The Science of Meat Quality E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 635

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

Meat has been a long sought after source of nutrients in human diets. Its nutrient-dense composition of protein, fats, vitamins and minerals makes it an integral part to healthy and balanced diets. As demand for meat continues to increase globally, a better understanding of efficiently producing quality meat products is becoming increasingly important. The Science of Meat Quality provides comprehensive coverage of meat quality from the biological basis of muscle development to end-product-use topics such as preparation and sensory analysis. The Science of Meat Quality explores the basis of meat quality long before it hits grocery store shelves. The book opens with a look at cellular muscle tissue development, metabolism and physiology. Subsequent chapters look at topics surrounding the development of tenderness, water-holding capacity, lipid oxidation and color in meat products. The final chapters discuss producing a good-tasting end product from preparing meat to preventing food-borne illness. Each chapter contains not only the theory behind that topic, but also detailed lab methodologies for measuring each meat quality trait. The Science of Meat Quality is an essential resource and reference for animal scientists, meat scientists, food scientists, and food industry personnel. Meat has been a long sought after source of nutrients in human diets. Its nutrient-dense composition of protein, fats, vitamins and minerals makes it an integral part to healthy and balanced diets. As demand for meat continues to increase globally, a better understanding of efficiently producing quality meat products is becoming increasingly important. The Science of Meat Quality provides comprehensive coverage of meat quality from the biological basis of muscle development to end-product-use topics such as preparation and sensory analysis. The Science of Meat Quality explores the basis of meat quality long before it hits grocery store shelves. The book opens with a look at cellular muscle tissue development, metabolism and physiology. Subsequent chapters look at topics surrounding the development of tenderness, water-holding capacity, lipid oxidation and color in meat products. The final chapters discuss producing a good-tasting end product from preparing meat to preventing food-borne illness. Each chapter contains not only the theory behind that topic, but also detailed lab methodologies for measuring each meat quality trait. The Science of Meat Quality is an essential resource and reference for animal scientists, meat scientists, food scientists, and food industry personnel.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Contributors

Chapter 1: Growth of Muscle from the Myoblast to Whole Muscle

Introduction

Overview of Skeletal Muscle Development

Hyperplasia (Prenatal Muscle Development)

Hypertrophy (Postnatal Muscle Development)

Muscle Cell Culture

References

Chapter 2: Animal Growth and Empty Body Composition

Composition of the Empty Body from Birth to Harvest

Chemical Composition

Physical Separation

Magnetic Resonance Imaging

X-Ray Computed Tomography Scanning

Near-Infrared Reflectance

Total Body Electromagnetic Conductivity (TOBEC)

Dual-Energy X-Ray Absorptiometry

Video Image Analysis

40K Liquid Scintillation Counter

Dilution Techniques

Ultrasound Technology

Specific Gravity

Carcass Yields of Closely Trimmed Retail Product or Fat-Free Lean

Summary

References

Chapter 3: Muscle Structure and Cytoskeletal Proteins

Introduction

Connective Tissue

Organizational Structure of Muscle

Muscle Cell Structure

Proteins of the Muscle

Isolating Myofibrillar Proteins

References

Chapter 4: Muscle Metabolism and Contraction

Introduction

Metabolism

Muscle Contraction

Muscle Fiber Types

Fiber Typing Procedure—Combined Stain for Identifying Muscle Fiber Types

References

Chapter 5: Converting Muscle to Meat: The Physiology of Rigor

Introduction

Muscle Metabolism upon Exsanguination

Development of Meat Quality

Antemortem Factors

Postmortem Factors

Analysis of Muscle pH

Analysis of Sarcomere Length

References

Chapter 6: Meat Tenderness

Introduction

What is Tenderness?

Factors that Affect Tenderness

Measuring Tenderness

References

Chapter 7: Water-Holding Capacity of Meat

Introduction

Postmortem Muscle Metabolism and the WHC of Meat

Drip Channels and Postmortem Aging

Manipulating the WHC of Meat

Factors Influencing the WHC of Meat

Methods of Measuring the WHC of Meat

References

Chapter 8: Lipids and Lipid Oxidation

Introduction

Structure, Nomenclature, and Classification of Meat Lipids

Composition of Lipids in Meat

Extraction of Lipids

Analyses

Lipid Oxidation in Muscle Foods

Measurement of Oxidation

Procedures

References

Chapter 9: Meat Color

Introduction

Meat Color Chemistry

Deoxymyoglobin

Oxymyoglobin

Carboxymyoglobin

Metmyoglobin

Oxygen Consumption

Metmyoglobin Reduction

Deoxygenation and Subsequent Reoxygenation

Hemoglobin

Antemortem Factors Affecting Meat Color

Postmortem Factors Affecting Meat Color

Laboratory Analyses of Raw Meat Surface Color

New Developments in Color Research Using Proteomics

Conclusion

References

Chapter 10: Meat Cookery

Cooking Loss

Maillard Reaction and Flavor Impacts

Soluble and Insoluble Collagen

Cookery Methods

Cooked Color

Conclusion

References

Chapter 11: Trained Sensory Panels

Introduction and History

Trained Panels and Sensory Attributes

Panel Training

References

Chapter 12: Untrained Sensory Panels

Introduction

Testing Locations

Panel Considerations

Human Subject

Recruiting Panelists

Panel Selection

Panel Size and Replication

Sensory Methods

Discrimination Testing

Acceptance and Preference Testing

Preference Tests

Hedonic Scales

Summary

References

Chapter 13: Consumer Sensory Panels

Developing an Experimental Approach

Conducting Consumer Testing

References

Chapter 14: Preventing Foodborne Illness

Introduction

Parameters that Affect Microbial Growth

Prevention of Foodborne Illness—Processing Operations and Management Tools

Chemical Food Protection and Preservation

Physical Food Protection and Preservation

Microbial Indicators and Sampling Plans

Common Microbiological Culturing Methods

References

Index

Food Science and Technology

This edition first published 2013 © 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

The science of meat quality / edited by Chris R. Kerth, Animal Science Department, Texas A&M University, USA. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8138-1543-5 (hardback) – ISBN 978-1-118-53069-6 (epdf) – ISBN 978-1-118-53070-2 (emobi) 1. Meat–Quality. 2. Meat industry and trade–Quality control. I. Kerth, Chris R., editor of compilation. TS1955.S35 2013 641.3′6–dc23 2012040686

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Cover images: © iStock.com/Paul Kline; © iStock.com/Arthur Kwiatkowski; © iStock.com/Lauri Patterson; © iStock.com/Peter Booth; © iStock.com/Jeff Fullerton; © iStock.com/Catherine Yeulet; © iStock.com/NightAndDayImages. Cover design by Nicole Teut

Contributors

Jason K. AppleDepartment of Animal Science, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, ArkansasChristy L. BratcherDepartment of Animal Sciences, College of Agriculture, Auburn University, Auburn, AlabamaKirk W. BradenDepartment of Agriculture, Angelo State University, San Angelo, TexasTerry BrandebourgDepartment of Animal Sciences, College of Agriculture, Auburn University, Auburn, AlabamaRyan CoxDepartment of Animal Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MinnesotaPatricia C. CurtisDepartment of Poultry Science, College of Agriculture, Auburn University, Auburn, AlabamaMichael A. DavisBaker County Extension Director, University of Florida, Macclenny, FloridaMichael DikemanDepartment of Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KansasChris R. KerthDepartment of Animal Science, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Texas A&M University, College Station, TexasRichard ManciniDepartment of Animal Sciences, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Connecticut, Storrs, ConnecticutClinton RoweFood Scientist, ConAgra Foods, Omaha, NebraskaKyle WillianDepartment of Chemistry, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, Alabama

1

Growth of Muscle from the Myoblast to Whole Muscle

Terry Brandebourg

Introduction

Better understanding of the growth and development of skeletal muscle, and to a lesser extent, adipose tissue, is an important endeavor in meat science. This goal is driven by the need for the meat industry to consistently satisfy consumer demand for nutritious, high-quality, lean products in as efficient a manner as possible. Importantly, meat products are primarily derived from the skeletal muscle and associated fat of livestock.

Muscle growth, composition, and metabolism are integrally linked to meat quality through effects on yield, tenderness, and color. Typically, meat-producing animals are grown until an optimal balance between muscle mass and fattening is achieved. Upon slaughter, livestock carcasses are dressed leaving only the bones and edible muscles. Dressed carcasses are then aged in a temperature-controlled environment where biochemical processes such as glycolysis and protein degradation contribute to optimal meat quality.

Undoubtedly, advances in our understanding of factors that regulate the growth and development of muscle and the conversion of whole muscle to meat will lead to strategies that enhance meat quality. With these goals in view, this chapter will focus upon the growth of muscle from the myoblast precursor to whole muscle and upon cell culture techniques that allow these processes to be studied.

Overview of Skeletal Muscle Development

The growth of skeletal muscle can be meaningfully divided into stages by key developmental milestones. Landmarks such as conception, the maturation of the embryo (spanning the eight-cell stage through implantation), parturition, and finally, postnatal growth largely frame periods where specific mechanisms of growth contribute uniquely to muscle development. Thus, such landmarks represent useful points of reference that form a roadmap for better understanding of skeletal muscle development.

Viewed through this paradigm, skeletal muscle development can be divided roughly into two general phases of growth by parturition. Prenatal muscle development occurs primarily through increases in muscle fiber number (hyperplasia). Whereas postnatal growth of muscle is accomplished by increases in the size of preexisting muscle fibers (hypertrophy). In absence of injury, fiber number is essentially maintained during this period as very little new muscle fiber growth occurs after birth.

Alternatively, skeletal muscle development can be broken temporally into three phases of myogenesis. During early gestation, fiber number is increased via embryonic myogenesis (primary fiber formation). A second wave of fetal myogenesis (secondary fiber formation) then occurs during mid- to late-gestation. These two waves of prenatal myogenesis essentially dictate muscle fiber number in the adult. A third wave, satellite cell-related myogenesis mediates the postnatal increase in muscle fiber size that occurs in growing animals. Satellite cell fusion is also responsible for the maintenance of fiber number in the adult by facilitating the regeneration of damaged muscle fibers. Thus, an understanding of the regulation of myogenesis can largely inform all stages of skeletal muscle development (Fig. 1.1).

Figure 1.1 Roadmap for better understanding the skeletal muscle development based upon key developmental milestones. Such landmarks break development into discreet periods that are defined by unique mechanisms of muscle growth.

Types of Muscle

Three types of muscles can be distinguished structurally and physiologically in livestock. Smooth muscle is found in the walls of blood vessels, the lining of the gastrointestinal tract, uterine walls, and walls of respiratory passages. This type of muscle is innervated by the autonomic nervous system, thus its contraction is characterized by slow, but sustained contractile velocity that occurs without conscious thought. A second type of muscle, cardiac muscle, is innervated with an intrinsic nervous system unique to the heart that is specialized for generating highly controlled rhythmic contractions. Finally, skeletal muscle comprises the bulk of muscle in the body and its contraction is controlled by nerves emanating from the spinal cord. Importantly, skeletal muscle represents the primary source of meat from the carcass.

The unique and highly organized structure of skeletal muscle facilitates locomotion, a primary function of this muscle. Skeletal muscle appears striated due to the abundant expression of contractile apparatus proteins and, as discussed later, this muscle can appear reddish or whitish depending upon its fiber composition. Regardless of the anatomical location, skeletal muscles originate on a bone and terminate across the joint of another bone further away from the body's axis in such a way as to allow bones to rotate about the joint and move upon muscle contraction (Engel and Franzini-Armstrong, 2004). Muscles attach either via a tendon or upon a thin sheet of connective tissue (fascia).

Structure of Muscle

It is necessary to first appreciate the structural organization of skeletal muscle in order to understand why its development occurs as it does. The ultra-structure of the muscle cell and components of the contractile apparatus will be discussed in great detail in subsequent chapters. For now, we will focus upon the organization of the myofibril network and how this network interacts with the specialized membrane system of muscle fibers as these interactions are important for both prenatal and postnatal growth.