunications Standards Institute

ETWS

Earthquake and Tsunami Warning System

E-UTRAN

Evolved UMTS Radio Access Network

EV-DO

Evolution-Data Only

EVM

Error Vector Magnitude

FACCH

Fast Associated Control Channel

FCC

Federal Communications Commission (USA)

FCCH

Frequency Correction Channel

FDD

Frequency Division Duplex

FDPS

Frequency-Domain Packet Scheduling

FER

Frame Erasure Rate

FF

Form Factor

FFS

For Further Study

FFT

Fast Fourier Transform

FH

Frequency Hopping

FM

Fault Management

FOMA

Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access

FR

Frame Relay

FR

Full Rate (voice codec)

FR-AMR

AMR Full Rate

GAN

Generic Access Network

GBR

Guaranteed Bit Rate

GCF

Global Certification Forum

GERAN

GSM EDGE Radio Access Network (TSG)

GGSN

GPRS Gateway Support Node

GMLC

Gateway Mobile Location Centre

GMM

GPRS Mobility Management

GMSK

Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying

GoS

Grade of Service

GP

Guard Period

GPRS

General Packet Radio Service

GRE

Generic Routing Encapsulation

GRX

GPRS Roaming Exchange

GSM

Global System for Mobile communications

GSMA

GSM Association

GTP

GPRS Tunnelling Protocol

GTT

Global Text Telephony

GTT-CS

Global Text Telephony over video telephony

GTTP

GPRS Transparent Transport Protocol

GTT-Voice

Global Text Telephony over voice

GW

Gateway

HARQ

Hybrid Automatic Retransmission on request/Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request

HD

High Definition

HDSL

High-bit-rate Digital Subscriber Line

HeNB

Home eNB

HLR

Home Location Register

HO

Handover

hPCRF

Home Policy and Charging Rules Function

HPLMN

Home PLMN

HR

Half Rate (voice codec)

HR-AMR

AMR Half Rate

HRPD

High Rate Packet Data

HSCSD

High Speed Circuit Switched Data

HSDPA

High Speed Downlink Packet Access

HSPA

High Speed Packet Access

HSS

Home Subscriber Server

HSUPA

High Speed Uplink Packet Access

ICI

Inter-Carrier Interference

ICIC

Inter Cell Interference Control

ICS

IMS Centralized Services

I-CSCF

Interrogating Call State Control Function

IDFT

Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform

IE

Information Element

IEEE

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers

IETF

Internet Engineering Task Force

IFFT

Inverse Fast Fourier Transform

I-HSPA

Internet HSPA

IMEI

International Mobile Equipment Identity

IMS

IP Multimedia Sub-system

IMSI

International Mobile Subscriber Identity

IMS-MGW

IMS-Media Gateway

IMS-NNI

IMS Network-Network Interface

IM-SSF

IP Multimedia – Service Switching Function

IMT-2000

International Mobile Telecommunication requirements (ITU)

IMT-Advanced

Advanced International Mobile Telecommunication requirements (ITU)

IN

Intelligent Network

INAP

Intelligent Network Application Protocol

IoT

Internet of Things

IOT

Inter-Operability Testing

IP

Internet Protocol

IPSec

IP Security

IP-SM-GW

IP-Short Message-Gateway

IPv4

IP version 4

IPv6

IP version 6

IPX

IP eXchange

IPXS

IP interconnection of services

IQ

In-phase (I) and out of phase (Q) components of modulation

IRC

Interference Rejection Combining

ISI

Inter-Symbol Interference

ISIM

IMS Subscriber Identity Module

ISR

Idle Mode Signalling Reduction

ISUP

ISDN User Part

ITU

International Telecommunication Union

ITU-R

ITU's Radiocommunication Sector

ITU-T

ITU's Telecommunication sector

JAIN

Java APIs for Integrated Networks

JP

Joint Processing

JSLEE

JAIN Service Logic Execution Environments

JT

Joint Transmission

KPI

Key Performance Indicator

LA

Link Adaptation

LA

Location Area

LAU

Location Area Update

LBO

Local Breakout

LBS

Location Based Service

LCS

Location Service

LI

Lawful/Legal Interception

LIG

Legal Interception Gateway

LIPA

Local IP Access

LNF

Log Normal Fading (margin)

LPP

LTE Positioning Protocol

LPPa

LPP annex

LRF

Location Retrieval Function

LSP

Label Switch Path

LTE

Long Term Evolution

LTE-A

LTE-Advanced

LTE-UE

LTE User Equipment

MA

Mobile Allocation

MAC

Medium Access Control

MAIO

Mobile Allocation Index Offset

MAN

Metropolitan Area Network

MBI

MIMO Band Index

MBMS

Multimedia Broadcast Multicast Service

MBR

Maximum Bit Rate

MBSFN

MBMS Single Frequency Network area

MCC

Mobile Country Code

MCCH

Multicast Control Channel

MCE

Multi-cell/multicast Coordination Entity

MCH

Multicast Channel

MCS

Modulation and Coding Scheme

MC-TD-SCDMA

Multi-Carrier Time-Division Synchronous-Code-Division Multiple Access

MC-WCDMA

Multi-Carrier Wide-band Code-Division Multiple Access

MDT

Minimization of Drive Tests

ME id

Mobile Equipment Identifier

MEG

Mean Effective Gain

MER

Modulation Error Rate

MGCF

Media Gateway Control Function

MGW

Media Gateway

MHA

Mast Head Amplifier

MIMO

Multiple Input Multiple Output

MM

Mobility Management

MME

Mobility Management Entity

MMS

Multimedia Messaging Service

MMTel

Multimedia Telephony

MNC

Mobile Network Code

MO

Mobile Originating (call)

MOBSS

Multi-Operator Base Station Subsystem

MOCN

Multi-Operator Core Network

MORAN

Multi-Operator Radio Access Network

MOS

Mean Opinion Score

MPLS

Multi-Protocol Label Switching

MRF

Media Resource Function

MRFC

Media Resource Function Controller

MRFP

Media Resource Function Processor

MRM

Measurement Report Message

MRO

Mobility Robustness/handover Optimization

MS

Mobile Station

MSC

Mobile services Switching Center

MSC-B

Second MSC

MSISDN

Mobile Station ISDN number

MT

Mobile Terminating (call)

MTCH

Multicast Traffic Channel

MT-LR

Mobile Terminating Location Request

MTM

Machine-to-Machine (communications); also M2M

MVNO

Mobile Virtual Network Operator

NA

Network Assisted

NACC

Network Assisted Cell Change

NACK

Negative Acknowledgment

NAS

Non Access Stratum

NAS SMC

NAS Security Mode Command

NB

Node B

NBC

Non-Backwards Compatible

NCCR

Network Controlled Cell Reselection

NDS

Network Domain Security

NE

Network Element

NE Id

Network Element Identifier

NFC

Near Field Communications

NGMN

Next Generation Mobile Networks (Alliance)

NGN

Next Generation Network

NH

Next Hop (parameter)

NITZ

Network Initiated Time Zone

NNI

Network-Network Interface

NOC

Network Operations Centre

NRT

Near Real Time

NVAS

Network Value Added Services

OAM&P

Operations, Administration, Maintenance, and Provisioning

OEM

Original Equipment Manufacturer

OFDMA

Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access

OLLA

Outer Loop Link Adaptation

OLPC

Open Loop Power Control

OMS

Operations and Management System

OPEX

Operating Expenditure

OSC

Orthogonal Sub Channel

OSPIH

Internet Hosted Octect Stream Protocol

OSS

Operational Support System

OTA

Over the Air

OTDOA

Observed Time Difference of Arrival

OTT

Over the Top

P2P

Peer-to-Peer

PA

Power Amplifier

PAPR

Peak-to-Average Power Ratio

PAS

Power Azimuth Spectrum

PBCH

Physical Broadcast Channel

PBR

Prioritized Bit Rate

PBX

Private Branch Exchange

PC

Power Control

PCC

Policy and Charging Control

PCC

Primary Component Carrier

PCCH

Paging Control Channel

PCEF

Policy and Charging Enforcement Function

PCEP

Policy and Charging Enforcement Point

PCH

Paging Channel

PCI

Physical Cell Identifier

PCRF

Policy and Charging Rules Function

P-CSCF

Proxy Call State Control Function

PD

Packet delay

PDCCH

Physical Downlink Control Channel

PDCP

Packet Data Convergence Protocol

PDH

Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy

PDN

Packet Data Network

PDN-GW

Packet Data Network Gateway

PDP

Packet Data Protocol

PDSCH

Physical Downlink Shared Channel

PDU

Packet Data Unit

PDV

Packet Delay Variation

P-GW

Packet Data Network Gateway

PHB

Per Hop Behavior (DiffServ)

PHICH

Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel

PHR

Power Headroom Report

PKI

Public Key Infrastructure

PLMN

Public Land Mobile Network

PLR

Packet Loss Ratio

PM

Performance Monitoring

PMCH

Physical Multicast Channel

PMI

Precoding Matrix Indicator

PMIP

Proxy Mobile IP

PMIPv6

Proxy Mobile IP version 6

PPP

Point to Point Protocol

PRACH

Physical Radio Access Channel

PRB

Physical Resource Block

PS

Packet Switched

PS

Presence Server

PSAP

Public Safety Answering Point

PSD

Packet Switched Data

PSN

Packet Switched Network

PTCRB

PCS Type Certification Review Board

PTP

Point-to-Point

PUSCH

Physical Uplink Shared Channel

PWS

Public Warning System

Q

Quality

QAM

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

QCI

QoS Class Identifier

QoE

Quality of Experience

QoS

Quality of Service

QPSK

Quadrature Phase Shift Keying

RA

Routing Area

RACH

Random Access Channel

RAN

Radio Access Network (TSG)

RAND

Random challenge number

RAT

Radio Access Technology

RAU

Routing Area Update

RB

Resource Block

RBG

Radio Bearer Group

RCS

Rich Communication Suite

RES

Response

RF

Radio Frequency

RF

Rating Function

RFSP

RAT/Frequency Selection Priority

RI

Rank Indicator

RLC

Radio Link Control

RLF

Radio Link Failure

RLT

Radio Link Timeout

RMS

Root Mean Square

RN

Relay Node

ROHC

Robust Header Compression

RoI

Return of Investment

RRC

Radio Resource Control

RRH

Remote Radio Head

RRM

Radio Resource Management

RRU

Remote Radio Unit

RS

Reference Signal

RSCP

Received Signal Code Power

RSRP

Reference Signal Received Power

RSRQ

Reference Signal Received Quality

rSRVCC

Reverse SRVCC

RSSI

Received Signal Strength Indicator

RT

Real Time

RTCP

RTP Control Protocol

RTG

Receive-to-transmit Transition Gap

RTP

Real Time Transport Protocol

RX

Receiver

RX-D

Diversity Receiver

RXLEV

Received Level

RXQUAL

Received Quality

SA

Service and System Aspects (TSG)

SACCH

Slow Associated Control Channel

SAE

System Architecture Evolution

SAE-GW

Combined S-GW and P-GW

SAIC

Single Antenna Interference Cancellation

SAR

Specific Absorption Rate

SAU

Simultaneously Attached Users

SBC

Session Border Controller

SCC

Secondary Component Carrier

SCC AS

Service Centralization and Continuity Application Server

SC-FDMA

Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access

SCH

Shared Channel

SCIM

Service Control Interaction Management

SCP

Service Control Point

S-CSCF

Serving Call State Control Function

SCTP

Stream Control Transfer Protocol

SDCCH

Stand-alone Dedicated Control Channel

SDF

Service Delivery Framework

SDH

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy

SDP

Session Description Protocol

SE

Secure Element

SEG

Security Gateway

SeGW

Security Gateway

SEL

Spectral Efficiency Loss

SEM

Spectral Emission Mask

SFN

Single Frequency Network

SFP

Small Form Factor Pluggable

SGSN

Serving GPRS Support Node

S-GW

Serving Gateway

SIB

System Information Block

SIM

Subscriber Identity Module

SIMTC

System improvements to machine-type communications

SINR

Signal-to-Interference-and-Noise Ratio

SIP

Session Initiation Protocol

SIPTO

Selected Internet IP Traffic Offload

SISO

Single Input Single Output

SLA

Service Level Agreement

SLF

Subscriber Locator Function

SM

Short Message

SMC

Security Mode Command

SMG

Special Mobile Group

SMI

Spatial Multiplexing Index

SMS

Short Message Service

SMSC

Short Message Service Centre

SN ID

Serving Network's Identity

SNR

Signal-to-Noise Ratio

SON

Self Organizing/Optimizing Network

S/P-GW

Serving Gateway and PDN Gateway (combined)

SR

Scheduling Request

SRS

Sounding Reference Signal

SRVCC

Single Radio Voice Call Continuity

SS

Signal Strength

SSC

Special Subframe Configuration

STM

Synchronous Transfer Mode

SU-MIMO

Single User MIMO

SUPL

Secure User Plane Location

SWP

Single Wire Protocol

SWR

Standing Wave Ratio

TA

Tracking Area

T-ADS

Terminating Access Domain Selection

TAS

Telephony Application Server

TAU

Tracking Area Update

TBF

Temporary Block Flow

TBS

Transport Block Size

TCH

Traffic Channel

TCP

Transmission Control Protocol

TDD

Time Division Duplex

TDM

Time Division Multiplex

TDM

Time Domain

TDMA

Time Division Multiple Access

TD-SCDMA

Time Division Synchronous Code Division Multiple Access

TEID

Tunnel Endpoint Identifier

TFO

Tandem-Free Operation

THIG

Topology Hiding

TM

Transmission Mode

TMA

Tower Mounted Amplifier

TMSI

Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity

TN-SR

Transfer Number for Single Radio

ToP

Timing over Packet

TR

Technical Recommendation

TrFO

Transcoder Free Operation

TrGW

Transition Gateway

TRP

Transmitter Radiating Power

TRX

Transceiver

TS

Technical Specification

TSG

Technical Specification Group

TSL

Timeslot

TTCN3

Testing and Test Control Notation Version 3

TTG

Transmit-to-receive Transition Gap

TTI

Transmission Time Interval

TU3

Typical Urban 3km/h

TX

Transmitter

UDP

User Datagram Protocol

UE

User Equipment

UICC

Universal Integrated Circuit Card

UL

Uplink

ULA

Uniform Linear Array

UL-SCH

Uplink Shared Channel

UMA

Unlicensed Mobile Access

UMTS

Universal Mobile Telecommunications System

UNI

User-Network Interface

UPE

User Plane Entity

UpPTS

Uplink Pilot Timeslot

URI

Uniform Resource Identity (SIP)

URL

Uniform Resource Locator

USAT

UICC Application Toolkit

USB

Universal Serial Bus

USIM

Universal Subscriber Identity Module

USSD

Unstructured Supplementary Service Data

USSDC

USSD Centre

USSI

USSD simulation service in IMS

UTRAN

UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network

UWB

Ultra Wide Band

VHF

Very High Frequency

VLAN

Virtual Local Area Network

VoIP

Voice over IP

VoLGA

Voice over LTE via Generic Access

VoLTE

Voice over LTE

vPCRF

Visited PCRF

VPLMN

Visited PLMN

VPLS

Virtual Private LAN Service transport

VPN

Virtual Private Network

vSRVCC

Video SRVCC

WB

Wideband

WB-AMR

Wideband Adaptive Multi Rate

WCDMA

Wideband CDMA

WI

Work Item

WiMAX

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access

WiMAX 2

IEEE 802.16m-based evolved WiMAX

WLAN

Wireless Local Area Network

WRC

World Radiocommunication Conference

XCAP

XML Configuration Access Protocol

XDM

XML Document Management

XDMS

XML Document Management Server

XML

Extensible Markup Language

ZMCSCG

Zero-Mean Circularly Symmetric Complex Gaussian

1Introduction

Jyrki T. J. Penttinen

Giesecke & Devrient, USA

1.1 Overview

This chapter gives an introduction to the LTE-Advanced (LTE-A). The reasons behind the development and the effects of mobile broadband communications are discussed. Also the general characteristics of the LTE-Advanced technology, including comparison with the previous 3GPP releases, are described and the enhanced performance, functionalities and elements are presented at an advanced level. Finally, a guide to the book contents is given to aid navigation between the chapters.

1.2 The Structure of the Book

1.2.1 Focus of the Book

This book presents practical guidelines for the deployment of the LTE-Advanced system, including planning, dimensioning, roll-out and maintenance of networks. The focus is on functioning, construction, measurements and optimization of the radio and core networks of Release 10 and beyond 3GPP LTE and SAE standards. The book is thus an updated continuation of the previous book, The LTE/SAE Deployment Handbook, published by Wiley in 2011, but this text now concentrates on the advanced phase of the LTE.

This book emphasizes the practical aspects related to the developed stage of the LTE/SAE, clarifying LTE-Advanced functionality and providing advice for planning and other tasks related to system deployment. As the LTE-A is a development path for the previous 3GPP releases, also the description of the solutions and performance aspects of the prior phases are discussed, as they form the basis for the LTE-Advanced functionality.

This book discusses the development history, tracing it from the previous generations prior to Release 8, and continues from the basic Release 8 and Release 9 of LTE, including new network architecture and business models, followed by the description of technical functioning of the system with signaling, coding, modes for contents delivery, and the security aspects of core and radio system. Also, nominal and in-depth planning of the core and radio networks are discussed with field test measurement guidelines, hands-on network planning advice, and suggestions for the parameter adjustments. The book also gives recommendations for migration strategies and for the optimization of the previous systems to better support LTE-Advanced.

This book can be used in a modular way. It provides both overall descriptions for the readers who are not yet familiar with the subject as well as practical guidelines for telecom specialists. The introductory module is suitable for initial studies of the LTE and SAE technology based on the 3GPP Release 10, Release 11 and beyond. The latter part of the book is designed for experienced professionals who need practical descriptions of the physical core and radio network planning, end-to-end performance measurements, physical network construction and optimization of the system. The LTE/SAE Release 8 and Release 9 are described relatively briefly as the basic data can be found in the previously published The LTE/SAE Deployment Handbook (2011) from Wiley. Nevertheless, as the LTE-A is based on the foundations of LTE Release 8 and 9, the respective aspects are explained.

1.2.2 Module Structure

The module structure of this book is the following:

Introduction (

Chapters 1

–

2

): General items and overall description of LTE-A.

Detailed description (

Chapters 3

–

7

): Technical LTE-Advanced functionality.

Deployment guidelines (

Chapters 8

–

12

): LTE-Advanced planning, optimization and measurements guidelines, LTE-Advanced deployment recommendations.

Figure 1.1 summarizes the contents of this book to aid navigation between the modules.

Figure 1.1 The contents of the LTE-A Deployment Handbook.

1.3 Mobile Telecommunications Development

1.3.1 LTE

The design of the LTE commenced in 2004 [1]. The driving force was the need to reduce the complexity of the terminals, lower the power consumption, decrease the equipment and utilization cost per bit, provide flexibility in the use of the established and future RF bands, and to facilitate the introduction of lower-cost services with a better user experience. Later, more detailed requirements were added, such as the reduction of the packet delivery latency and three to four times and two to three times improvement of the spectral efficiency compared to the Release 6 HSPA for downlink and uplink, respectively. Flexibility has also been an important criterion in the development of LTE to assure the suitability of the network deployment in various cases of coexisting previous networks such as GSM (n times 200 kHz carriers), CDMA (1.25 MHz carrier) and UMTS/HSPA (5 MHz carrier). Thus, bandwidth values of 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15 and 20 MHz were specified in the LTE for both downlink and uplink [2]. These bandwidth values are applicable to both the FDD (Frequency Division Duplex) and TDD (Time Division Duplex) modes of LTE [3].

LTE was designed to support MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) antennas as of Release 8, so that later phases increase the MIMO antennas. The design of the advanced antenna solutions for LTE devices is thus easier than, for example, for HSPA due to the integrated approach of LTE.

LTE has been designed to support especially low mobility environments up to 15 km/h with the highest defined performance values. The LTE also has categories for high performance with a terminal speed of 15–120 km/h, and for a functional performance with a speed of 120–350 km/h. 3GPP is also considering including support of a terminal speed up to 500 km/h. For the end user, the increased data rate is one of the clearest benefits of the LTE system. Figure 1.2 shows typical practical examples of the achievable LTE/LTE-A data rates with the given parameter values and releases [4]. The values depend on many parameters, such as the UE terminal category (Cat), MIMO configurations and modulation, and finally the radio conditions.

Figure 1.2 The timing for the LTE specifications and practical network deployments. Rel. 8 can be generalized as “Basic LTE” while Rel. 10 represents the first phase of “LTE-Advanced.” In between, the “intermediate” Rel. 9 includes, for example, VoIP, femto handover and many other enhancements that pave the way for deploying the actual LTE-A.

The LTE system is thus 3GPP's answer to the rapidly growing demands for increased data rates and lower latency as the multimedia contents are becoming increasingly demanding. LTE tackles these challenges, thus giving end users the benefit of a more fluent user experience of modern data communications. Also the operators now have a better means to optimize the cellular networks.

As can be seen in Figure 1.2, the first-phase LTE is defined in Rel. 8. It provided the initial launch of the LTE networks with the basic set of functionalities on both the network and the user equipment side. Rel. 9 contains a set of enhancements, yet it still represents the pre-4G system, as the ITU-R requirements for 4G are considered. The LTE-Advanced is defined for the first time in Release 10 which contains items such as Carrier Aggregation (CA), CoMP, LIPA (Local IP Access), SIPTO (Selected Internet IP Traffic Offload), M2M, and, in general, offers an improved performance that would be sufficient to comply with the 4G requirements of ITU-R [5–7]. Nevertheless, Release 10 is still a “light” version of the fully equipped LTE-Advanced, and defines, for example, CA for two carriers which provides 40 MHz bandwidth, while the possibility of deploying CA for up to five carriers and 100 MHz bandwidth is introduced later.

The LTE-A Release 11 contains further improvements for the CA, and other relevant items, such as IMS, roaming and P2P (Peer-to-Peer). LTE-A Release 12 contains further functional additions, for example, for Wi-Fi, small cell improvements, optimization for signaling, Self-Optimizing Network features (SON), Minimization of Drive Tests (MDT), advanced receiver and MIMO improvements [8–10].

As a comparison, the peak spectral efficiency requirement for Release 8 LTE is 15 b/s/Hz and 6.75 b/s/Hz for downlink and uplink, respectively, for both FDD and TDD modes, while these values are 30 and 15 b/s/Hz for Release 10 LTE [11]. Figure 1.3 summarizes the main MIMO data rates.

Figure 1.3 Comparison of the data rates that can be achieved with different MIMO configurations. LTE Rel. 8 still uses a maximum of 20 MHz bandwidth (1 complete carrier) while LTE-A Rel. 10 provides 40 MHz (two carriers). The full five-carrier configuration is possible with LTE-A Rel. 12.

LTE has clearly changed the previous concepts of telecommunications. One of the best proofs of the high importance and impact of LTE is that it no longer defines circuit-switched (CS) data transfer at all. This means that the packet-switched, “All-IP” era has reached its breaking point, and the “old-fashioned” ways of both voice and data communications via fixed line reservation are about to finish. Eventually, all telecommunications contents will be delivered via data packets, whether it is on voice calls, messaging, audio or video.

LTE refers to the developed radio interface of 3GPP systems. As the radio network now is offering considerably higher data rates with low latency, it does have a considerable impact on the rest of the network. Thus, the core network of 3GPP systems is refreshed to support adequate end-to-end performance, via new SAE (System Architecture Evolution). Figure 1.4 clarifies the terminology.

Figure 1.4 EPS consists of LTE (E-UTRAN) and SAE (EPC).

LTE coverage was not too wide when the deployment first started, even though the network construction projects may be fast in practice due to the co-location of the equipment on the existing sites. The large-scale LTE deployments began in 2011 and in some cases the population coverage of LTE had reached the level of the previous systems by 2014, as is the case with AT&T and Verizon Wireless in the USA.

Nevertheless, it is inevitable that the LTE coverage will consist of fragmented hot-spot areas while the basic coverage is still handled by the earlier 2G and 3G systems, for example, via GSM, UMTS, CDMA 1x and CDMA2000. As the LTE completely lacks integrated CS functionality, the respective voice calls need to be handled, when the LTE coverage ends during an established communications, as fluently as possible. For a sufficiently high-quality user-experience in these situations, the CS call is handed over to 2G/3G networks without a service breakdown. Some intermediate solutions have been developed for this, for example, SRVCC (Single Radio Voice Call Continuity) and CSFB (Circuit Switched Fall-Back). The final goal when serving voice call users is the fully developed and integrated IMS (IP Multimedia Sub-system) of fully deployed LTE/SAE networks. By that time, there may already be LTE-only devices available on the market. The underlying previous networks can thus be ramped down gradually, or maintained as an alternative method for those users who still have devices that require the support of the previous systems.

LTE/SAE offers many novel solutions compared to the earlier systems. One of the benefits of the system is the scalability – the bandwidth of LTE can be varied between 1.4 and 20 MHz, whereas the UMTS is tightly limited to the fixed 5 MHz band (though the UMTS can be optimized slightly by lowering the band of the NodeB elements). The larger scalability of LTE gives it the possibility of using LTE/SAE networks according to various scenarios: from stand-alone network and initial add-on network via gradual frequency re-farming, up to full-scale network and lowering the offered capacity of other networks gradually [12].

3GPP has identified a large set of frequency bands for LTE, providing the possibility of using LTE either partially or using the full 20 MHz bandwidth, depending on the band and the operator's license. The offered LTE capacity depends on the radio resource blocks (RB). The number of RBs depends on the bandwidth according to Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 The number of LTE radio resource blocks (RB) per bandwidth.

LTE Bandwidth (MHz)

1.4

3.6

5.0

10

15

20

RBs

6

15

25

50

75

100

The other essential parameters of the LTE are the following, valid both for FDD and TDD bands of UMTS:

The multiple access method in the downlink is OFDMA (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access) and SC-FDMA (Single Carrier Frequency Division Multiple Access) in the uplink.

In the downlink, LTE can use a wide choice of MIMO configurations in order to benefit from the transmit diversity, spatial multiplexing and cyclic delay diversity.

In the uplink, there is the possibility of using Multi-user collaborative MIMO.

In 2013, the data rate class of 100 Mb/s was typical, via class 3 UE class. The practical peak rate of LTE was up to 150 Mb/s, still in 2014, which can be obtained by using the realistic UE category 4 with 2 × 2 MIMO in the full 20 MHz bandwidth. Theoretically, a data rate of 300 Mb/s can be achieved with the UE category 5 and 4 × 4 MIMO in 20 MHz band. In the uplink, the maximum data rate of 75 Mb/s can be achieved in the 20 MHz band.

1.3.2 LTE-Advanced

1.3.2.1 Positioning in Mobile Generations

One might wonder why another mobile communications system is needed. The fact is that, based on the current data utilization statistics, there is a need for more efficient capacity offering as the numbers of mobile applications and users are increasing exponentially [13]. Thus, as was the case with previous mobile systems, LTE/SAE also has its evolution path. After the actual LTE definitions which are referred to as 3GPP LTE Release 8 and Release 9, then Release 10 and beyond define the LTE-Advanced system via a set of additional features and functionalities, such as wider bandwidth and higher degree MIMO antennas which provide increased data rates, due to the wider frequency bandwidth and other enhancements. Furthermore, the evolution path of the LTE-Advanced complies with the fourth generation IMT-Advanced requirements defined by ITU-R. As Figure 1.2 indicates, already the initial LTE-Advanced Release 10 would be capable of providing the 1 Gb/s DL data rate required by the ITU-R definitions for the 4G systems.

Even if the ITU has defined the fourth generation requirements, there has been wide debate about the terminology related to the mobile system generations. A practical definition is still to be established. The most liberal interpretations would accept the evolved UMTS HSPA data as part of the fourth generation whereas the strictest interpretation is presented by the ITU. Following the ITU principles, according to [14], the third generation requirements are listed in IMT-2000. The IMT-2000 technologies are defined in the ITU-R recommendation M.1457 which includes, for example, LTE, while the fourth generation requirements are included in IMT-Advanced.

The basic version of LTE that is defined in the Release 8 series of the 3GPP specifications can be considered a “beyond 3G, pre-4G” system, sometimes referred to as 3.9 G technology in non-standard communications. In practice, the operators are already interpreting LTE as belonging to 4G. There are thus a few interpretations of complying with 4G while the official ITU definitions dictate that the initial version of LTE does not meet the IMT-Advanced and thus 4G requirements. As an example, LTE prior to Release 10 is not able to provide the 1 Gb/s data rates as required by IMT-Advanced. Nevertheless, it is common to see the LTE, and HSPA networks being called 4G commercially. We can thus call these solutions “Industry-4G” systems. Interestingly, as the adoption of “4G” was undertaken in the commercial pre-LTE-A Release 10 era, some markets are already calling the actual LTE-Advanced Release 10 the “5G” system, while the general consensus seems to be that the ITU-compliant 5G is being brainstormed for potential deployment around the 2020 time frame. There is thus the potential for somewhat confusing terminology in practice.

Concentrating on ITU terminology, at the time the 4G candidate set was under consideration by ITU-R, 3GPP defined the compatible radio interface technology requirements. This work culminated in the 3GPP Release 9 definitions, with a set of requirements for the 3GPP LTE-Advanced system. The requirements are found in the 3GPP Technical Report 36.913 [15], which lists the functionalities that makes LTE compliant with the requirements of the ITU.

A fully compliant 4G can thus be provided via the further development of LTE, which is called LTE-Advanced. It was defined for the first time in Release 10 of the 3GPP specifications. In addition to the acceptance of LTE-Advanced for the set of 4G systems, ITU also has approved IEEE 802.16m, which is commonly known as “WiMAX 2,” as one of the 4G technologies in the IMT-Advanced family. In order to distinguish the “Industry-4G” systems that do not comply with the ITU's 4G requirements, we can call the ITU's version “ITU-compliant 4G.” Figure 1.5 summarizes the actual situation of the 4G technologies.

Figure 1.5 The 4G systems approved by ITU-R.

1.3.2.2 ITU Requirements for 4G Systems

ITU has been pushing for the third generation mobile communications radio technology as part of the IMT-2000 project (International Mobile Telecommunications). Some of the main requirements for the third generation systems were already defined in 1997, with the criteria based on the peak user data rate:

2,048 kb/s, indoor office;

384 kb/s, outdoor to indoor and pedestrian environments;

144 kb/s, vehicular environment;

9.6 kb/s, satellite communications.

It should be noted that the spectral efficiency was not considered in the ITU's original 3G requirements.

ITU-R produced a more comprehensive requirement criteria list for the 4G mobile communications radio systems, that is, IMT-Advanced. Some of the main requirements are [16]:

enhanced peak data rates: 1 Gb/s in DL for low mobility scenarios and 100 Mb/s for high mobility scenarios in the downlink direction;

a high degree of common worldwide functionality while flexibility in supporting a wide range of local services and applications in a cost-efficient way;

service compatibility of IMT and fixed networks;

compatibility capability with other radio systems;