The LTE / SAE Deployment Handbook E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 821

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Describing the essential aspects that need to be considered during the deployment and operational phases of 3GPP LTE/SAE networks, this book gives a complete picture of LTE systems, as well as providing many examples from operational networks. It demystifies the structure, functioning, planning and measurements of both the radio and core aspects of the evolved 3G system. The content includes an overview of the LTE/SAE environment, architectural and functional descriptions of the radio and core network, functionality of the LTE applications, international roaming principles, security solutions and network measurement methods. In addition, this book gives essential guidelines and recommendations about the transition from earlier mobile communications systems towards the LTE/SAE era and the next generation of LTE, LTE-Advanced. The book is especially suitable for the operators that face new challenges in the planning and deployment phases of LTE/SAE, and is also useful for network vendors, service providers, telecommunications consultancy companies and technical institutes as it provides practical information about the realities of the system. * Presents the complete end-to-end planning and measurement guidelines for the realistic deployment of networks * Explains the essential and realistic aspects of commercial LTE systems as well as the future possibilities * An essential tool during the development of transition strategies from other network solutions towards LTE/SAE * Contains real-world case studies and examples to help readers understand the practical side of the system

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

Glossary

Chapter 1: General

1.1 Introduction

1.2 The LTE Scene

1.3 The Role of LTE in Mobile Communications

1.4 LTE/SAE Deployment Process

1.5 The Contents of the Book

References

Chapter 2: Drivers for LTE/SAE

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Mobile System Generations

2.3 Data Service Evolution

2.4 Reasons for the Deployment of LTE

2.6 Summary of the Benefits of LTE

References

Chapter 3: LTE/SAE Overview

3.1 Introduction

3.2 LTE/SAE Standards

3.3 How to Find Information from Specs?

3.4 Evolution Path Towards LTE

3.5 Key Parameters of LTE

3.6 LTE vs WiMAX

3.7 Models for Roaming Architecture

3.8 LTE/SAE Services

3.9 LTE-Advanced—Next Generation LTE

References

Chapter 4: Performance Requirements

4.1 Introduction

4.2 LTE Key Features

4.3 Standards LTE Requirements

4.4 Effects of the Requirements on the LTE/SAE Network Deployment

References

Chapter 5: LTE and SAE Architecture

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Elements

5.3 Interfaces

5.4 Protocol Stacks

5.5 Layer 2 Structure

References

Chapter 6: Transport and Core Network

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Functionality of Transport Elements

6.3 Transport Network

6.4 Core Network

6.5 IP Multimedia Subsystem

References

Chapter 7: LTE Radio Network

7.1 Introduction

7.2 LTE Radio Interface

7.3 LTE Spectrum

7.4 OFDM and OFDMA

7.5 SC-FDM and SC-FDMA

7.6 Reporting

7.7 LTE Radio Resource Management

7.8 RRM Principles and Algorithms Common to UL and DL

7.9 Uplink RRM

7.10 Downlink RRM

7.11 Intra-LTE Handover

References

Chapter 8: Terminals and Applications

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Effect of Smartphones on LTE

8.3 Interworking

8.4 LTE Terminal Requirements

8.5 LTE Applications

References

Chapter 9: Voice Over LTE

9.1 Introduction

9.2 CS Fallback for Evolved Packet System

9.3 SMS Over SGs

9.4 Voice and Other CS Services than SMS

9.5 Voice and SMS Over IP

9.6 Summary

References

Chapter 10: Functionality of LTE/SAE

10.1 Introduction

10.2 States

10.3 End-to-End Functionality

10.4 LTE/SAE Roaming

10.5 Charging

References

Chapter 11: LTE/SAE Security

11.1 Introduction

11.2 LTE Security Risk Identification

11.3 LTE/SAE Service Security—Case Example

11.4 Authentication and Authorization

11.5 Customer Data Safety

11.6 Lawful Interception

References

Chapter 12: Planning and Deployment of SAE

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Network Evolution from 2G/3G PS Core to EPC

12.3 Entering Commercial Phase: Support for Multi-Mode LTE/3G/2G Terminals with Pre-Release 8 SGSN

12.4 SGSN/MME Evolution

12.5 Case Example: Commercial SGSN/MME Offering

12.6 Mobile Gateway Evolution

12.7 Case Example: Commercial GGSN/S-GW/P-GW Offering

12.8 EPC Network Deployment and Topology Considerations

12.9 LTE Access Dimensioning

Chapter 13: Radio Network Planning

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Radio Network Planning Process

13.3 Nominal Network Planning

13.4 Capacity Planning

13.5 Coverage Planning

13.6 Self-Optimizing Network

Reference

Chapter 14: LTE/SAE Measurements

14.1 Introduction

14.2 General

14.3 Principles of Radio Interface Measurements

14.4 LTE Field Measurements

14.5 Evolution Changes the Rules of Testing

14.6 General Test Requirements and Methods for the LTE Air Interface

14.7 Test Requirements in SAE

14.8 Throughput Testing

14.9 Self-Organizing Network Techniques for Test and Measurement

14.10 Field Testing

References

Chapter 15: Recommendations

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Transition to LTE—Use Cases

15.3 Spectrum Aspects

15.4 Effect of the Advanced GSM Features on the Fluent LTE Deployment

15.5 Alternative Network Migration Path (Multi-Operator Case)

15.6 Hardware Migration Path

15.7 Mobile Backhaul—Towards “All-IP” Transport

15.8 LTE Interworking with Legacy Networks for the Optimal Voice and Data Services

References

Index

This edition first published 2012© 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Penttinen, Jyrki T. J.

The LTE/SAE deployment handbook / Jyrki Penttinen. – 1

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-97726-2 (hardback) – ISBN 978-1-119-95417-0 (ePDF) – ISBN978-1-119-95418-7 (oBook) – ISBN 978-1-119-96111-6 (ePub) – ISBN978-1-119-96112-3 (mobi)

1. Long-Term Evolution (Telecommunications) 2. System Architecture Evolution (Telecommunications) I. Title.

TK5103.48325.P46 2012

621.3845′6–dc23

2011033174

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Print ISBN: 9780470977262

List of Contributors

Mohmmad Anas

Adnan Basir

Jonathan Borrill

Francesco D. Calabrese

Luca Fauro

Marcin Grygiel

Jukka Hongisto

Tero Jalkanen

Juha Kallio

Krystian Krysmalski

Sebastian Lasek

Grzegorz Lehmann

Luis Maestro

Krystian Majchrowicz

Guillaume Monghal

Maciej Pakulski

Jyrki T. J. Penttinen

Olli Ramula

Dariusz Tomeczko

Foreword

Manually operated mobile communication networks were a huge success in all the Nordic countries in the 1970s but the popularity of the first-generation automatic networks (NMT) exceeded all expectations in the 1980s. It seemed impossible to estimate realistically the number of base stations needed to respond to the growing demand. Subscribers became accustomed to constantly improving service levels and coverage areas for voice calls. Gradually, during that decade, users adopted wireless voice communication and found that not only did it bring increased efficiency—it was also a highly liberating experience.

Then, along with the second generation in the 1990s (GSM), it became clear that there was a growing demand for more advanced services. International specification work on GSM formed a solid base and a favorable platform for new inventions like Short Message Service (SMS). GSM has been up and running now for more than 20 years. From the number of new innovations in 3GPP standardization it is clear that the evolution of GSM will be secure for a long time.

3G was introduced to the markets in order to provide a base for even more demanding multimedia. It provided additional capacity for voice calls as the 2G systems started to saturate. With its multiple generations and releases, the mobile telecom operators and vendors started to realize the challenges in the field as new services typically require support from both networks and terminals. On the other hand, the terminals' lifecycle is shorter because users consider them to be everyday consumer objects, and more attractive models constantly appear on the market. There is a positive balance between users, operators and equipment vendors as enhanced services typically require updates to terminals and networks.

The deployment of the packet data service as an add-on for GSM, and then its adaptation from the first phase of UMTS, were the important triggers for the use of Internet services via mobile terminals. The rapidly evolving Internet environment itself had a great impact on mobile communications, resulting in the development of multi-usage equipment for services, combining voice connections, messaging, and multimedia.

With the deployment of the third-generation networks, data rates increased in order to provide a smoother user experience. The new business environment started to strengthen. In contrast with the initial model of only few voice service providers in controlled markets, there were now increasing numbers of operators, equipment vendors, service providers, measurement equipment producers, and many other entities contributing to mobile communications. The increasing speed of standardization made development seem unlimited.

Along with the increased data rates associated with the Internet, fixed and mobile communications have also evolved steadily. Open standards, competing operators and multivendor equipment offerings have ensured that the markets developed favorably from the end user's point of view.

Evolution of 2G and 3G is gradually becoming saturated, as happened with the first-generation networks. It is easier to create a new, more efficient platform to provide the required data rate and capacity than to develop existing ones. Statistics from recent years indicate that there has been a huge growth in multimedia data transfer. The exponential growth in the use of data sets higher performance targets for the networks than ever before.

In this context, LTE has been designed as a base for a new 4G era. It paves the way towards 4G by providing a smooth transition from 2G and 3G, including important interworking functionalities as well as higher data rates and capacity than ever before in mobile network environments. In addition to 3GPP networks, LTE/SAE standardization also takes care of the evolution path from CDMA systems.

Evolving technology makes the management of mobile communications businesses more complex. Some operators can build on existing technology; others may have to start from 4G. Fixed networks must also be considered as competition for mobile networks, as their capacity, quality, and flexibility to interwork with wireless technologies increase.

At the same time, the need for relevant information is increasing. Networks are either built from scratch or through designing an evolution path from a previous system. Network planners and other technical people need to know how the systems function, how they can be planned optimally, and how to make sure that user experiences will be positive. Business managers must also understand the basic technology in order to see how they can benefit from it and what they may require from technical staff.

It is a rare to find a person who has a deep understanding of a technology and who can also write about it in an informative, simple, and understandable way. The writer of this book, Jyrki Penttinen, has this skill. This is the right book for those who wish to study LTE and the principles and details of Evolved UTRAN and Evolved Packet Core in a common-sense manner.

Matti MakkonenCEO, Anvia PlcFormer Vice President, Sonera, Finland

Preface

Long-Term Evolution (LTE) is arguably one of the most important steps in the current phase of the development of modern mobile communications. It provides a suitable base for enhanced services due to increased data throughput and lower latency figures, and also gives extra impetus to the modernization of telecom architectures. The decision to leave the circuit-switched domain out of the scope of LTE/SAE system standardization might sound radical but it indicates that the telecom world is going strongly for the all-IP concept—and the deployment of LTE/SAE is concrete evidence of this global trend.

LTE specifications define evolved radio access for 3GPP's 3G evolution path and so they have an important influence on the core development of the new mobile network system. Along with requirements for high-speed data support for the radio network, the core network specifications have been updated to guarantee end-to-end performance. The specification work under the same 3GPP umbrella ensures that all the relevant aspects are covered in the interworking of the evolved radio and core, as well as between previous generations of 3GPP 2G and 3G networks.

There are many overlapping or similar aspects in LTE and SAE and previous 3GPP systems but the evolved network also brings plenty of novel solutions. Many performance simulations are already available, which indicates the capabilities of LTE/SAE, but the impact of the system on practical network deployment has not been particularly clear until now.

This book aims to address this growing need for information about the practical aspects of the evolved terrestrial radio access network of UMTS (E-UTRAN)—that is, LTE—as well as the evolved packet core network (EPC)—that is, System Architecture Evolution (SAE). The idea of this book is to take a step towards to the preparation of the deployment phase, presenting practical information needed in the designing and building of the LTE/SAE network. The book presents topics and examples that are helpful from the first day of the planning and deployment of LTE/SAE networks, to ensure that the initial phase provides the best possible level of service. It describes the system architecture and functionality, network planning, measurements, security, applications, and other aspects that are important in real telecommunications environments.

The book is written in a modular way. The first module consists of Chapters 1–5, which describe the background and the overall idea of the system. This part includes advice about the practical interpretation of the standards and gives the most important high-level requirements and architectural descriptions of LTE and SAE. This part is thus especially useful for anyone who lacks prior knowledge about the system.

Chapters 6-11 address more specific issues regarding the functionality of LTE/SAE and its services. This part describes the functionality and elements of the system in enough detail to help readers to understand the technical possibilities and challenges of LTE and SAE as a part of the whole mobile communications environment.

The third module consists of Chapters 12–15, which address design-related aspects of the LTE/SAE from a practical perspective. This part contains essential guidelines for the planning, dimensioning, and measurement of LTE/SAE networks. One of the most important parts of this module, and at the same time the core of the whole book, is Chapter 15, which presents valuable recommendations for the transition from other systems to LTE. It gives various technical guidelines and examples as a basis, for example, for refarming strategies.

In general, this book can be used as a central, practical source of information in the deployment phase of LTE/SAE as well as in later phases. The book team would like to remind though that this book gives practical information about the functionality and suggestions for the network deployment, but the correctness of the contents can not be guaranteed by the team. It is encouraged to refer to the specifications and other validated information sources. The team also would like to clarify that the information and opinions presented in this book are solely of the contributors, and our employers may or may not have the same ideas.

If you have any feedback or comments about the content of the book, or suggestions about how it could be enhanced in possible future editions, please do not hesitate to contact the author directly at [email protected]. Additional information about LTE/SAE, based on developments in the field and feedback, may be found on the author's Internet page at www.tlt.fi.

Jyrki T. J. Penttinen

Acknowledgments

This book is the result of a joint effort by our book team. I would like to thank all the contributors for their challenging work during their spare time. I thank Nokia Siemens Networks, Nokia, TeliaSonera, Anritsu, NetHawk, Rohde & Schwarz, Samsung, and Anite for their collaboration and for providing a practical perspective for this book. Many colleagues assisted us by providing essential comments, documentation and hints. I would like to thank Dr. Harri Holma, Dr. Jorge Hermosillo, Mika Laasonen, Mikko Nurkka, Valtteri Niemi, Timo Saxen, Olli Ramula, and Antti Näykki, and all our other colleagues for their valuable support.

I give my warmest thanks to the Association of Finnish Non-Fiction Writers for their support for this project. I also thank the whole Wiley team for the guidance and professional project management.

Finally, I thank my spouse Elva and our children for their patience and support during the project.

Jyrki T. J. Penttinen

Glossary

128-QAM128 state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation16-QAM16 state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation1GFirst Generation of mobile communication technologies2GSecond Generation of mobile communication technologies3GThird Generation of mobile communication technologies3GPP3rd Generation Partnership Project4GFourth Generation of mobile communication technologies64-QAM64 state Quadrature Amplitude ModulationAAAAuthentication, Authorization & AccountingABMFAccount Balance Management FunctionACAdmission ControlACIRAdjacent Channel Interference RejectionACKAcknowledgmentACLRAdjacent Channel Leakage RatioACSAdjacent Channel SelectivityADCAnalogue/Digital ConversionADMFAdministration FunctionADSLAsynchronous Digital Subscriber LineAFAfricaAFApplication FunctionA-GPSAssisted Global Positioning SystemaGWAccess GatewayAKAAuthentication and Key AgreementAMBRAggregated Maximum Bit RateAMCAdaptive Modulation and CodingAMPSAdvanced Mobile Phone SystemAMRAdaptive Multi-RateAPAggregation ProxyAPAsia PacificAPACAsia PacificAPNAccess Point NameAPN-AMBRAPN aggregate maximum bit rateARAggregation RouterARFCNabsolute radio-frequency channel numberARPAllocation Retention PriorityARPAutomatic Radio PhoneARPUAverage Revenue Per UserARQAutomatic Repeat reQuestASApplication ServerAS SMCAS Security Mode CommandATBAdaptive Transmission BandwidthATCAAdvanced Telecommunications Computing ArchitectureATMAsynchronous Transfer ModeAuIDApplication Usage IDAUTNAuthentication tokenAVCAdvanced Video CodecAWSAdvanced Wireless ServicesBCCHBroadcast Control ChannelBCHBroadcast ChannelBDBilling DomainBEBest EffortBERBit Error RateBICCBearer Independent Call ControlBLERBlock Error RateBPSKBinary Phase Shift KeyingBQSBad Quality SamplesBSBase StationBSCBase Station ControllerBSRBuffer Status ReportBSSBusiness Support SystemBTSBase Transceiver StationBWBandwidthC/ICarrier per InterferenceCACertification AuthorityCAMELCustomised Applications for Mobile networks Enhanced LogicCAPEXCapital ExpenditureCAZACConstant Amplitude Zero AutoCorrelationCCContent of CommunicationCCCHCommon Control ChannelCCNCell Change NotificationCCOCell Change OrderCDFCharging Data FunctionCDMACode Division Multiple AccessCDRCall Drop RateCDRCharging Data RecordCEOChief Executive OfficerCETCarrier Ethernet TransportCFBCall Forwarding BusyCFNRcCall Forwarding Not ReachableCFNRyCall Forwarding No ReplyCFUCall Forwarding UnconditionalCGFCharging Gateway FunctionCLIPCalling Line PresentationCLIRCalling Line identity RestrictionCMASCommercial Mobile Alert SystemCMPCertificate Management ProtocolCNCore NetworkCOLPConnected Line PresentationCOLRConnected Line identity RestrictionCoMPCoordinated multipointCPCyclic PrefixCPICHCommon Pilot ChannelCPMConverged IP MessagingCQIChannel Quality IndicatorCRCarriage ReturnCRCCyclic Redundancy CheckCSCircuit SwitchedCSFBCircuit Switched Fall BackCSIChannel State InformationCTCore Network and Terminals (TSG)CTFCharging Trigger FunctionCTMCellular Text Telephony ModemDABDigital Audio BroadcastingDCCADiameter Credit Control ApplicationDCCHDedicated Control ChannelDDDigital DividendDFCADynamic Frequency and Channel AllocationDFTDiscrete Fourier TransformDFTS-OFDMDiscrete Fourier Transform Spread-OFDMDHCPDynamic Host Configuration ProtocolDHRDual Half Rate (voice codec)DLDownlinkDLDCDownlink Dual CarrierDL-SCHDownlink Shared ChannelDMRDigital Mobile RadioDoSDenial of ServiceDPIDeep Packet InspectionDRBData Radio BearerDRXDiscontinuous ReceptionDSCPDiffServ Code PointDSLDigital Subscriber LineDSMIPv6Dual-Stack Mobile IPv6DTCHDedicated Traffic ChannelDTMDual Transfer ModeDTMFDual Tone Multi-FrequencyDTXDiscontinuous TransmissionDUTDevice Under TestDVB-HDigital Video Broadcasting, HandheldDVB-TDigital Video Broadcasting, TerrestrialECMEPS Connection ManagementE-CSCFEmergency Call State Control FunctionEDGEEnhanced Data Rates for Global EvolutionEFExpedited ForwardingEFLEffective Frequency LoadE-GPRSEnhanced GPRSEHPLMNEquivalent HPLMNeHRPDEvolved High Rate Packet DataEMMEPS Mobility ManagementEMREnhanced Measurement ReportingeNBEvolved Node BENUME.164 Number MappingEPCEvolved Packet CoreePDGEvolved Packet Data GatewayEPSEvolved Packet SystemETSIEuropean Telecommunications Standards InstituteETWSEarthquake and Tsunami Warning SystemEUEuropean UnionE-UTRANEvolved UMTS Radio Access NetworkEV-DOEvolution-Data OnlyEVMError Vector MagnitudeFACCHFast Associated Control ChannelFCCUS Federal Communications CommissionFCCHFrequency Correction ChannelFDDFrequency Division DuplexFDPSFrequency-Domain Packet SchedulingFERFrame Erasure RateFFSFor Further StudyFFTFast Fourier TransformFHFrequency HoppingFMCFixed Mobile ConvergenceFNOFixed Network OperatorFPLMTSFuture Public Land Mobile Telecommunications SystemFRFrame RelayFRFull Rate (voice codec)FR-AMRAMR Full RateGAAGeneric Authentication AlgorithmGANGeneric Access NetworkGBRGuaranteed Bit RateGCFGlobal Certification ForumGERANGSM EDGE Radio Access Network (TSG)GGSNGPRS Gateway Support NodeGMLCGateway Mobile Location CentreGMSKGaussian Minimum Shift KeyingGPRSGeneral Packet Radio ServiceGREGeneric Routing EncapsulationGRXGPRS Roaming ExchangeGSMGlobal System for Mobile communicationsGSMAGSM AssociationGTPGPRS Tunnelling ProtocolGTTGlobal Text TelephonyGTT-CSGlobal Text Telephony over video telephonyGTTPGPRS Transparent Transport ProtocolGTT-VoiceGlobal Text Telephony over voiceGWGatewayHARQHybrid Automatic Retransmission on request/Hybrid Automatic Repeat RequestHDHigh DefinitionHDSLHigh-bit-rate Digital Subscriber LineHeNB GWHome eNB GatewayHeNBHome eNBHLRHome Location RegisterHOHandoverhPCRFHome Policy and Charging Rules FunctionHPLMNHome PLMNHRHalf Rate (voice codec)HR-AMRAMR Half RateHRPDHigh Rate Packet DataHSCSDHigh Speed Circuit Switched DataHSDPAHigh Speed Downlink Packet AccessHSPAHigh Speed Packet AccessHSSHome Subscriber ServerHSUPAHigh Speed Uplink Packet AccessIBCFInterconnection Border Control FunctionsICEIntercepting Control ElementICIInter-Carrier InterferenceICICInter Cell Interference ControlICSIMS Centralized ServicesI-CSCFInterrogating Call State Control FunctionIDFTInverse Discrete Fourier TransformIEEEInstitute of Electrical and Electronics EngineersIETFInternet Engineering Task ForceIFFTInverse Fast Fourier TransformI-HSPAInternet HSPAIMEIInternational Mobile Equipment IdentityIMSIP Multimedia Sub-systemIMSIInternational Mobile Subscriber IdentityIMS-MGWIMS-Media GatewayIMS-NNIIMS Network-Network InterfaceIM-SSFIP Multimedia – Service Switching FunctionIMT-2000International Mobile Telecommunication requirements (ITU)IMT-AdvancedAdvanced International Mobile Telecommunication requirements (ITU)INIntelligent NetworkINAPIntelligent Network Application ProtocolIOTInter-Operability TestingIPInternet ProtocolIPsecIP SecurityIP-SM-GWIP-Short Message-GatewayIPv4IP version 4IPv6IP version 6IPXIP eXchangeIQIn-phase (I) and out of phase (Q) components of modulationIRIIntercept Related InformationISCIMS Service ControlISIInter-Symbol InterferenceISIMIMS Subscriber Identity ModuleISRIdle Mode Signaling ReductionISUPISDN User PartITUInternational Telecommunication UnionITU-RITU's Radiocommunication SectorITU-TITU's Telecommunication sectorIWFInterworking FunctionJSLEEJAIN Service Logic Execution EnvironmentsKDFKey Derivation FunctionKPIKey Performance IndicatorLALatin AmericaLALink AdaptationLALocation AreaLAULocation Area UpdateLBOLocal BreakoutLCSLocation ServiceLEALaw Enforcement AgenciesLEMFLaw Enforcement Monitoring FacilitiesLILawful InterceptionLIGLegal Interception GatewayLRFLocation Retrieval FunctionLSPLabel Switch PathLTELong Term EvolutionLTE-ALTE-AdvancedLTE-UELTE User EquipmentMAMobile AllocationMACMedium Access ControlMAIOMobile Allocation Index OffsetMANMetropolitan Area NetworkMBMSMultimedia Broadcast Multicast ServiceMBRMaximum Bit RateMCCMobile Country CodeMCCHMulticast Control ChannelMCHMulticast ChannelMCSModulation and Coding SchemeMC-TD-SCDMAMulti-Carrier Time-Division Synchronous-Code-Division Multiple AccessMC-WCDMAMulti-Carrier Wide-band Code-Division Multiple AccessME idMobile Equipment IdentifierMEMiddle EastMEAMiddle East and AfricaMERModulation Error RateMGCFMedia Gateway Control FunctionMGWMedia GatewayMIMOMultiple Input Multiple OutputMMEMobility Management EntityMMSMultimedia Messaging ServiceMMTelMultimedia TelephonyMNCMobile Network CodeMOMobile OriginatingMOBSSMulti-Operator Base Station SubsystemMOCNMulti-Operator Core NetworkMORANMulti-Operator Radio Access NetworkMOSMean Opinion ScoreMPLSMulti-Protocol Label SwitchingMRFMedia Resource FunctionMRFCMedia Resource Function ControllerMRFPMedia Resource Function ProcessorMSMobile StationMSCMobile services Switching CenterMSC-BSecond (another) MSCMSISDNMobile Station ISDN numberMTMobile TerminatingMTCHMulticast Traffic ChannelMT-LRMobile Terminating Location RequestMTMMachine-to-Machine (communications)MVNOMobile Virtual Network OperatorMWCMobile World ConferenceMWIMessage Waiting IndicationNANetwork AssistedNANorth AmericaNACCNetwork Assisted Cell ChangeNACKNegative AcknowledgmentNAS SMCNAS Security Mode CommandNASNon Access StratumNBNode BNCCRNetwork Controlled Cell ReselectionNDSNetwork Domain SecurityNE IdNetwork Element IdentifierNGMNNext Generation Mobile Networks (Alliance)NGNNext Generation NetworkNHNext Hop parameterNITZNetwork Initiated Time ZoneNMT 450Nordic Mobile Telephone in 450 MHz frequency bandNMT 900Nordic Mobile Telephone in 900 MHz frequency bandNMTNordic Mobile TelephoneNNINetwork-Network InterfaceNOCNetwork Operations CentreNRTNear Real TimeNVASNetwork Value Added ServicesOAM&POperations, Administration, Maintenance, and ProvisioningOCFOnline Charging FunctionOCSOnline Charging SystemOFCSOffline Charging SystemOFDMAOrthogonal Frequency Division Multiple AccessOLLAOuter Loop Link AdaptationOLPCOpen Loop Power ControlOMSOperations and Management SystemOoBTCOut of Band Transcoder ControlOPEXOperating ExpenditureOSCOrthogonal Sub ChannelOSPIHInternet Hosted Octect Stream ProtocolOSSOperational Support SystemOTAOver The AirOTTOver The TopPAPRPeak-to-Average Power RatioPBCHPhysical Broadcast ChannelPBRPrioritised Bit RatePCPersonal ComputerPCPower ControlPCCPolicy and Charging ControlPCCHPaging Control ChannelPCEFPolicy and Charging Enforcement FunctionPCEPPolicy and Charging Enforcement PointPCHPaging ChannelPCIPhysical Cell IdentifierPCRFPolicy and Charging Rules FunctionP-CSCFProxy Call State Control FunctionPDPacket delayPDCCHPhysical Downlink Control ChannelPDCPPacket Data Convergence ProtocolPDHPlesiochronous Digital HierarchyPDNPacket Data NetworkPDN-GWPacket Data Network GatewayPDPPacket Data ProtocolPDSCHPhysical Downlink Shared ChannelPDUPacket Data UnitPDVPacket Delay VariationPGCProject Co-ordination GroupP-GWPacket Data Network GatewayPHBDiffServ Per Hop BehaviorPHICHPhysical Hybrid ARQ Indicator ChannelPHRPower Headroom ReportPKIPublic Key InfrastructurePLMNPublic Land Mobile NetworkPLRPacket Loss RatioPMCHPhysical Multicast ChannelPMIPrecoding Matrix IndicatorPMIPProxy Mobile IPPMIPv6Proxy Mobile IP version 6PPPPoint to Point ProtocolPRACHPhysical Radio Access ChannelPRBPhysical Resource BlockPSPacket SwitchedPSPresence ServerPSAPPublic Safety Answering PointPSDPacket Switched DataPSNPacket Switched NetworkPTCRBPCS Type Certification Review BoardPTPPoint-to-PointPUSCHPhysical Uplink Shared ChannelPWSPublic Warning SystemQQualityQAMQuadrature Amplitude ModulationQCIQoS Class IdentifierQoSQuality of ServiceQPSKQuadrature Phase Shift KeyingRARegistration AuthorityRARouting AreaRACHRandom Access ChannelRANRadio Access Network (TSG)RANDRandom challenge numberRATRadio Access TechnologyRAURouting Area UpdateRBResource BlockRBGRadio Bearer GroupRCSRich Communication SuiteRESResponseRFRadio FrequencyRFRating FunctionRFSPRAT/Frequency Selection PriorityRIRank IndicatorRLCRadio Link ControlRLTRadio Link TimeoutRMSRoot Mean SquareROHCRobust Header CompressionRoIReturn of InvestmentRRCRadio Resource ControlRRHRemote Radio HeadRRMRadio Resource ManagementRRURemote Radio UnitRSReference SignalRSCPReceived Signal Code PowerRSRPReference Signal Received PowerRSRQReference Signal Received QualityRSSIReceived Signal Strength IndicatorRTReal TimeRTCPRTP Control ProtocolRTPReal Time Transport ProtocolRXReceiverRX-DDiversity ReceiverRXLEVRX LevelRXQUALRX QualityS/P-GWServing Gateway and PDN Gateway (combined), see SAE GWSAService and System Aspects (TSG)SACCHSlow Associated Control ChannelSAESystem Architecture EvolutionSAE-GWCombined S-GW and P-GWSAICSingle Antenna Interference CancellationSAUSimultaneously Attached UsersSBCSession Border ControllerSCC ASService Centralization and Continuity Application ServerSC-FDMASingle Carrier Frequency Division Multiple AccessSCHShared ChannelSCIMService Control Interaction ManagementSCPService Control PointS-CSCFServing Call State Control FunctionSCTPStream Control Transfer ProtocolSDCCHStand-alone Dedicated Control ChannelSDFService Delivery FrameworkSDHSynchronous Digital HierarchySDPSession Description ProtocolSEGSecurity GatewaySELSpectral Efficiency LossSEMSpectral Emission MaskSFNSingle Frequency NetworkSGSNServing GPRS Support NodeS-GWServing GatewaySIBSystem Information BlockSIMSubscriber Identity ModuleSINRSignal-to-Interference-and-Noise RatioSIPSession Initiation ProtocolSISOSingle Input Single OutputSLFSubscriber Locator FunctionSMShort MessageSMGSpecial Mobile GroupSMSShort Message ServiceSMSCShort Message Service CentreSN IDServing Network's IdentitySNRSignal-to-Noise RatioSONSelf Organizing/Optimizing NetworkSRScheduling RequestSRSSounding Reference SignalSRVCCSingle Radio Voice Call ContinuitySSSignal StrengthSTMSynchronous Transfer ModeS-TMSITemporary Mobile Subscriber IdentitySTN-SRTransfer Number for Single RadioSU-MIMOSingle User MIMOSUPLSecure User Plane LocationTATracking AreaT-ADSTerminating Access Domain SelectionTASTelephony Application ServerTAUTracking Area UpdateTBFTemporary Block FlowTBSTransport Block SizeTCHTraffic ChannelTCPTransmission Control ProtocolTDDTime Division DuplexTDMTime Division MultiplexTDMATime Division Multiple AccessTD-SCDMATime Division Synchronous Code Division Multiple AccessTEIDTunnel Endpoint IdentifierTFOTandem Free OperationTHIGTopology HidingTISPANTelecommunications and Internet converged Services and Protocols for Advanced NetworkingToPTiming over PacketTRTechnical RecommendationTrFOTranscoder Free OperationTrGWTransition GatewayTRXTransceiverTSTechnical SpecificationTSGTechnical Specification GroupTSLTimeslotTTCN3Testing and Test Control Notation Version 3TTITransmission Time IntervalTU3Typical Urban 3 km/hTXTransmitterUDPUser Datagram ProtocolUEUser EquipmentULUplinkUL-SCHUplink Shared ChannelUMAUnlicensed Mobile AccessUMTSUniversal Mobile Telecommunications SystemUNIUser-Network InterfaceUPEUser Plane EntityURIUniform Resource Identity (SIP)URLUniform Resource LocatorUSBUniversal Serial BusUSIMUniversal Subscriber Identity ModuleUSSDUnstructured Supplementary Service DataUSSDCUSSD CentreUTRANUMTS Terrestrial Radio Access NetworkUWBUltra Wide BandVHFVery High FrequencyVLANVirtual Local Area NetworkVoIPVoice over IPVoLGAVoice over LTE via Generic AccessVoLTEVoice over LTEvPCRFVisited PCRFVPLMNVisited PLMNVPLSVirtual Private LAN Service transportWBWidebandWB-AMRWideband Adaptive Multi RateWCDMAWideband CDMAWEWest EuropeWIWork ItemWiMAX 2IEEE 802.16m-based evolved WiMAXWiMAXWorldwide Interoperability for Microwave AccessWLANWireless Local Area NetworkWRCWorld Radiocommunication ConferenceXCAPXML Configuration Access ProtocolXDMXML Document ManagementXDMSXML Document Management ServerXMLExtensible Markup LanguageXRESExpected Response

Chapter 1

General

Jyrki T. J. Penttinen

1.1 Introduction

This chapter introduces the contents of the book. It includes high-level information about the LTE system and design, and instructions how to use the modular structure of the chapters in an efficient way in different phases of LTE/SAE network planning, rollout, operation and optimization. As the book is practical, it is suitable for network operators, equipment manufacturers, service providers, and educational institutes at many levels.

1.2 The LTE Scene

Long-Term Evolution (LTE), as its name indicates, has been planned to meet the ever growing demands of mobile communications network customers in the forthcoming years. This new system provides considerably higher data rates and lower latency in order to deliver multimedia content in an efficient way, which benefits the end-users (who experience improved data transfer and communications) as well as the operators, who can optimize the network infrastructure to provide high-capacity and high-speed data communications.

Telecommunications and the content of the information are based increasingly on the Internet Protocol (IP), via multiple transport solutions. Information delivery was traditionally based on the circuit-switched (CS) domain until the late 1990s for data, and up to now for voice traffic. The LTE concept indicates that the trend for all content is definitely towards IP because the LTE specifications do not even define circuit-switched interfaces any more. The lack of a definition for the circuit-switched domain of the telecommunication networks is one of the strongest proofs of the direction of the current packet-based evolution. The decision to leave this interface out of the LTE specifications might be considered drastic but, on the other hand, it will definitely speed up the process for moving the telecom traffic towards the packet-switched domain, which supports the idea of delivering most communications over IP, including the voice service.

Long-Term Evolution defines the radio interface in this evolved phase of 3G. It provides considerably higher data rates in a more advanced and efficient way than other earlier large-scale mobile communications systems. This means challenges for the rest of the network—which could be considered as a positive development. In order to handle all the potential capacity that LTE can deliver, the core network side also has to be modified. This definition is called System Architecture Evolution (SAE) (see Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 The overall division of LTE and SAE.

Common functionality between LTE and SAE and earlier mobile networks is needed to guarantee smooth continuity of calls in locations where LTE coverage is still missing. Even though the LTE/SAE standards lack CS domain definitions, there are practical means for managing the connection during the call, or during the idle mode. The voice call is obviously the most important mobile—and telecom—service, and this can be handled by the VoIP connections via the packet domain. The challenge arises when the LTE service ends suddenly. One way to handle the call without breaks is to hand the connection over to the 2G or 3G networks, which still include CS interfaces to the fixed telephone network.

The LTE/SAE solution brings faster data services to telecommunications than ever before via this type of large mobile network. Moreover, LTE/SAE will reduce delays in the data communications considerably. One of the most interesting aspects of the functionality of the LTE/SAE is its scalability. This permits LTE/SAE networks to be deployed in many scenarios, from the stand-alone network to the small-scale initial add-on as a part of the frequency refarming, and in a growing network that delivers more capacity as the frequency bands of previous networks are reduced. There are many possible mobile telecommunications deployment strategies for which the LTE/SAE fits as a logical solution.

Like any other mobile communications system, LTE/SAE has its own evolution path. Planning has already taken place for the evolved version, which can be called LTE-Advanced. It will provide considerably higher data rates due to the wider frequency bandwidth and other enhancements. Furthermore, LTE-Advanced is one of the systems that comply with fourth-generation requirements, defined by ITU-R.

1.3 The Role of LTE in Mobile Communications

Traditionally, during the 2G era and in the beginning of the 3G system deployment, data service utilization was at a low level, representing typically a maximum of 2% of the whole traffic. The circuit-switched voice service and short message service have been the dominating teleservices. Even the introduction of the first packet data solutions—GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) and its evolved version, EGPRS (Enhanced GPRS) or EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution)—did not increase the data service utilization level considerably, although they were necessary steps to provide a cost-optimized method for handling the bursty traffic of the Internet Protocol. At the moment, circuit-switched data is considered old-fashioned and expensive for both users and operators, and it is thus disappearing from the service sets of the operators.

The utilization level of the packet data has increased recently as a result of considerably higher data rates and lower latency, which makes mobile data communications comparable to, or in some cases even more attractive than, typical Internet subscription. As a result, more applications have been developed both for leisure purposes and for business use. One of the main drivers for the future data utilization is the growth of the smart-phone penetration. For example, Informa has estimated that, during 2010, 65% of global mobile data traffic was generated by 13% of mobile subscribers who use smart phones, with average traffic per user of 85 MB per month. Japan is the most active in the mobile data usage, with 199 MB per month. Figure 1.2 shows the predicted data growth until 2015.

Figure 1.2 The estimate of the near-future data usage [5].

1.4 LTE/SAE Deployment Process

A typical LTE/SAE deployment largely involves the same steps as previous mobile communications network deployments. The new aspects are related to contents of the projects due to the more advanced data rates and use cases.

Figure 1.3 shows an example of the most important tasks prior to and during the LTE/SAE deployment.

Figure 1.3 An example of possible LTE deployment project phases.

In a typical LTE project, the business model is created on both the operator side and the vendor side. This dictates whether the project is feasible and if it can be carried out with the given assumptions and within the project time frame. Chapter 2 presents some high-level aspects that should be taken into account in business modeling.

The nominal plan gives a first-hand estimate about technical issues like the number of sites needed in order to meet the required capacity and quality levels of the network. The nominal plan is thus tightly related to the business plans as the amount of technical material dictates the final CAPEX and OPEX of the network, and thus influences directly the return on investment (ROI) estimates. Business and nominal planning is thus an iterative process in the most accurate type of feasibility analysis.

Trials and pilots provide important proof of concept and of the practical performance of the networks, especially in the early stages of the technologies. Even when the technology matures, prior testing of solutions is important as there are always local differences in the radio environment, use cases, and traffic profiles. Field tests typically give more accurate information about the functionality and performance of the network under realistic conditions. Prior to the field tests, a comprehensive set of laboratory tests is typically carried out as part of the system verification process. This is an essential phase of system development to ensure that new functionalities are backwards compatible with earlier solutions. For example, the interworking of LTE/SAE should be validated for functioning with the 2G and 3G networks in all use cases such as CS voice call fallback. An important part of this phase is to ensure interoperability between different vendors, according to standard requirements.

The detailed planning phase includes the final architectural plan of the network. It also involves the coverage plan, which should take into account the special characteristics of the local environment—that is, the type of area (rural, suburban, urban, or dense urban) and distribution of different cluster types. The expected traffic profiles, on the other hand, dictates the detailed capacity plan. All the relevant interfaces are dimensioned.

Rollout is the first phase in the commercial network deployment. The project typically occurs as quickly as possible, which means that a number of parallel work groups install the equipment. If reutilization of physical sites is not possible in some or all instances (as is the case for greenfield operators), the physical preparation of the site is also needed. There might be a need to build towers if renting is not a feasible option. In order to prepare the site, an important site-hunting task has to be executed. Typically, a preferred area (ring) is located based on the outcome of the detailed planning. If the preferred site location cannot be obtained due to technical or commercial issues, a modified plan is needed to seek the best available option. The modification may have a wider effect, influencing the location of neighboring sites, which means that confirmation of site locations is advisable in order to avoid modifications in the rather hectic phase of the rollout. The number of sites during this phase normally varies between a few hundred in a limited area or a small country, up to thousands for a very wide area or throughout a large country.

After the rollout, there is a more stable phase in network operation when the fine-tuning of the network begins. The optimization of network quality is one of the important tasks in this care phase of the network. Network coverage and capacity need to be extended as the traffic and the network utilization grow.

Care activities can be done either by the operator or third party, who can also be a network vendor. Care tasks include maintenance work on the network, fault management, performance monitoring, backup and restoring of the network data, inventory management, and other daily routines, in order to make sure that the network functions correctly.

Figure 1.4 summarizes the main tasks in the constructed network and in its mature phase. These tasks are executed in a parallel way during the life cycle of the network.

Figure 1.4 Example of the phases in the mature phase of the network.

As a last task of the operator, the network is ramped down at some point when new and more cost-effective technologies are available. This has already been the case for the first generation analog networks practically worldwide. Figure 1.5 presents a high-level summary of the generations of the mobile networks and their use since the existence of mobile communications.

Figure 1.5 The idea of the mobile evolution path, including LTE-Advanced.

As can be seen from Figure 1.5, the first generation of the mobile networks—the analog representatives of various systems—has already ended; for example, NMT (Nordic Mobile Telephone in Nordic countries, Switzerland, Russia), Netz C (in Germany), AMPS (in England), to mention some, have already practically disappeared due to low spectral efficiency and incompatibility between the systems. GSM, as the widest spread digital 2G mobile communications representative, together with the other 2G systems like IS-95/CDMA (in the Americas), have clearly demonstrated the market need for mobile communications. This phase is still very much ongoing due to better spectral efficiency, international compatibility, roaming, and data communications. One of the most useful novelties of 2G compared to 1G is the short message service (SMS), which has been the basis of all kinds of personal communications and service information flow.

The third-generation networks were designed to offer much higher data rates in order to deliver real multimedia content. The startup of, for example, UMTS, was slow due to the slow introduction of the handsets that really would have been considerably more useful in the multimedia or high-speed data transfer. This affected the markets—strong expectations were not met. In any case, the 3G systems with their evolution path, for example, via the HSPA (High Speed Packet Access)-capable mobiles and networks, are finally opening the doors for the multimedia era.

Long-Term Evolution, and the respective core network evolution, SAE, are more efficient in terms of the shorter waiting period at the beginning of the data transfer, and due to the plans to offer higher data rates with low latency [1]. Long-Term Evolution can be considered as part of the evolution path of the 3G systems. According to the ITU's definition, LTE represents the third generation of mobile communications. According to [2], the third generation requirements are listed in IMT-2000 while the fourth generation requirements are included in IMT-Advanced. Furthermore, the IMT-2000 technologies are defined in ITU-R recommendation M.1457, which includes, for example, LTE.

At the European Union level, the licenses in the frequency bands of 800 MHz, 2500 MHz and 3500 MHz are not tied to mobile network types. Their usage has been defined for terrestrial systems that are suitable for electrical communications services.

The utilization of the frequencies can be defined further at a national level, naturally respecting the higher level regulation of the ITU. As an example, in Finland, LTE is subject to state regulations. These allow, for example, a telecommunications company that has a right to operate a GSM network on the 880–915 MHz, 925–960 MHz, 1710–1785 MHz and 1805–1880 MHz frequency bands, to use these frequencies for the operation of the UMTS network. A telecommunications company that has a right to operate third-generation mobile communications on the 1710–1785 MHz and 1805–1880 MHz frequency bands can also use these frequencies for the provision of services via third-generation, long-term technology, that is, LTE [3].

This book contains information for the deployment of LTE/SAE networks, illustrating the most important aspects that should be taken into account in planning and deployment, as well as providing examples from different phases of the deployment process. Each LTE/SAE deployment is naturally an individual task with sometimes hard-to-estimate details, perhaps in some instances arising from techno-economical aspects. In any case, this book is meant to be a useful resource for technical personnel involved in the deployment process, and a central source of basic information as well as a source of useful references for further studies. Furthermore, the approach of this book is as practical as possible. Its main focus is on 3GPP release 8, although aspects of Release 9 and 10 are also revised in order to take the evolution path into account in the early phase of the networks.

1.5 The Contents of the Book

Long-Term Evolution and SAE are described here in such a way that the book can be used as supporting background material for LTE/SAE deployment and prior preparations. The book supports hands-on tasks when deploying and maintaining the LTE/SAE network. The book describes the principles and details of LTE/SAE, with the most relevant aspects of the functioning, planning, construction, measurements and optimization of the radio and core networks of the system. The book focuses on the practical description of LTE/SAE, LTE functionality and planning, and realistic measurements of the system. In general, the book describes points that are useful when planning and constructing the LTE/SAE network and services, and it thus completes the conceptual descriptions of the LTE/SAE found in other titles. It has been designed especially to complement the book LTE for UMTS—Evolution to LTE Advanced [4].

The contents of this book include a general view of the evolution path, network architecture, and business models, technical functioning of the system, signaling, coding, different modes for channel delivery and for ensuring security of the core and radio systems, and the in-depth planning of the core and radio networks, the field-test measurement guidelines, hands-on network planning advice, and suggestions for parameter adjustments. The book also gives an overview of the next generation LTE—LTE-Advanced—which represents the fourth generation mobile system. One of the most concrete descriptions of deployment can be found in Chapter 15, which gives guidelines on the recommended evolution paths from the previous mobile network systems towards the LTE era.

The topic is relatively new, and although various LTE books exist, they do have a rather limited focus, concentrating, for example, on the radio interface, and giving rather theoretical information on how to interpret LTE specifications and what performance we can expect from LTE networks and services. The most practical hands-on level description of end-to-end functionality, network planning and physical construction of the LTE networks is thus still lacking. This book aims to correct this need, by describing the complete picture and providing practical details with plenty of examples from the operational networks in order to serve as a handbook and guide in the planning and operational phase of the networks.

The book is modular, giving an overall description for telecom personnel who are not yet familiar with LTE, as well as more detailed and focused practical guidelines for telecom specialists. It contains an introductory module that is suitable for initial study and revision. The latter part of the book is useful for experienced professionals who may benefit from the practical descriptions of the physical core and radio network planning, end-to-end performance measurements, physical network construction and optimization of the system.

The contents of the modules is as follows. Part I presents general information about LTE and SAE, whereas modules II and III are useful for professionals who will work in the rollout of LTE/SAE deployment.

Module I (Chapters 1-5): Principles and architecture of LTE/SAE.Module II (Chapters 6-11): LTE/SAE network and functionality.Module III (Chapters 12-15): LTE/SAE planning, optimization, measurements and deployment guidelines.

The book is especially suitable for hands-on technical training for technicians and installation engineers. It can also be used in technical institutes and at university level for theoretical and laboratory training.

The contents of the book are presented in Figure 1.6 and are as follows. Chapter 1 gives a general description of LTE and SAE. Chapter 2 identifies the drivers for LTE/SAE by presenting the reasons for the development of advanced data rates. Chapter 3 gives an overview of LTE/SAE with a short guide to the standardization. The further evolution of LTE is also described in this chapter. Chapter 4 presents a practical interpretation of the standards' requirements and their effect on the network planning, deployment and optimization. Chapter 5 describes the LTE/SAE architecture, including the functional blocks, interfaces, and protocol layers. Information is also given about the hardware, software, and high-level circuit diagrams of the most important parts of the modules. Chapter 6 describes the SAE core network, together with a description of the core elements, hardware, and software. Site-specific issues and transmission are also handled here. Chapter 7 contains the LTE radio network with LTE spectrum allocations and a common-sense description of the OFDM and SC-FDMA—that is, the downlink and uplink parts of the LTE radio. Radio resource management and handovers are presented thoroughly.

Figure 1.6 The contents of the book.

Chapter 8 presents the terminals, Chapter 9 voice service, and Chapter 10 the functionality of LTE/SAE. Chapter 11 presents security-related aspects of the network and terminal. Chapter 12 presents the core—SAE—planning. Chapter 13 presents the radio—LTE—planning, with LTE link budget dimensioning examples and practical aspects of the installation. Chapter 14 describes issues related to LTE/SAE measurements, with case examples. Chapter 15 wraps up the book by presenting a practical set of recommendations for different deployment scenarios, with practical use cases and examples about network planning issues and rollout strategies.

References

1. 3GPP TS 36.101 v8.12.0. (2010) User Equipment (UE) Radio Transmission and Reception, 3rd Generation Partnership Project, Sophia-Antipolis.

2. ITU (2010) Press Release, www.itu.int/net/pressoffice/press_releases/2010/40.aspx (accessed 29 August 2011).

3. Finlex (2009) Frequency Regulation in Finland, www.finlex.fi/fi/laki/alkup/2009/20091169.29 (accessed August 2011).

4. Holma, Harri and Toskala, Antti (2011) LTE for UMTS. Evolution to LTE-Advanced, 2nd edn, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, Chichester.

5. Nokia Siemens Networks (2009) Mobile Network Statistics of Nokia Siemens Networks. Nokia Siemens Networks report.

Chapter 2

Drivers for LTE/SAE

Jyrki T. J. Penttinen

2.1 Introduction

This chapter gives an overview of the reasons for the standardization and deployment of LTE/SAE. First, a short revision of the mobile generations and their characteristics is provided. Then a short summary about the development of the data services follows.

2.2 Mobile System Generations

The use of mobile communications has grown exponentially in recent decades. The early walkie-talkie terminals that were able to provide user-controlled point-to-point radio connections for voice showed the potential of the wireless world.

Larger scale mobile communications development began when the pre-first-generation networks, sometimes referred as generation 0, were deployed. One of the first commercial radio mobile systems, Automatic Radio Phone (ARP), was brought into commercial use in Finland in 1971, after a couple of years of construction. Despite its low capacity by today's standards, it was useful enough to last 30 years in the commercial market. It functioned in the VHF band, which provided very large coverage areas per base station. It was thus especially useful for basic voice calls in all the regions of the country. This analog network was operated by Telecom Finland (nowadays knows as Telia Sonera Finland), and it had tens of thousands of customers in its peak years.

The first fully automatic mobile communications system, and also the most international variant of the first generation mobile communications network deployed at that time in Finland and other Nordic countries, was NMT 450 (Nordic Mobile Telephone, the number indicating the frequency band in MHz). It was commercialized at the beginning of 1980s, and was initially designed for a vehicular environment. Like ARP, it was meant only for an analog voice service. Later in the same decade, an advanced version was commercialized—NMT 900. This system included handheld terminals from the beginning of the launch. Later, NMT 450 was developed to support handheld devices. These systems showed for the first time the usefulness of international functionality, although still on a relatively small scale. The system was adopted later in Switzerland, Russia, and some other countries. In the 1990s, the system was even used for data connection with a separate data adapter or with a specially designed data terminal called DMR (Digital Mobile Radio). Even moving surveillance pictures could be transmitted on the road via an NMTImage solution [1]. The popularity of the system could be observed from the number of customers, which was more than ten time greater than ARP. There were various mobile networks similar to NMT in Europe, the Americas and Japan.

One of the reasons why the second-generation mobile communication systems, Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) were the most popular variant, was that they addressed a need for international roaming that had been identified. GSM was designed in the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). This generation contains more technical definitions compared to the previous systems, and as the technology in general was developing towards the digital era, the GSM system was designed to be fully digital. This provided clear advantages over analog systems, including constant voice quality and separation of the terminal and subscriber modules (Subscriber Identity Modules or SIM). Circuit-Switched (CS) data in GSM was introduced some years after the first commercial launches. It was included in the phase 2 GSM standards, which functioned at a maximum of 9.6 kbps. At the same time, the Short Message Service (SMS) became available as the networks and terminals started to support the functionality.

SMS opened the way to the ever expanding value-added services. After the initial circuit-switched data service evolution, packet-switched data came into the picture. GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) and its extension, EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution), were the arrowheads for the global wireless data development. The trend is clear—basically all the telecommunications will be based on IP. Other second-generation systems also appeared in the market, like CDMA-based IS-95.

The success story of GSM continues, and it is still being standardized in the Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). Its evolution path includes the Dual Half Rate (DHR) mode, which provides four times more voice capacity than the original full rate codec, and Downlink Dual Carrier (DLDC), which uses two separate frequencies for the downlink data channels, providing around 500–600 kbps data rates with a 5 + 5 time-slot configuration in the uplink/downlink.

The 3GPP standardization name of 2G evolution is called GERAN (GSM/GPRS/EDGE). GERAN is represented in the standardization body as one complete Technical Specification Group (TSG).

During the constantly developing standards and new versions for the network releases, produced in the Special Mobile Groups (SMGs), the limits of the GSM platform were identified. This triggered a parallel process for the development of the third-generation mobile communication system. The idea of this generation was to offer even more capacity by other radio technologies, and to provide new multimedia capabilities for the growing demand of the mobile data usage.

The standardization of the Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) was initiated in ETSI, first under the name Future Public Land Mobile Telecommunications System (FPLMTS). The standardization was moved to 3GPP along with the GSM evolution in 1999.

As in GSM, UMTS standards were created under a process of constant development, which triggers new releases on a regular basis. Development can be seen especially in the enhancement of data rates. The first theoretical UMTS data rate was 2 mbps, from which the practical top speed was a somewhat decent 384 kbps compared with today's maximum data rates. Evolving applications and customer habits required more data rates and this has been tackled by the introduction of the HSPA and HSPA+.

There has been market positioning by manufacturers and operators globally, and the division of the current and near-future radio access technologies into different generations has been somewhat confusing. It seems that the interpretation of the first (analog) and second (TDMA) generations is in accordance with practice and ITU principles, but with the evolution of the third generation it looks less clear how to name the generations.

Figure 2.1 shows the idea of the generations, interpreted from the ITU-R web pages [2–4]. Please note that the terms “3.5 G” and “3.9 G” originate from the industry and are not defined as such by ITU.

Figure 2.1 The contents of the 2G and 3G generations.

In general, current work on LTE and LTE-Advanced is considered as constituting the 4G era. This means that the mobile telecommunications industry has mostly taken the view that the performance of LTE is already within 4G. The practical explanation for this could be that LTE is, in fact, much closer to 4G than to 3G, and thus 4G has already been adopted in the marketing of LTE.