The Tactile Internet E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
The Tactile Internet will change the landscape of communication by introducing a new paradigm that enables the remote delivery of haptic data. This book answers the many questions surrounding the Tactile Internet, including its reference architecture and adapted compression methods for conveying haptic information. It also describes the key enablers for deploying the applications of the Tactile Internet. As an antecedent technology, the IoT is tackled, explaining the differences and similarities between the Tactile Internet, the Internet of Things and the Internet of Everything. The essentials of teleoperation systems are summarized and the challenges that face this paradigm in its implementation and deployment are also discussed. Finally, a teleoperation case study demonstrating an application of the Tactile Internet is investigated to demonstrate its functionalities, architecture and performance.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Foreword
Preface
List of Acronyms
1 Introduction to Tactile Internet
1.1. Human perception and Tactile Internet
1.2. The roadmap towards Tactile Internet
1.3. What is Tactile Internet?
1.4. Cyber-Physical Systems and TI
1.5. References
2 Reference Architecture of the Tactile Internet
2.1. Tactile Internet system architecture
2.2. IEEE 1918.1 use cases
2.3. Conclusion
2.4. References
3 Tactile Internet Key Enablers
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Conclusion
3.3. References
4 6G for Tactile Internet
4.1. Introduction
4.2. The architecture of 6G
4.3. 6G channel measurements and characteristics
4.4. 6G cellular Internet of Things
4.5. Energy self-sustainability (ESS) in 6G
4.6. IoT-integrated ultrasmart city life
4.7. AI-enabled 6G networks
4.8. AI- and ML-based security management in super IoT
4.9. Security for 6G
4.10. The WEAF Mnecosystem (water, earth, air, fire micro/nanoecosystem) with 6G and Tactile Internet
4.11. References
5 IoT, IoE and Tactile Internet
5.1. From M2M to IoT
5.2. Classification of remote monitoring and control systems
5.3. IoT-enabling technologies
5.4. Architectural design and interfaces
5.5. IoT communication protocols
5.6. Internet of Everything (IoE)
5.7. Protocol comparisons and the readiness for TI
5.8. TI-IoT models and challenges
5.9. Edge computing in the IoT
5.10. Real-time IoT and analytics versus real time in TI
5.11. From IoT towards TI
5.12. Conclusion
5.13. References
6 Telerobotics
6.1. Introduction
6.2. Teleoperation evolution to telepresence
6.3. Telepresence applications
6.4. Teleoperation system components
6.5. Architecture of bilateral teleoperation control system
6.6. Performance and transparency of telepresence systems
6.7. Other methods for time-delay mitigation
6.8. Teleoperation over the Internet
6.9. Multiple access to a teleoperation system
6.10. A use case
6.11. Conclusion
6.12. References
7 Haptic Data: Compression and Transmission Protocols
7.1. Introduction
7.2. Haptic perception
7.3. Haptic interfaces
7.4. Haptic compression
7.5. Haptic transport protocols
7.6. Multi-transport protocols
7.7. Haptic transport protocol performance metrics
7.8. Conclusion
7.9. References
8 Mapping Wireless Networked Robotics into Tactile Internet
8.1. Wireless networked robots
8.2. WNR traffic requisites
8.3. Traffic shaping and TI haptic codecs
8.4. WNRs in the Tactile Internet architecture
8.5. Conclusion
8.6. References
9 HoIP over 5G for Tactile Internet Teleoperation Application
9.1. Related works
9.2. 5G architecture design for Tactile Internet
9.3. Haptics over IP
9.4. Teleoperation case study
9.5. Simulation results
9.6. Conclusion
9.7. References
10 Issues and Challenges Facing Low Latency in the Tactile Internet
10.1. Introduction
10.2. Low latency in the Tactile Internet
10.3. Intelligence and the Tactile Internet
10.4. Edge intelligent
10.5. Open issues
10.6. Conclusion
10.7. References
List of Authors
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1.
Some haptic perception
Figure 1.2. Tactile Internet architecture. For a color version of this figure, s...
Figure 1.3. Open-loop versus closed-loop systems. For a color version of this fi...
Figure 1.4.
Tactile Internet based on cyber-physical systems
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1.
TI reference architecture of IEEE 1918.1
Figure 2.2.
Tactile Internet use cases
Figure 2.3.
Teleoperation use cases
Figure 2.4.
Internet of drones use case
Figure 2.5.
Interpersonal communication use cases
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1. 5G architecture (ETSI 2018b). For a color version of this figure, se...
Figure 3.2. 5G QoS architecture. For a color version of this figure, see www.ist...
Figure 3.3. Network slicing (Rost et al. 2017). For a color version of this figu...
Figure 3.4.
Network function visualization (NFV) architecture
Figure 3.5. Software-defined networking (SDN). For a color version of this figur...
Figure 3.6. SDN with openflow. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste....
Figure 3.7. MEC integrated with 5G. For a color version of this figure, see www....
Figure 3.8. Venn diagram of the relationship between artificial intelligence, ma...
Figure 3.9. Model-mediated architecture. For a color version of this figure, see...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1.
Timeline of development trends in mobile communication
Figure 4.2. Architecture of 6G. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste...
Figure 4.3. 6G wireless channels. Rx: receiver; Tx: transmitter. For a color ver...
Figure 4.4.
Improvement periods for satellite communications
Figure 4.5. System architecture of the 6G system. For a color version of this fi...
Figure 4.6. Multi-level architecture in 6G. For a color version of this figure, ...
Figure 4.7. AI-enabled intelligent 6G networks. For a color version of this figu...
Figure 4.8. AI/ML applications in 6G to support ultra-broadband, ultra-massive a...
Figure 4.9. Schema of vertical and horizontal MEMS-based application domains rel...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1. Three- and five-layer IoT architectures. For a color version of this...
Figure 5.2. Five-layer IoT and its equivalent OSI layers. For a color version of...
Figure 5.3.
Possible implementation of an IoT system with its main elements
.
Figure 5.4. MQTT publisher, broker and subscriber. For a color version of this f...
Figure 5.5. MQTT standard packer structure. For a color version of this figure, ...
Figure 5.6. MQTT quality of service 2. For a color version of this figure, see w...
Figure 5.7.
The structure of the CoAP protocol message header
Figure 5.8. CoAP architecture. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste....
Figure 5.9.
Data-centric versus message-centric
Figure 5.10. Architecture of a DDS protocol to connect applications systems. For...
Figure 5.11. Architecture of the OMA-DM protocol. For a color version of this fi...
Figure 5.12. People, process, things and data interactions. For a color version ...
Figure 5.13. IEEE P1918 Tactile Internet reference architecture (Holland et al. ...
Figure 5.14. Edge computing in IoT systems. For a color version of this figure, ...
Figure 5.15. SDN and VNF in the core network and the MEC access to them. For a c...
Figure 5.16. Mission-critical communication for IoT and TI (Zhang and Fitzek 201...
Figure 5.17. Communality and difference between the IoT (bottom) and the TI (top...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1. Telerobotics as first devised by Sheridan (Ferrell and Sheridan 1967...
Figure 6.2.
Different telepresence applications
Figure 6.3.
Components of a telerobotic
Figure 6.4.
Unilateral and bilateral teleoperation
Figure 6.5. Teleoperation system with the three domains with robotic arm and hap...
Figure 6.6.
Two-port model of the teleoperation system
Figure 6.7.
Mechanical model of the two-port teleoperation system
Figure 6.8. General four-channel bilateral teleoperator system architecture (Law...
Figure 6.9.
Direct force reflection architecture
Figure 6.10.
Discrete position force–force architecture
Figure 6.11. Wave variable architecture to absorb time delay in the transmission...
Figure 6.12.
Matched termination to improve wave-variable method
Figure 6.13. 4CH telerobotic system using wave theory for delay compensation (Az...
Figure 6.14. Detailed block diagram of the time-delay-compensated communication ...
Figure 6.15.
Internet stack with the network
Figure 6.16.
Variable delay representation in the network domain
Figure 6.17. Use of SIP for session management, SDP for codec and parameter nego...
Figure 6.18. SIP master to slave call with both users addressed on the same serv...
Figure 6.19. Twenty actuated DOF and a further four under-actuated movements for...
Figure 6.20. Hapex glove contains haptic feedback. Connecting to the shadow robo...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1. Piezoelectric resistance characteristic with applied pressure. For a...
Figure 7.2. Two cubes: (a) is different in its local shapes from (b) which is sm...
Figure 7.3. Thin tactile sensor technology from (https://www.tekscan.com/). For ...
Figure 7.4. Some commercially available haptic interface devices. For a color ve...
Figure 7.5. A tactile interface device: Lumen (Parkes et al. 2008). For a color ...
Figure 7.6. Working principle of a piezoresistive touch sensor (Robertson and Wa...
Figure 7.7. Parallel plate capacitor consisting of two parallel plates of area A...
Figure 7.8. Principle of optical tactile sensor (Ohka 2007). For a color version...
Figure 7.9.
Magnetic touch sensor based on Hall effect (Torres-Jara et al. 2006)
Figure 7.10. Single traction stress sensor consisting of a suspended plate/bridg...
Figure 7.11. Conversation in a video teleconferencing is two times unidirectiona...
Figure 7.12. Perceptual deadband compression. For a color version of this figure...
Figure 7.13. Multi-DoF isotropic perceptual dead band PD |, from (Kammerl 2012)....
Figure 7.14.
ALPHAN header format from Osman
et al.
(2008)
Figure 7.15.
SCTP packet format
Figure 7.16.
Communication framework (Eid
et al.
2009)
Figure 7.17. The frame of HoIP protocol (Gokhale et al. 2013). For a color versi...
Figure 7.18.
IRTP protocol header consisting of nine bytes
Figure 7.19.
BTP packet information
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1. A subset of two robots in a WNR that is used to relay the video of a...
Figure 8.2. Example of a WNR for Mobile Cellular Infrastructure inside its Missi...
Figure 8.3.
A WNR implementing the
Mobile Cellular Infrastructure scenario. The ...
Figure 8.4.
Identification of the TI infrastructure in a WNR scenario. The
remot...
Figure 8.5. Identification of TI Interfaces in a WNR scenario. Interface Tb is u...
Figure 8.6. A WNR uses aggregate Ta TI interfaces to support high-frequency sens...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1. GNC architecture. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.c...
Figure 9.2. MEC integrated with 5G. For a color version of this figure, see www....
Figure 9.3.
User and control planes of TI and 5G integration
Figure 9.4.
HoIP in the protocol stack
Figure 9.5. HoIP in the protocol stack. For a color version of this figure, see ...
Figure 9.6. Teleoperation system design. For a color version of this figure, see...
Figure 9.7. Moore FSM for E2E communication in an integrated 5G and IEEE 1918.1 ...
Figure 9.8.
User and control planes of the use case
Figure 9.9.
Simulation scenario
Figure 9.10.
IP header
Figure 9.11.
UDP header
Figure 9.12. End-to-end network architecture. For a color version of this figure...
Figure 9.13.
Delay versus number of UEs for low load (LoS and NLoS)
. For a color...
Figure 9.14. End-to-end network architecture. For a color version of this figure...
Figure 9.15. Delay versus number of UEs for high load (LoS and NLoS). For a colo...
Figure 9.16.
Throughput versus number of UEs for high load (LoS and NLoS)
. For a...
Figure 9.17. Delay versus number of UEs for LoS (low load and high load). For a ...
Figure 9.18. Delay versus number of UEs for NLoS (low load and high load). For a...
Figure 9.19.
Throughput versus number of UEs for LoS (low load and high load)
. F...
Figure 9.20.
Throughput versus number of UEs for NLoS (low load and high load)
. ...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1. MEC node-based gossip protocol. For a color version of this figure,...
Figure 10.2. Gossip protocol. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.c...
Figure 10.3. Labeling dataset using K-means clustering algorithm. For a color ve...
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1.
Physiological time constant of different human senses
Chapter 4
Table 4.1.
Comparison of 6G and 5G (Lu and Zheng 2020)
Chapter 5
Table 5.1. The matrix of IoT classification and the performance requirements (Zh...
Table 5.2.
Comparison IoT protocols
Table 5.3.
Summary of IoT-TI comparison
Chapter 7
Table 7.1. Overview of computational techniques applied to tactile sensing signa...
Table 7.2.
QoS requirement for different media streams (Kokkonis
et al. 2018)
Table 7.3.
Frame field description (Osman
et al. 2008)
Table 7.4.
HoIP frame description (Gokhale
et al.
2013)
Table 7.5.
IRTP header description
Chapter 8
Table 8.1.
WNR use case for TI features
Chapter 9
Table 9.1.
IEEE 1918.1 and 5G Mapping Functions
Table 9.2.
Table of 5G NR use case parameters
Table 9.3.
Simulation parameters
Table 9.4.
SINR versus delay and throughput for NLoS (low load – 1,400)
Table 9.5.
SINR versus delay and throughput for NLoS (high load – 4,200)
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Foreword
Preface
List of Acronyms
Begin Reading
List of Authors
Index
End User License Agreement
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SCIENCES
Networks and Communications, Field Director – Guy Pujolle
Internet, Subject Head – Stefano Secci
The Tactile Internet
Coordinated by
Tara Ali-Yahiya
Wrya Monnet
First published 2021 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd27-37 St George’s RoadLondon SW19 4EUUK
www.iste.co.uk
John Wiley Sons, Inc111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USA
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2021
The rights of Tara Ali-Yahiya and Wrya Monnet to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2021940372
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-78945-020-0
Foreword
Ian F. AKYILDIZ
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA
I, Ian F. Akyildiz, have been Ken Byers Chair Professor in Telecommunications at the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the Georgia Institute of Technology for the past 35 years. I have vast research experience in wireless communications and many research contributions, including IoT and wireless sensor networks. My h-index is 127 and the total number of citations is 122+K according to Google Scholar as of January 2021. Dr. Tara Ali-Yahiya, Associate Professor at the University of Paris Saclay, and Dr. Wrya Monnet, Assistant Professor at the University of Kurdistan Hewlêr, have been active in this research field for many years. They have introduced this book as an initiative to explain the Tactile Internet to a wide audience in a simple and clear manner.
The Tactile Internet is envisaged to change not only the landscape of network communication but also the lifestyle of society socially and economically. The huge number of use cases introduced by this concept would play a major role towards shaping our imagination for delivering not only data but also skills through the Internet from a source to a remote destination.
This book provides an introduction to the Tactile Internet and its case studies, with its impact on the democratization of haptic applications based on the IEEE 1918.1 standard through teleoperations. The case studies are based on cutting-edge technologies that enable the deployment of the Tactile Internet. 5G, and recently 6G, Software-Defined Networking, the different learning techniques in the artificial intelligence domain, edge computing for service proximity, etc. are all factors that will support the successful deployment of the Tactile Internet. This book is a solid contribution to this research area.
May 2021
Preface
Tara ALI-YAHIYA1 and Wrya MONNET2
1 Department of Computer Science, University of Paris-Saclay, France
2 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, University of Kurdistan Hewlêr, Erbil, Iraq
This book attempts to provide an extensive overview on the Tactile Internet paradigm, which is considered to be the focus of interest around which all the cutting-edge technologies are centered. This is due to its wide applications and use cases that would change our lifestyle. This book is purposely written to appeal to a broad audience and to be of value to anyone who is interested in the Tactile Internet. The audience can be in any domain of computer science, communication and networking. The aim of this book is to offer comprehensive coverage of current state-of-the-art theoretical and technological aspects of the Tactile Internet. The presentation starts from basic principles and proceeds smoothly to more advanced topics. The schemes provided are developed and oriented in the context of very actual closed standards, i.e. IEEE 1918.1.
Organization of this book
This book is organized to follow a methodology of writing depending on how the Tactile Internet is tackled based on the level of difficulty that the audience can face while reading. Hence, we preferred to begin this book with a brief introduction of the tactile concept and its relationship with the Tactile Internet paradigm through cyber-physical systems in Chapter 1. Then, we introduce the architecture of the Tactile Internet from a technical point of view relying mainly on the IEEE 1918.1 standard in Chapter 2. Chapter 3 explains how the success of Tactile Internet deployment relies on different communications technologies, the concept of virtualization and the centralization of intelligence in some parts of the paradigm. These are called key enablers, which will decide the level of success of the Tactile Internet and its use cases. Chapter 4 tackles the 6th Generation of wireless network and its role in boosting the Tactile Internet by adding more intelligence at different levels of the paradigm.
In Chapter 5, IoT technology is reviewed and analyzed, emphasizing its architecture and communication protocols to prepare a background for comparison with the Tactile Internet, both the differences and similarities between them. This chapter attempts to clarify whether the Tactile Internet is an evolution of the IoT or a completely different paradigm. The Internet of Everything (IoE) is also introduced. Its components and differences with the IoT are explained. Later, in Chapter 6, a historical review of telerobotic, teleoperation and telepresence is presented before entering into a detailed explanation of the components and different architectures of teleoperation systems. The two-port system analysis is applied to assess the stability and transparency, which are the performance metrics of the system. A model of a discrete architecture of the teleoperation system is given. The use of the Internet as the medium network for the teleoperation system is presented along with a session initiation protocol to establish a teleoperation session. Finally, a use case of a teleoperation system over the Internet, using two commercial components, is presented. The characteristics and transmission of the haptic data over the Internet are presented in Chapter 7. In this chapter, the perception of haptics in robots is explained: the material, shape and pose recognition. A list of sensor devices for haptic information is given along with their working principles. These are used to build haptic interfaces, where some of the commercial haptic interfaces are also listed. Methods of compression of haptic information for better utilization of the transmission bandwidth is also given in this chapter. The transport protocols of the compressed information are then listed with their properties and conveniences for haptic information communication.
Chapter 8 introduces Wireless Networked Robots and then maps their characteristics, scenarios, and traffic types to the Tactile Internet use cases.
Chapter 9 studies the performance of a teleoperation case study that supports the IEEE 1918.1 architecture while taking 5G as a main transport network. The teleoperation case study investigated the quality of service guarantee for the mission-critical application that requires stringent end-to-end delay. Chapter 10 determines how delay plays a big role in the stability of different types of Tactile Internet applications with the ultra-low latency requirement. It discusses the factors that have an impact on the latency and the recent research work on this subject.
May 2021
List of Acronyms
3GPP
Third-Generation Partnership Project
4G
Fourth Generation
5G
Fifth Generation
6G
Sixth Generation
A2G
Air-to-Ground
AC
Actor Critic
ADMUX
Adaptive Multiplexer for Haptic–Audio–Visual Data Communication
ADSL
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
AI
Artificial Intelligence
AirComp
Air Computation
ALPHAN
Application Layer Protocol for Haptic Networking
AMC
Adaptive Modulation and Coding
AP
Access Point
AR
Auto Regressive
ARMA
Auto Regressive Moving Average
ASIC
Application-Specific Integrated Circuit
ATM
Automated Teller Machine
BBUs
Baseband Units
BCI
Brain–Computer Interaction
BS
Base Station
C-RANs
Cloud Radio Access Networks
CA
Carrier Aggregation
CDF
Cumulative Distribution Function
CDMA
Code Division Multiple Access
CFmMIMO
Cell-Free massive Multiple-Input Multiple-Output
CI
Communication Infrastructure
CMOS
Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor
CN
Core Network
CNN
Convolutional Neural Network
CoAP
Constrained Application Protocol
CPP
Control Plane Protocol
CPS
Cyber-Physical Systems
CPU
Central Processing Unit
CSI
Channel State Information
CSMA-CA
Carrier-Sense-Multiple-Access with Collision Avoidance
D2D
Device-to-Device
DCF
Distributed Coordination Function
DCT
Discrete Cosine Transform
DDoS
Distributed Denial of Service
DDS
Data Distribution Service
DNN
Deep Neural Network
DoF
Degree of Freedom
DoS
Denial of Service
DPCM
Differential Pulse Code Modulation
DT
Decision Tree
DTLS
Datagram Transport Layer Security
E2E
End-to-End delay
EC
Edge Computing
EH
Energy Harvesting
eMBB
Enhanced Mobile Broadband
eNodeB
Evolved Node Base
ESA
European Space Agency
ESS
Energy Self-Sustainability
ETP
Efficient Transport Protocol
FiWi
Fiber-Wireless
FPGA
Field Programmable Gate Array
FSM
Finite State Machine
Gbps
Gigabit-per-second
GEO
Geostationary Earth Orbit
GS
Ground Station
GSM
Global System for Mobile communications
GTP
GPRS Tunneling Protocol
H2M
Human-to-Machine
HARQ
Hybrid Automatic Repeated Request
HART
Human–Agent–Robot Teamwork
HEO
High Earth Orbit
HoIP
Haptic over IP
HPC
High Performance Computing
HW
Hardware
IAT
Inter-Arrival Time
IC
Integrated Circuit
ICT
Information and Communication Technologies
IDC
International Data Corporation
IDE
Integrated Development Environment
IEEE
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IoDs
IoT Devices
IoE
Internet of Everything
IoT
Internet of Things
IP
Internet Protocol
IPG
Inter-Packet Gap
IR
Infrared
IRTP
Interactive Real-Time Protocol
ISOMAP
ISOmetric MAPping
ITP
Interoperable Telesurgical Protocol
IVR
Immersive Virtual Reality
IW
IndicationWeights
JND
Just Noticeable Difference
KNN
K-Nearest Neighbors
KPI
Key Performance Indicator
KPPS
K Packets Per Second
LAN
Local Area Network
LEO
Low Earth Orbit
LNAs
Low Noise Amplifiers
LoS
Line of Sight
LSTM
Long Short-Term Memory
LTE
Long-Term Evolution
LTI
Linear Time Invariant
M2M
Machine-to-Machine
MA
Moving Average
MAC
Medium Access Control
MBSs
Macro Base Stations
MC-IoT
Mission-Critical Internet of Things
MDP
Markov Decision Process
MEC
Mobile Edge Computing
MEMS
Microelectromechanical Systems
MEO
Medium Earth Orbit
MIMO
Multiple-Input Multiple-Output
mMTC
massive Machine-Type Communications
mmWave
millimeter-Wave
MQTT
Message Queuing Telemetry Transport
MRB
Multi-aRmed Bandit
MTU
Maximum Transmission Unit
NAS
Non-Access Stratum
NFV
Network Function Virtualizing
NLoS
Non-Line of Sight
NOMA
Non-orthogonal Multiple Access
NR
New Radio
NS2
Network Simulator-2
NS3
Network Simulator-3
OFDM
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OMA
Orthogonal Multiple Access
OMA-DM
Open Mobile Alliance Device Management
PA
Power Amplifiers
PAHCP
Perception-based Adaptive Haptic Communication Protocol
PCA
Principal Component Analysis
PD
Perceptual Dead-band
Probability Density Function
PDU
Protocol Data Units
PES
Packetized Elementary Streams
PF-PF
Position–Force-Position–Force
PGW
Packet Gateway
PHY
Physical Layers
PID
Proportional–Integral–Derivative
QoE
Quality of Experience
QoL
Quality of Life
QoS
Quality of Service
R-RA
Radio Resource Allocation
RA
Resource Allocation
RAN
Radio Access Network
RB
Resource Blocks
REST
Representational State Transfer
RF
Radio Frequency
RFID
Radio Frequency Identification
RIS
Reconfigurable Intelligent Surface
RL
Reinforcement Learning
RMS
Root-Mean-Square
RNC
Radio Network Controllers
RNN
Recurrent Neural Network
RRHs
Remote Radio Heads
RTCP
Real-Time Control Protocol
RTNP
Real-Time Network Protocol
RTP
Real-Time Protocol
RTP/I
Real-Time Application Level Protocol for Distributed Interactive Media
RTT
Round Trip Time
SCADA
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition
SCTP
Synchronous Collaboration Transport Protocol
SDN
Software-Defined Networking
SDU
Service Data Unit
SE
Spectral Efficiency
SGW
Service Gateway
SINR
Signal-to-Interference-plus-Noise Ratio
SIP
Session Initiation Protocol
SLA
Service Level Agreement
SMAC
Social, Mobile, Analytics and Cloud
SNR
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
SPI
Service Plugin Interface
SRC
Semiconductor Research Consortium
SSB
Synchronization Signal Block
STRON
Supermedia Transport for teleoperations over Overlay Networks
SVM
Support Vector Machine
SVR
Support Vector Regression
SW
Software
SWIPT
Simultaneous Wireless Information and Power Transfer
TCP
Transmission Control Protocol
TDD
Time Division Duplex
THz
Terahertz
TI
Tactile Internet
TTI
Transmission Time Interval
UAV
Unmanned Aerial Vehicle
UDP
User Datagram Protocol
UE
User Equipment
UM-MIMO
Ultra-Massive Multiple-Input Multiple-Output
URLLC
Ultra-Reliable Low Latency Communication
USV
Unmanned Surface Vehicle
V2X
Vehicle-to-Everything
VLC
Visible Light Communication
VR/AR
Virtual Reality/Augmented Reality
WET
Wireless Energy Transfer
WG
Working Group
WiFi
Integrated Fiber-Wireless
WLAN
Wireless Local Area Network
WNR
Wireless Networked Robots
WPAN
Wireless Personal Area Network
WPT
Wireless Power Transfer
WSN
Wireless Sensor Network
WTI
Wireless Tactile Internet
1Introduction to Tactile Internet
Tara ALI-YAHIYA
Department of Computer Science, University of Paris-Saclay, France
In broad terms, the Tactile Internet (TI) can be referred to as the interaction between humans and cyber-physical systems by dropping off the distance and ensuring a communication of the order of few milliseconds. Consequently, this would give the illusion that the remote system is too close, while ensuring that the interaction is occurring in a smooth manner. The TI envisions an extremely low latency along with high availability, reliability and +security that will not only revolutionize the technology market, but will also have a high impact on the lifestyle of people, society and business in terms of the vertical industry, according to the definition from the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) (ITU 2014).
However, the TI is viewed as a result of a sequence of cumulative cutting-edge technologies that witnessed great success. These technologies may be considered as the foundation upon which the TI is built. These technologies may include, but are not limited to, diver paradigms in mobile and wireless networks, cloud computing, smart computing, Internet of Things (IoT) and robotics. As a result, the TI can be viewed as the fruit of a multi-disciplinary domain, which has contributed to its progress through various engineering approaches and computational methods to make it function properly.
As a matter of fact, the TI’s mode of functioning is tightly linked to the human–machine interaction. Here, the human perception of system operation has a significant impact on the TI’s overall performance. We start this chapter by describing the relationship between the human perception of things with regard to the TI and then present an overview on the initiation of the TI, and all of the technologies assisted in its emergence. The objective is to introduce the necessary background and context for understating the TI and its main functionalities.
1.1. Human perception and Tactile Internet
Before getting in depth into the TI paradigm, it is essential to understand its impact on bringing changes to society. In fact, the TI introduced a new disruptive type of data, denoted by haptic data. The haptic data is related more to the human perception of objects through its sensory nervous system. In simple words, the TI proposes to transmit haptic data through the Internet, while the technological background behind this paradigm is more sophisticated and may involve multidisciplinary domains to deploy it and make it work properly. It is common that human haptic systems can perceive close objects through tactile and kinesthetic sensing. What if the objects are located in a remote environment? How can humans touch them and know their nature and properties? How can humans move, rotate and change the position of these objects remotely?
To address these issues, it is noteworthy to be able to recognize the type of haptic data from other types of data which are well-known in the world of Internet. Mainly, haptic data can involve kinesthetic and tactile perceptions, as shown in Figure 1.1. The kinesthetic perception refers to the information that is gathered by the mechanoreceptors located within joint capsular tissues, ligaments, tendons, muscles and skin. Once gathered, the feedback about the position, velocity, angular velocity, force and torque will be treated by the human body. Here, the feedback means the interaction of the human body with the kinesthetic perception, without the use of other senses.
If the kinesthetic is technically interpreted within the context of the human system interaction in the TI, then telesurgery through robots and teleoperation are the best examples to demonstrate it, as the contexts involve human-in-the-loop. This is when the communication and control mechanisms are under the control of humans and require feedback from the distant environment to close the global loop. The effect is represented by sending information about the position, force and movement, so that the robot on the other edge gets instructions to react accordingly. In turn, the robot would send feedback to the human on the other side of the world to assure the continuity of the process. Such feedback is called closed-feedback as it needs to be closed through the information control sent by the distant operator to the human. Certainly, the kinesthetic feedback and a combination of the auditory and visionary give a real human perception, in order to control the operator.
As for tactile information, the mechanoreceptors of the human skin sense various physical information from the environment; this is mainly related to the sense of touch by fingers. Here, tactile feedback can be interpreted by the physical response on an object, from the user input. The user input can be pressing, lifting, touching, etc., and the feedback can be denoted by friction, hardness or warmth that can be felt by the human. The killer application of tactile feedback is in virtual reality and augmented reality, which enable users to physically interact with virtual objects and sense the nature of the objects, locally or remotely. Note that the TI should not be confused with tactile data.
As a matter of fact, kinesthetic and tactile data are new to the Internet and their traffic behavior can vary from low rates to a huge amount of data that can be regulated for transmission through compression and codec techniques. The nature of the feedback determines reaction time of the human, and varies from 1 ms, 10 ms, 100 ms depending on how critical the application is and whether the sensory system of a human is being prepared for that reaction or not. The reaction time is different and the reaction itself can be auditory, visual or a sudden muscular movement. The human perception is complex and requires all of the senses (not only haptic), in order to interact with the surrounding objects. This is why the TI should translate all of these senses and feelings through a whole process of compression, coder/decoder, transmission mechanisms and technology of communication through different use cases.
Figure 1.1. Some haptic perception
Table 1.1. Physiological time constant of different human senses
Human sense
Time constant
Muscular interactionAuditory interactionVisual interactionTactile interaction
1 ms100 ms10 ms1 ms
1.2. The roadmap towards Tactile Internet
The telecommunication/information and communication technology (ICT) has witnessed fast developments that have paved the way for the TI. The rapid growth of the Internet demonstrated how investment and commitment to research restructured the shape of communication, using fixed infrastructure to connect people, then deploying wireless and mobile infrastructure to have a ubiquitous service anywhere anytime, and connecting different objects to the Internet. Further, the stakeholders implicated in the communication started to vary and take different forms; as mentioned earlier, the communication was restricted to humans only. In addition to human-to-human communication, human-to-machine and machine-to-machine communications came forward.
The technological evolution was beyond the Internet, starting from the time when circuit switching and packet switching appeared. A combination of technological, social and commercial components can be the reason behind the evolution of the infrastructure and services provided to end-users today. The first and/or last mile took different shapes from the perspective of the Internet Service Provider (ISP), bringing the Internet Service to users through the use of the fixed cable-based technology, such as Fiber Optics (FO) and copper telephone lines.
The first or the last mile can currently be offered by wireless and mobile communications, through telecommunication operators. The ubiquitous connectivity is characterized by the employment of mobile and wireless networks, regardless of the technological standardization family, i.e., Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) or the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP). The most recent one is the Fifth Generation (5G) network, which is expected to be the key technology for enabling the deployment of the TI, through its new core network that is service-oriented, depending on the requirement of the users. This would be the first step towards customizing 5G to adapt to the new services introduced by the TI.
As a part of the history of communication, the IoT represented by the machine-to-machine communication is one of the considerable advancements. It encompasses the connectivity of millions of devices to the Internet. The devices can be of any type, but their core mission is to collect data from the environment where they are deployed and send it to the Internet. To process and analyze the generated data, cloud computing through its computing and storage infrastructure for handling this issue would be the best backing paradigm.
The TI can bring all of the technologies of communication and the computing and storage paradigms together to support the transmission of the new haptic data through the Internet. The TI can be considered as the capstone that completes the missing piece of the construction; this is due to the fact that the TI needs to be supported by the efficient technology of communication.
Despite the big transition that occurred in communication technology, i.e. from wired to wireless, the Internet has changed our interaction with the world. For example, from the point of view of User Centered Design (UCD), all of the efforts were spent providing the services of the Internet, while taking user experience into consideration. In the early days, the interaction with information was expressed through the rapidity of retrieving it, the easiness of exchanging it and the tools for searching it and creating it, through the collaborative work of spatially distant actors. While dealing with objects in the IoT, there is a dematerialization of the physical world. Sensors are used to measure the attributes of the real world and actuators are used to collect them. This requires a transfer of data over a network without human-to-human or human-to-machine interaction.
With the newly proposed TI, the human can interact with the machine through the Internet with a return of experience. The major difference between the IoT and the TI is that in the TI, the human is at the center of control; this is why its physiology, represented by the sensor systems of the body, and its psychology, represented by how the user perceives its experience, are crucial. All of the services provided by the TI should ensure that the user has a high Quality of Experience (QoE), so that the interaction between human and machine can be as smooth as possible.
1.3. What is Tactile Internet?
The progress in the development of the access networks, core networks and backbone networks did not happen without the progress of the type of traffic and services provided by the Internet. This may not only require physical changes in the network, but also the introduction of new functionalities and mechanisms that ensure the delivery of the service in an optimal way. If we consider the current traffic recognized by the Internet, we can classify them into video, audio and data. Regardless of the diverse types of applications and services that have appeared over time, the type of traffic did not evolve that much. The introduction of haptic data to the Internet, through the different applications, resulted in innovating the mechanisms dealing with this type of data, in order to transport it through the Internet without any difficulty, as the Internet is not ready to process haptic data yet. Thus, the TI is defined by the IEEE 1918.1 as “a network, or network of networks, for remotely accessing, perceiving, manipulating or controlling real or virtual objects or processes in perceived real time, by humans or machines” is expected to shift the paradigm of the Internet from content delivery to skill delivery (Aijaz et al. 2018).
Recently, the IEEE P1918.1 working group started to define the framework, application scenarios and technical concerns. Specifically, the new applications supported by the TI are Industry X.0, Automotive, E-Healthcare, which include a wide range of use cases that may require stringent Quality of Service (QoS), depending on whether they are time critical or not. A simplified architecture of the TI can be shown in Figure 1.2, where three important parts can be identified: the master domain, which is responsible for generating tactile and kinesthetic data; the network domain, which transports the haptic data through the different networks using packets, specifically the access network, core network and the Internet; and finally, the slave domain, where the data will be received and may be processed.
Figure 1.2. Tactile Internet architecture. For a color version of this figure, see www.iste.co.uk/ali-yahiya/tactile.zip
The TI is explicitly based on the local action in the master domain and the distant reaction in the slave domain, and vice versa. For this purpose, the TI can be keenly combined with the IoT, as sensors can be deployed in both domains to sense and actuate data (Fettweis 2014). We can imagine a robot in the slave domain that palpates a patient through the touch of a remote doctor in the master domain; the palpitation of the robot is controlled by sensorial gloves worn by the doctor to feel the body of the patient.
Haptic communication is an essential foundation of the TI. As the haptic devices permit the users to feel, touch and manipulate things over real and virtual fields, the transmission of haptic information is the main issue in the context of the TI, as finding a suitable haptic codec is a challenging issue for transmission over the Internet. Besides, a haptic codec may take other kinds of data into consideration, such as video and audio traffic that may be multiplexed with haptic data for compression and transmission over the same physical network.
The TI cannot come to light without close collaboration among telecommunication engineers, computer scientists and mechanical engineers. The telecommunication engineer should provide a suitable haptic communication with high reliability, while artificial intelligence (AI) is needed to improve the human–machine interaction, which is the basis of the TI. Mechanical engineers are needed to build the robots that interact with haptic instructions and achieve the specified task. To this end, the TI is also called the Internet of Skills, since haptic data can implicitly transfer a skill through the movement of hands, such as teaching a child to play the piano from the other side of the world, diagnosing a patient using a distant doctor, or practicing a chirurgical operation through a robot.
1.4. Cyber-Physical Systems and TI
The TI is fulfilling the requirements of the Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), which were designed based on the interaction between hardware and software, including all of the algorithms and intelligent decisions to be taken in the system, in addition to the connectivity among these elements. In brief, it refers to the interaction between the real world and the information technology that designates the TI as a perfect candidate for CPS.
The matching between the TI and CPS is shown in Figure 1.4. In the following, we explain the components of the TI, by detailing all of the elements that constitute the TI: physical world, smart computing, Internet of Things, storage and computation, communication and feedback.
1.4.1. Physical world
The interaction of the TI with the physical world occurs through different use cases that share a common characteristic, which is characterized by controlling an object in a remote environment through the network. The use cases can include applications in the industry, especially in: automation; healthcare, represented by telesurgery and teleoperation where robotics are at the core of control process; virtual and augmented reality, with all of its different applications; gaming and entertainment and any application that makes the notion of smart cities viable, such as road traffic management using the cooperative driving of autonomous vehicles, smart management of resources, etc.
1.4.2. Internet of Things
IoT can be considered as an object with embedded sensors that collects data through sensing and actuating, which is then sent through the Internet to a predefined destination, in order to analyze it and make decisions in real-time or non-real-time, depending on the type of application. There is a variety of devices, software and communication protocols used to support the IoT functionalities. These functionalities should be carried out in an autonomous way, without human intervention. The TI is sometimes considered as an extension of IoT in a very large scale. This is due to the architecture of the TI, which incorporates IoT in both domains, while using 5G as the network domain. As a part of CPS, the interaction with the physical world in the TI is done through the IoT, which feeds the domains with several kinds of data.
1.4.3. Communication
The communication between the master and slave domains in the TI will play a great role in assuring the continuity of service between the master and slave domains.
