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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
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- Sprache: Englisch
Addresses threats to homeland security from terrorism and emergency management from natural disasters
Threats to Homeland Security, Second Edition examines the foundations of today's security environment, from broader national security perspectives to specific homeland security interests and concerns. It covers what we protect, how we protect it, and what we protect it from. In addition, the book examines threats from both an international perspective (state vs non-state actors as well as kinds of threat capabilities—from cyber-terrorism to weapons of mass destruction) and from a national perspective (sources of domestic terrorism and future technological challenges, due to globalization and an increasingly interconnected world).
This new edition of Threats to Homeland Security updates previous chapters and provides new chapters focusing on new threats to homeland security today, such as the growing nexus between crime and terrorism, domestic and international intelligence collection, critical infrastructure and technology, and homeland security planning and resources—as well as the need to reassess the all-hazards dimension of homeland security from a resource and management perspective.
- Features new chapters on homeland security intelligence, crime and domestic terrorism, critical infrastructure protection, and resource management
- Provides a broader context for assessing threats to homeland security from the all-hazards perspective, to include terrorism and natural disasters
- Examines potential targets at home and abroad
- Includes a comprehensive overview of U.S. policy, strategy, and technologies for preventing and countering terrorism
- Includes self-assessment areas, key terms, summary questions, and application exercises. On-line content includes PPT lessons for each chapter and a solutions key for academic adopters
Threats to Homeland Security, Second Edition is an excellent introductory text on homeland security for educators, as well as a good source of training for professionals in a number of homeland security-related disciplines.
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Table of Contents
COVER
TITLE PAGE
NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE
1 THE CHANGING NATURE OF NATIONAL SECURITY
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Foundations of American Security Policy
1.2 Security in the Cold War Era
1.3 Security in the Post‐Cold War Era: Pre‐9/11
1.4 National Security and Terrorism: Post‐9/11
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
YOU TRY IT
2 REASSESSING THE ALL‐HAZARDS PERSPECTIVE
INTRODUCTION
2.1 Natural Disasters: Things We Can Expect to Happen
2.2 Accidental Hazards: Things We Can Try to Prevent
2.3 Man‐Made Hazards: Things We Hope Don’t Happen
2.4 Reassessing the All‐Hazards Perspective and Disasters
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
YOU TRY IT
3 US HOMELAND SECURITY INTERESTS
INTRODUCTION
3.1 What Is Homeland Security?
3.2 Additional Context for Homeland Security
3.3 Homeland Security Enterprise
3.4 Revisiting the All‐Hazards Approach
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
YOU TRY IT
4 UNDERSTANDING THREAT ASSESSMENTS
INTRODUCTION
4.1 Background on Threat Assessments and Risk Management
4.2 A General Framework of Analysis: What to Assess
4.3 A Matrix Approach: How to Assess
4.4 The Whole‐Community Approach of the National Preparedness System
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
YOU TRY IT
5 CRITICAL INFRASTRUCTURE SECURITY, EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS, AND OPERATIONAL CONTINUITY
INTRODUCTION
5.1 Defining Critical Infrastructure
5.2 Known Threats to Critical Infrastructure
5.3 Risk Identification, Analysis, and Management
5.4 Emergency Operations and Continuity of Planning
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
YOU TRY IT
6 STATE ACTORS AND TERRORISM
INTRODUCTION
6.1 Defining Terrorism and Other Forms of Collective Violence
6.2 Contemporary State Sponsors of Terrorism
6.3 International and Domestic Responses to State‐Sponsored Terror
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
YOU TRY IT
7 NON‐STATE ACTORS AND TERRORISM
INTRODUCTION
7.1 Explaining the Different Types of Non‐state Actors
7.2 Non‐state Terrorism as a Security Threat
7.3 The Typology of Violent Non‐state Actors
7.4 Methods of Non‐state Violence
7.5 International Strategies for Countering Non‐state Violence
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
YOU TRY IT
8 CYBER‐CRIME, CYBER‐TERRORISM, AND CYBER‐WARFARE
INTRODUCTION
8.1 The Cyber Threat
8.2 Assessing Capability and Intent
8.3 Assessing Consequences
8.4 Determining Defenses against Cyber‐Crime, Cyber‐Terrorism, and Cyber‐Warfare
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
YOU TRY IT
9 WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION AND DISRUPTION
INTRODUCTION
9.1 Chemical Weapons and Their Consequences
9.2 Biological Weapons and Their Consequences
9.3 Nuclear and Radiological Weapons and Their Consequences
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
YOU TRY IT
10 DOMESTIC TERRORISM
INTRODUCTION
10.1 Terrorism in the United States: Across Time and Space
10.2 Homegrown “Leaderless Resistance” and Foreign Terrorists
10.3 Crime and Terrorism
10.4 The US Domestic Response to Terrorism
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
YOU TRY IT
11 ENABLERS OF MASS EFFECTS
INTRODUCTION
11.1 The Power of Information and Ideas
11.2 Media and Terrorism
11.3 The Role of Educational Institutions
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
YOU TRY IT
12 HOMELAND SECURITY INTELLIGENCE
INTRODUCTION
12.1 Intelligence and Homeland Security
12.2 The Structure of Intelligence Organizations
12.3 Methods of Collecting Intelligence Information
12.4 Challenges to Homeland Security Intelligence
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
YOU TRY IT
13 HOMELAND SECURITY PLANNING AND RESOURCES
INTRODUCTION
13.1 Basics of Homeland Security Planning
13.2 Coordinating Homeland Security Planning
13.3 The Logic Model: A Process Framework to Visually Demonstrate the Performance Measurement Process
13.4 Education in Homeland Security
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
YOU TRY IT
REFERENCES
INDEX
END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
List of Tables
Chapter 01
Table 1‐1: Approximations of NATO versus Warsaw Pact Military Power—Contrasting Views
Chapter 03
Table 3‐1: State Homeland Security Structures
Chapter 05
Table 5‐1: Critical Infrastructure Sectors
Chapter 09
Table 9‐1: Biological Agents
Table 9‐2: Signs and Symptoms of Radiation Sickness
Table 9‐3: 2016 Estimated Global Nuclear Warhead Inventories
List of Illustrations
Chapter 01
Figure 1‐1 The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in the Western Hemisphere (Charles Green Bush, 1842–1909). Uncle Sam—“What Particular Country Threatens Us, Theodore?,” March 12, 1905,
New York World
.
Figure 1‐2 The European context of the Cold War.
Figure 1‐3 Global War on terrorism medal.
Chapter 02
Figure 2‐1 New Madrid Fault Line and major population centers (Williams 2009).
Figure 2‐2 Forty‐third Civil Support Team conducting HAZMAT training in March 2017 in Myrtle Beach, SC.
Figure 2‐3 St. Francis Dam disaster 1928.
Chapter 03
Figure 3‐1 Homeland security traditions (EKU 2017).
Figure 3‐2 Hurricane Katrina flooding in New Orleans.
Figure 3‐3 9/11 Commission presents findings in 2004 (National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States 2004).
Figure 3‐4 View of New York City’s Lower Manhattan.
Figure 3‐5 Coastal area regional economies (US Department of Commerce 2017).
Figure 3‐6 US Coast Guard response training (US Department of Homeland Security 2012).
Figure 3‐7 Security at the Port of Los Angeles (Port of Los Angeles 2017).
Figure 3‐8 Florida Army National Guard logistical support.
Figure 3‐9 Humane Society caring for pets following disaster.
Chapter 04
Figure 4‐1 The disaster impact process.
Figure 4‐2 The risk matrix process.
Figure 4‐3 A risk matrix.
Figure 4‐4 A CEI analysis.
Figure 4‐5 The vulnerability assessment process (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 2006).
Figure 4‐6 The THIRA process (US Department of Homeland Security 2013b, 2).
Figure 4‐7 Steps in the THIRA process (Federal Emergency Management Agency 2013c).
Figure 4‐8 Risk elements by national preparedness mission areas (US Department of Homeland Security 2013a, 19).
Figure 4‐9 JFO structure for terrorist attacks (Federal Emergency Management Agency 2008).
Chapter 05
Figure 5‐1 Hoover Dam, Lake Mead National Recreation Area, Nevada.
Chapter 08
Figure 8‐1 Types of cyber threats (Kilroy 2008).
Figure 8‐2 Cyber Security Framework.
Figure 8‐3 Department of Defense Cyber Protection Team.
Chapter 09
Figure 9‐1 View of the sarcophagus surrounding the reactor at Chernobyl, Ukraine, on the 20th anniversary of the disaster in 2006.
Chapter 11
Figure 11‐1 Inglehart–Welzel cultural map.
Chapter 12
Figure 12‐1 Intelligence cycle (CIA 2012, 39).
Figure 12‐2 NSA Bumblehive Utah Data Center.
Figure 12‐3 US Intelligence Community (DNI 2011).
Figure 12‐4 Relationship between IC and homeland security intelligence.
Figure 12‐5 Intelligence collaboration mechanisms.
Figure 12‐6 Arizona Fusion Center (FBI 2009).
Figure 12‐7 US Customs and Border Protection MQ‐9 Predator B UAVs (USCBP n.d.).
Figure 12‐8 Infrared imagery of a ship at sea (US Navy 2006).
Chapter 13
Figure 13‐1 Six‐step planning process.
Figure 13‐2 Logic model.
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
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Threats to Homeland Security:
Reassessing the All‐Hazards Perspective
SECOND EDITION
Edited by
Richard J. Kilroy, Jr.
Department of PoliticsCoastal Carolina UniversityConway, SC, USA
This second edition first published 2018© 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Edition HistoryJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1e, 2008)
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Kilroy, Richard J., Jr., editor.Title: Threats to homeland security : reassessing the all hazards perspective / edited by Richard J. Kilroy, Jr., Coastal Carolina University.Description: Second Edition. | Hoboken, New Jersey : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., [2018] | First Edition: 2008. | Includes index. |Identifiers: LCCN 2017049073 (print) | LCCN 2017054834 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119251965 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119251989 (epub) | ISBN 9781119251811 (Paper)Subjects: LCSH: Terrorism–United States–Prevention. | National security–United States. | Civil defense–United States. | Emergency management–United States.Classification: LCC HV6432 (ebook) | LCC HV6432 .T568 2018 (print) | DDC 363.3250973–dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017049073
Cover design by Concept courtesy of Maggy Kilroy, Suss CreativeCover image: Background: Courtesy of NOAA; Chessboard © Rafe Swan/Gettyimages (Chess pieces) Army man © 4×6/Gettyimages Ship, Courtesy of the U.S. Coast Guard Terrorists, Iraqi insurgents with guns, 2006 by is licensed under CC BY‐SA Gas mask by Rodrix Paredes is licensed under CC BY Red Cross truck, Photo by George Armstrong ‐ Apr 30, 2011 ‐ Location: Birmingham, AL Hacker, Anonymous – CeBIT 2016 00 by Frank Schwichtenberg FEMA, Photo by Patsy Lynch ‐ Oct 12, 2017 ‐ Location: Orlando, FL Missile, Steve Herman / VOA News 26 July, 2013 Pyongyang
NOTES ON CONTRIBUTORS
What made this book unique among homeland security texts when it was first published in 2008 was the truly interdisciplinary nature of the work, based on the academic and practical experiences of the authors who contributed chapters. The same holds true in 2018. Each author contributed their own perspectives while at the same time providing continuity of structure and format in order to support the overall goal of providing a reassessment of the “all‐hazards” perspective. The authors of the revised text represent diverse academic disciplines in political science, public administration, security studies, engineering, and emergency planning. Some authors also bring practitioner experience in fields related to homeland security, such as emergency management, security management, military and homeland defense planning, intelligence, critical infrastructure protection, and public policy. The end result of the second edition of Threats to Homeland Security is a much richer, educational contribution to the broader field of homeland security studies as it currently exists today, as well as how it will likely evolve in the future.
Dr Jonathan M. Acuff is assistant professor of Intelligence and National Security Studies in the Department of Politics at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, SC. His research and teaching interests include security studies, military innovation, strategy, and intelligence analysis. A former Army Reserve Officer, Acuff was a military analyst for the National Bureau of Asian Research in Seattle, Washington, where he worked on funded research projects for the Department of Homeland Security, US Pacific Command, and the Strategic Asia Program. He received his PhD in Political Science from the University of Washington.
Dr Christopher J. Ferrero is assistant professor of Intelligence and National Security Studies in the Department of Politics at Coastal Carolina University. He focuses on the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) as well as Middle East politics. Prior to joining Coastal Carolina in 2016, Dr Ferrero held positions at the University of Virginia, Seton Hall University, and Syracuse University. From 2002 to 2006, he served as a WMD analyst for the Departments of State and Defense, primarily on ballistic missile proliferation and missile defense. He has appeared as a source for media outlets including NBC News and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation. He received his PhD in Foreign Affairs from the University of Virginia in 2011.
Dr Joseph Fitsanakis is associate professor of Intelligence and National Security Studies in the Department of Politics at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, SC. Before joining Coastal, he founded the Security and Intelligence Studies program at King University, where he also directed the King Institute for Security and Intelligence Studies. Dr Fitsanakis has written extensively on subjects such as international espionage, intelligence tradecraft, counterintelligence, wiretapping, cyber espionage, transnational crime, and intelligence reform. He is a frequent contributor to international news media and senior editor at intelNews.org, an ACI‐indexed scholarly blog that is cataloged through the US Library of Congress. He received his PhD from the Department of Politics and International Relations at the University of Edinburgh in the United Kingdom.
Dr Chad S. Foster is assistant professor in the Homeland Security Program at Eastern Kentucky University in Richmond, KY. He instructs and oversees courses that support the disaster management concentration in the program. He earned a Bachelor of Science degree from the US Military Academy and graduate‐level degrees in public administration and urban and public affairs from the University of Louisville.
Dr Richard J. Kilroy Jr. is assistant professor of Intelligence and National Security Studies in the Department of Politics at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, SC. He teaches courses related to intelligence analysis, intelligence operations, homeland security, and Latin American security issues. He is also a retired Army Intelligence and Foreign Area Officer who has served in various positions planning and implementing national and homeland security policy, to include standing up the Department of Defense’s new US Northern Command after 9/11. His PhD is in foreign affairs from the University of Virginia.
Mr Steven Kuhr is head of Emergency Management and Continuity at Colorado Springs Utilities, which is among of the nation’s largest utility public enterprises. Colorado Springs Utilities operates critical infrastructure across 11 Colorado counties. In this capacity Steven leads a team responsible for a comprehensive crisis management program by integrating the practices and principles of the emergency management, homeland security, and enterprise continuity domains for four utility sectors—electricity, natural gas, water, and wastewater services—for the City of Colorado Springs and a number of communities across the Pikes Peak Region. He is also an adjunct professor for the College of Security Studies at Colorado Technical University and a member of the Board of Directors of the InfraGard Denver Members Alliance. He has an extensive portfolio of emergency management and homeland security experience at the local, state, and private sector levels that spans three decades. He holds a Bachelor of Science in Emergency Management Administration from the State University of New York and a Master of Science in Homeland Security Management from the Homeland Security Management Institute at Long Island University.
Dr Daniel Masters is associate professor of international studies at the University of North Carolina at Wilmington. His area of expertise is national and international security, decision making and foreign policy, international political economy, and Middle Eastern, Russian, and European political systems. His research interests relate to terrorism and security studies, with a particular focus on rebellious collective action. His PhD is from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
Dr Stephan Reissman focuses on continuity of operations and preparedness issues in his position with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). He has extensive experience in emergency planning, preparedness, and response with federal (CDC, FEMA, DHS, and NOAA) and EMS agencies. He holds certifications as a Certified Emergency Manager, Master Exercise Practitioner, and Certified Business Continuity Professional. His PhD is in public affairs from the University of Colorado at Denver.
Dr Carmine Scavo is professor of political science and director of the Master of Public Administration program at East Carolina University in Greenville, NC. He teaches undergraduate courses in political science and graduate courses in public administration and security studies. His research has appeared in Publius: The Journal of Federalism, Urban Affairs Review, and Public Administration Review and in edited volumes. His PhD is from the University of Michigan.
Dr Alexander Siedschlag is professor of homeland security and public health sciences at Penn State (Penn State Harrisburg – School of Public Affairs, in a joint appointment with the Hershey College of Medicine). He also is chair of Penn State’s intercollege Homeland Security Program. In research and teaching, he focuses on comparative homeland and civil security, security cultures, scenario foresight, and theories and methods of security studies. He has served as expert evaluator for US Department of Homeland Security and for European Union security research grant programs, as well as led security research projects in the European Union. This involved collaboration with FEMA’s Strategic Foresight Initiative. Further, he has served as a senior guest lecturer at NATO School. His PhD is in political science from the University of Munich, Germany, and he in addition holds a “habilitation,” or venia legendi, in political science from Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany.
Dr Jonathan Smith is professor and coordinator of the Intelligence and National Security Studies program in the Department of Politics at Coastal Carolina University in Conway, SC. He teaches courses in intelligence studies, national security strategy, and homeland security. He is also a retired naval intelligence officer who deployed in support of operations in Bosnia, Kosovo, Iraq, and Afghanistan. His PhD is in political science (national security decision making) from the University of South Carolina.
PREFACE
When the first edition of Threats to Homeland Security was published in 2007, there was a dearth of academic literature available on the topic to support the demand on college campuses for classes related to homeland security and terrorism after 9/11. First attempts at meeting this void were texts in traditional fields of study, such as political science or criminal justice. Terrorism studies was still a little known field in security studies programs at some colleges, such as Georgetown University, which primarily looked at the subject from a theoretical or conceptual framework. Other approaches looked at the topic in terms of policy studies, such as national security policy or foreign policy courses, which expanded to include the subject of homeland security. The consensus though was for most writers to take an exclusive view of homeland security, focusing on terrorism as the primary threat.
After Hurricanes Katrina and Rita struck the Gulf Coast in August and September 2005, causing catastrophic damage and loss of life, similar to a terrorist attack, there was shift in homeland security toward a more inclusive view, which looked at threats from an all‐hazards perspective. As a result there was a new emphasis placed on producing academic literature that emphasized natural disaster response and planning, primarily in the field of emergency management. New college curricula also developed in areas of “applied sciences” that now placed greater emphasis on studying the role of first responders, as well as state and federal government agencies in responding to natural disasters, as opposed to terrorist attacks. Community colleges, four‐year undergraduate institutions, and even graduate schools began to develop degree programs related to emergency management and planning in order to build on the next inclusive view of homeland security.
It was in this context that the first edition of the text was named Threats to Homeland Security: An All‐Hazards Perspective. In other words, the goal in writing such a text was to provide students in a variety of academic disciplines and fields of study an integrated approach toward security studies and the continuing nature of security challenges to the nation through both a theoretical and practical lens. In the text, students and practitioners gained a comprehensive understanding of threats to the United States from an interdisciplinary perspective. By emphasizing the “all‐hazards perspective,” readers of the first edition gained a better understanding of a more inclusive view of the threats the nation faced at the time, with an expectation that these would be also be the types of “all‐hazard” threats homeland security studies would need to address in the future.
Since that time, homeland security, as both an area of academic study and professional practice, has evolved considerably. Today, according to the University and Agency Partnership Initiative of the Center for Homeland Defense and Security, there are more than 400 programs of study related to homeland security, from associate to doctoral degrees. There has been increased engagement between law enforcement agencies at the local, state, and federal levels to approach threats to public safety in new ways, to include the development of fusion centers and joint task forces. The federal government has increased the role of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) in confronting threats, both domestically and internationally. The Department of Defense, with the development of US Northern Command, has increased its homeland defense role to coordinate military support to other federal and state agencies to confront threats that are both naturogenic and anthropogenic. And, most recently, revelations about US intelligence agencies collecting data on US citizens have expanded the dialogue on the nature of terrorist threats, breaking down traditional barriers between domestic and foreign intelligence activities.
Furthermore, in the 10 years since publication of the first edition, there has been a sea change in domestic politics and international relations, which has shaken the foundations of states and societies globally. From the international economic crisis of 2008 and the Arab Spring of 2010 to the global emergence of the Islamic State (IS) in 2014, the world has become more, rather than less, dangerous. The former director of National Intelligence, James Clapper (2014), noted, “Looking back over my more than half a century in intelligence, I’ve not experienced a time when we’ve been beset by more crises and threats around the globe.”
So, what’s changed in the text? With 10 years having elapsed since the publication of the first edition, all the original chapters have been revised and in some cases completely rewritten. New chapters have been added to address threats to critical infrastructure, the role of intelligence in homeland security, and homeland security planning and resources. Each chapter also addresses the overall theme of the text in reassessing whether the all‐hazards perspective should continue to guide homeland security studies from an academic viewpoint, as well as homeland security policy from a practitioner’s viewpoint.
In Chapter 1, Richard J. Kilroy Jr. provides an historical overview of the development of national security policies and strategies based on the threats the United States has faced since its beginning. From its early foundations focused on isolationism and nonintervention to the evolution of geopolitics that moved the United States to becoming a global superpower during the Cold War, the nature of the threats to the country has influenced the high politics of security. In the previous edition, this chapter ended with a discussion of the new Global War on Terrorism, focused primarily on al‐Qaeda. Since that time, the United States has withdrawn from Iraq, is drawing down in Afghanistan, and yet continues to face an expanding terrorist threat from new groups, such as the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (IS). This chapter has been updated to reflect the changes in national security and homeland security policies and strategy that occurred since the Obama administration came into office and changed the focus of national security away from fighting a Global War on Terrorism to focus on specific threats under the title of Overseas Contingency Operations, specifically using drone warfare to target terrorist leaders. It also touches on the early direction of the new Trump administration on national security in 2017.
In Chapter 2, Richard J. Kilroy Jr. explains the evolution from an “exclusive” view of homeland security, focused only on terrorist threats, to the “inclusive” view, which assessed all potential hazards as threats to the homeland. More recently there has been a some discussion about moving away from looking at homeland security from an all‐hazards perspective, since it has tended to “water down” the threat of terrorism, as federal, state, and local agencies put every possible threat under the homeland security umbrella. From an emergency management perspective, local communities had to prepare for every possible contingency, which taxed resources and budgets. Federal homeland security funding began to dry up due to the budget crisis in 2008–2009. As a result, there was less of an all‐hazards perspective to one of prioritizing the types of threats communities faced and to place their resources there. As a result, this chapter addresses these changes and the impact that moving away from an all‐hazards perspective may have on the types of threats the United States faces today and in the future.
In Chapter 3, Chad S. Foster explores meanings and perspectives associated with homeland security. Questions addressed include: What are the historical traditions and prevailing theories associated with homeland security? What context is important for gaining an understanding of homeland security problems and approaches? What constitutes the homeland security enterprise, including the roles of federal, state, and local agencies? The revision to this chapter from the previous edition looks at the emergence of homeland security institutions and interests at all levels of government.
In Chapter 4, Alexander Siedschlag explores the all‐hazards perspective to threat assessment, focused on management within the National Preparedness System. The chapter’s focus was traditionally on prevention, protection, mitigation, response, and recovery and the “disaster impact process,” as well as risk and vulnerability assessments. In the revision to the chapter, Siedschlag focuses on threat assessments and how the United States assesses threats to national security, as well as homeland security. Understanding the threat assessment process is critical to influencing intelligence collection and also how federal, state, and local agencies can better allocate resources when focused on specific threats. Siedschlag explains how threat assessment aids the decision‐making process and how it can be helpful in reducing costs to local communities by allowing first responders and emergency managers to focus on the mitigation, risk reduction, and preparedness programs their communities need most.
In Chapter 5, Steven Kuhr offers a new chapter focusing specifically on critical infrastructure protection. New technologies and the increased use of “systems of systems” approaches create new efficiencies and availability of basic services such as power generation, transportation, water, and communications. However, the very nature of these technical matrices and integration of systems create new vulnerabilities and risks to homeland security. The “Internet of things” is just one example of how technology is changing even the most mundane everyday functions of people and society. Kuhr explains that as critical infrastructures expand and become more connected, our dependency on the Internet and information systems to carry the codes, programs, and instructions to make it all work grows as well, increasing the need for communities to plan for disruptions to those systems, whether that comes from a naturogenic or anthropogenic threat.
In Chapter 6, Jonathan M. Acuff provides a discussion on state‐sponsored terrorism, to include a historical perspective as well as definitions of terrorism, identifying terrorists, and acts of terrorism. He also looks at the role of states and international organizations (like the United Nations) to confront terrorism, further addressing the United States and its view of state sponsors of terrorism. In the revision to this chapter, he also discusses how states can use terrorism as a means to advance their foreign policies through the use of terrorist organizations in other countries (e.g., state sponsors) but also domestically to keep dissident groups in check and prevent a possible loss of power, as occurred in Turkey in 2016. Other examples provided in the chapter include the breakup of Syria and the rise of IS, as well as Russia’s intervention in Ukraine and its support for separatist/terrorist movements in that country.
In Chapter 7, Joseph Fitsanakis builds on the previous chapter, focusing on the different types of terrorist groups or organizations that function as violent non‐state actors. He describes the motivations, ideologies, identities, and other factors that have given rise to terrorist movements in the past, in the present, and possibly in the future. He also discusses the various tools, tactics, and techniques that terrorist groups have used throughout the ages. He further addresses efforts by states to counter terrorist threats and the different methods employed, such as suicide terrorism. When the last text was written, the focus was on al‐Qaeda as a non‐state violent actor and the various offshoots of this organization. Since then, IS has emerged as a significant terrorist threat, seeking to establish itself throughout the Middle East, as well as commit acts of terrorism in states outside the region.
In Chapter 8, Richard J. Kilroy Jr. explores the pervasiveness of the Internet and its impact on just about every aspect of one’s personal and public life and the threats in cyberspace coming from a number of sources, to include criminals, terrorists, and even states. In the first edition of the text, this chapter focused specifically on cyber‐terrorism and cyber‐warfare and addressed the US response to these types of threats provided by the government sector, to include the military. Since the first edition, there has been an exponential increase in the number and types of threats in cyberspace. Criminals, in particular, are growing in sophistication in their ability to hack into computer systems and steal personal and corporate information that threatens not only individuals but also national wealth and commerce. Revelations of China’s growing cyber‐warfare capability has also increased the threat of asymmetric warfare being waged in cyberspace, where a county’s economic collapse would pre‐stage a military attack (if even necessary). Kilroy provides a detailed look at the new dimension of threats in cyberspace with updated examples of recent cyber activity.
In Chapter 9, Christopher J. Ferrero describes the threat from Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD), including chemical weapons, biological weapons, nuclear weapons, and radiological devices, and the potential terrorist targeting of critical infrastructure such as nuclear facilities and transportation hubs to achieve WMD‐like effects. He covers the continuing threat of chemical weapons, as seen in the Syrian Civil War, and the increasing risk of biological weapons attacks by non‐state actors who could use new do‐it‐yourself bioengineering tools to harm millions. He also addresses nuclear weapons, including the location and disposition of nuclear material and stockpiles, information on states’ arms control commitments, and the terms of the Iran Nuclear Deal. He further provides information on how terrorist groups could create a WMD‐like effect through the combination of nuclear or radiological substances with conventional explosives in what is known as a dirty bomb. The revised version of this chapter explores the concept of weapons of mass disruption, which suggests that terrorists can, through target analysis and selection, create a major crisis not by causing widespread death or physical destruction but by using these weapons and substances to contaminate or sabotage key infrastructure nodes, instill panic, and disrupt the flow of global commerce and public services.
In Chapter 10, Daniel Masters explores domestic terrorism in light of the new threat posed by both organized groups and individuals. Recent terrorist attacks in Europe and the United States by “lone‐wolf” or self‐radicalized individuals have further invigorated the debate. This significantly revised chapter not only addresses the threat posed by the different types of domestic terrorism but also expands that focus to look at the changing role of law enforcement agencies at the local, state, and federal levels to confront threats from domestic terrorism. Masters looks at the nexus between crime and terrorism as terrorist groups turn to crime to finance their operations, and criminal groups adopt terrorist tactics to spread violence and fear in order to dissuade governments from confronting them. Masters also explores the topic of mass shootings and the psychological impact these acts of hate can have as acts of terror.
In Chapter 11, Carmine Scavo focuses on how the information age, with the rise of the Internet and the media, has facilitated communication, leading both to better responses to natural disasters and to the spread of terrorist messages domestically and internationally. He explores the role of ideas and values in shaping culture and impacting societal responses to all hazards. These all serve as enablers of mass effects, meaning they can be used both by governments to increase the effectiveness of disaster response and by terrorist organizations for recruitment, fundraising, and support. In recent years, the rise of IS and the sophistication of its use of the Internet and social media, in particular, have presented a new challenge to states in countering terrorism and radical ideologies. Through these social networks, IS has been able to attract a large number of international fighters to its cause in Syria and Iraq. Since many of them hold passports and citizenship in Western countries, governments are concerned about what happens when these mercenaries return home. Scavo assesses the impact that the Internet and social media have had in contributing to the spreading of terrorist ideas and the radicalization of domestic terrorists.
In Chapter 12, Jonathan Smith adds a new chapter addressing the role of domestic intelligence in homeland security. Responding to the revelations about domestic intelligence collection on US citizens by the NSA, as a result of Edward Snowden’s actions in 2013, Smith focuses on the relationship between intelligence collection and homeland security. The United States does not have a domestic intelligence organization, like the British MI‐5. There was some discussion in 2002 that with the formation of the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), both the FBI and CIA be brought under the control of the new DHS; however, that was quickly dismissed due to the autonomy of these agencies and the different focus of each—one international and the other domestic. Yet, as Smith notes, that distinction has been based on the nature of the threats the nation faced with the CIA focused on external threats to national security, and the FBI focused on internal threats to homeland security (mostly being criminal threats). The nature of intelligence collection today and the use of new technologies and the Internet make those distinctions much more difficult, particularly with information technology. Smith also discusses the question that as the threats to homeland security evolve, should intelligence capabilities and resources as well? And if so, what are the threats to civil liberties and protections in democratic societies?
In Chapter 13, Stephan Reissman adds a new chapter focused on homeland security planning and resources. As a final chapter to the text, Reissman provides an important discussion on the future of homeland security, as both a function of government planning, resourcing, and direction and of educational programs that have emerged related to teaching about homeland security. In 2018, some might have thought that homeland security would no longer be in vogue, the Department of Homeland Security would dissolve, and agencies, such as the US Coast Guard, would return to the Department of Transportation. Terrorism would no longer be the focus of US security policies abroad, and the focus at home would be to treat terrorism, as in much of the rest of the world, as criminal acts rather than national security threats. Yet, today, the world seems less secure, terrorism has not gone away, and the loss of personal freedoms and civil liberties continues to be debated. The growth in educational programs alone, related to teaching homeland security, is a testimony that reports of its death are premature.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A work like this would not be possible without the collaborative efforts of all those contributors involved. Their timely submissions and quick responses to editorial comments allowed this work to come together in a relatively short period of time.
A special thanks goes out to Bob Esposito at John Wiley & Sons for approaching me about offering a second edition of the text. After 10 years, I had not expected to be revising the book after such a long period of time. I appreciate his encouragement and support to take on this project. I also appreciate Michael Leventhal’s support in the contractual matters of the book, as well as his willingness to work with me on the cover design. I also want to recognize Stan Supinski and Steve Recca at the Naval Postgraduate School’s Center for Homeland Defense Studies and Security. It was through their University and Agency Partnership Initiative and the Homeland Security Workshop they conducted in June 2015 that I was able to make contact with some of the new contributors to this text.
I also would like to thank the reviewers of the text for their comments and suggestions, which made this text much more readable and more thorough in its analytical and contextual basis.
Finally, I wish to thank the many editors and project managers at John Wiley & Sons, including Beryl Mesiadhas and Grace Paulin, who were involved in the production process. I appreciate their support, direction, and guidance throughout this effort from start to finish. Their constant attention to detail and editorial expertise truly made this work a success and I have learned much from their efforts.
RJK, Jr.Conway, SC
ABOUT THE COMPANION WEBSITE
This book is accompanied by a companion website:
www.wiley.com/go/Kilroy/Threats_to_Homeland_Security
The instructor’s website includes PPT slides for all chapters of the book, solutions to the Self‐Check questions at the end of each major section of each chapter, and solutions to the Summary Questions at the end of each chapter.
In the student’s website, I would recommend just including the Self‐Check question solutions and the Summary Question solutions. I have used texts that have too much information for students who then use the “school solutions” rather than doing their own analysis.
1THE CHANGING NATURE OF NATIONAL SECURITY: Understanding the Nature of Threats to Homeland Security and the US Response
Richard J. Kilroy, Jr.
Department of Politics, Coastal Carolina University, Conway, SC, USA
Starting Point
Go to www.wiley.com/go/Kilroy/Threats_to_Homeland_Security to assess your knowledge of the basics of national security and homeland security.
Determine where you need to concentrate your effort.
What You’ll Learn in This Chapter
The definitions of national security and homeland security
The key players who formulate national and homeland security policy
How changing international and domestic security environments affect national and homeland security policies
The threats in a post‐9/11 world that impact national security policy issues
Contemporary challenges to national and homeland security
After Studying This Chapter, You’ll Be Able To
Analyze security environments and assess national and homeland security policy choices during specific historical periods
Distinguish between national and homeland security policy players within government and outside government
Appraise the threat situation in the post‐9/11 security environment
Examine US national and homeland security and policy as a response to the changing security environment and threat perceptions
INTRODUCTION
Within the disciplines of political science and international relations, the study of war and conflict has been traditionally included under the umbrella of international security since the primary threats to states have been viewed as other states. The rise of non‐state actors, such as terrorist groups or criminal gangs, has broadened the concept of threats to a nation’s security to include both domestic and international dimension. For example, the United States, throughout the nation’s history, has faced a variety of threatsor adversaries (foreign and domestic) possessing both capability and intent to do the nation harm. To counter these threats, various policy choices emerged, each reflecting the nation’s security interests at different periods of time. As a result, the nation’s political leaders developed national security policies, which are those policies that served to protect the United States, its citizens, and its interests through the threatened and actual use of all elements of national power.
During the first half of the twentieth century, the United States changed from a nation with the seventeenth largest military in the world to one of two military superpowers. It was the leader of the free world against a physical and ideological threat in the Soviet Union and communism. This change was not preordained, however, as strong domestic political challenges also shaped foreign policy outcomes. Fifty years after the end of World War II, the United States again found itself in a new kind of security environment with both domestic and international security implications. At the turn of the twenty‐first century, the nation was faced with the new threat of terrorism at home. This led to the development of homeland security policies, which emerged following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 (9/11), to encompass the collective efforts of local, state, and federal agencies to keep the country safe, initially against terrorism, but later expanded to include an all‐hazards perspective. Sixteen years later, the threats to homeland security have further evolved, and the United States faces a prolonged conflict against the particular threat of terrorism, domestically and internationally.
In this chapter, you will analyze security environments and assess national and homeland security policy choices during specific historical periods. You’ll also learn to distinguish between the various national and homeland security policy players both within and outside government. Finally, you’ll appraise the threat situation in the contemporary security environment, as well as examine US national and homeland security policy as a response to the changing security environment and threat perceptions.
1.1 Foundations of American Security Policy
When the nation’s founders were crafting a new system of government based on a republic (vs. a monarchy), they struggled over the concept of security. How much power should be vested in the central government versus the state governments? Should the United States have a standing army or rely on the state militias alone for the nation’s security? The Federalist Papers (authored by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay) argued the need for a central government strong enough to protect the nation against the threats it faced at the time while also protecting states’ rights and individual liberties. As James Madison noted in Federalist No. 41, “The means of security can only be regulated by the means and danger of attack… They will in fact be ever determined by these rules and no others” (Hamilton et al. 1961, 257).
Upon achieving its independence from Great Britain, the United States faced the possibility of British reinvasion, attacks by other European colonial powers in the region, and challenges to commerce. Its national security policy reflected George Washington’s admonition in his Farewell Address to avoid entangling alliances with European powers, which would draw the United States into Europe’s sectarian wars. Thus, for over a century and a half, isolationism, a foreign policy based on avoiding alliances with other countries, produced an American national security policy of limited military power, depending instead on the ocean boundaries, diplomacy, and commerce to keep the country safe.
Prior to its entrance into World War I, US security interests were primarily focused regionally rather than globally. An example of a security policy reflecting this regional focus was the Monroe Doctrine of 1823. Although the United States did not have the military power to back up such a policy, the Monroe Doctrine reflected the principle that the United States should support the desire of the new democratic nations of the Americas to break from their colonial past and exist as free nations, secure from overt European influence. This principle was tested throughout the nineteenth century by various European powers, such as the French occupation of Mexico and the continuing Spanish and British presence, primarily in the Caribbean region. With the US defeat of Spain in 1898, however, the United States displayed the capacity to live up to its principles.
Why did the United States enter these new domains? For most of America’s early history, security meant maintaining territorial integrity, but it also involved protecting American trade overseas. As the United States grew economically, so did other countries, so American traders found themselves clashing more frequently with foreign interests over resources and markets. The clashes could be simply commercial competition, but violence could break out with local populations, with other commercial enterprises, or with governments. Trade was not only enriching the country but also redefining the government’s duty to protect American citizens to include events that were increasing in both scope and frequency.
Figure 1‐1 The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine in the Western Hemisphere (Charles Green Bush, 1842–1909). Uncle Sam—“What Particular Country Threatens Us, Theodore?,” March 12, 1905, New York World.
Source: Reproduced with permission of MS Am 3056 (489) Houghton Library, Harvard University.
1.1.1 Geopolitics at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century
The emergence of American military power (primarily sea power) at the beginning of the twentieth century expanded US national security interests in the Western Hemisphere and beyond. Whereas the original Monroe Doctrine was a statement of principle, the Roosevelt Corollary (Figure 1‐1) to the Monroe Doctrine under President Theodore Roosevelt signaled a more aggressive US security policy to exert its hegemony over the Western Hemisphere. The ability of the United States to project military power to other regions further increased our nation’s ability to leverage other elements of national power, including the use of diplomacy, economic power, and informational power. The threat of military force therefore broadened the expression of national security interests, leading to a more expansionist role for the United States. Broadening the context of national security further affected US foreign policy interests toward Europe and European affairs. Whereas in the past the United States was comfortable in its isolationist role, in the early 1900s, the changes in the geopolitical makeup of Europe were directly affecting America’s security at home.
The causes for World War I were complex, reflecting imperial competition, the rise of industrial economies and military‐industrial complexes, the decline of the aristocracy, and the rise of nationalism, anarchism, and communism. Powerful political ideas and movements swept across the European continent, creating conditions for conflict and war. Although Woodrow Wilson ran for reelection in 1916 on the campaign slogan “He kept us out of war,” in 1917, he came to the realization that national security required the United States to join with the Entente Powers (mainly France, Russia, Britain, and Italy) against the Central Powers (Germany, Austria‐Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria). A German submarine’s sinking of the Lusitania, an American ship loaded with supplies for Britain, underscored America’s inability to cut itself off from countries at war. As Wilson noted, “I made every effort to keep my country out of war, until it came to my conscience, as it came to yours, that after all it was our war a well as Europe’s war, that the ambition of these central empires was directed against nothing less than the liberty of the world” (Foley 1969, 12).
World War I revolutionized the geopolitical landscape of Europe as empires were dissolved and new nation‐states emerged. Wilson pressured the European powers to accept his famous 14 points, which called for collective security based on concerted international response to aggression. This laid the foundation for the League of Nations, the precursor to the United Nations (UN). In effect, Wilson redefined national security policy from one based on neutrality to one based on continuing international cooperation. The US Senate refused to ratify the resulting treaty, however, and America retreated back to a period of isolationism and avoidance of European affairs. In addition, partly because of American reluctance but also because of the difficulty of constraining major powers, the League of Nations ultimately failed.
Also after World War I, the United States used naval disarmament as a means to increase international security, without having to enter into a collective security arrangement. Navies allowed the projection of power at that time, so limiting naval power also limited military potential. Proposed as an alternative to the League of Nations, Republicans in the US Senate promoted the Washington Naval Conference (1921–1922), limiting the size and growth of the world’s major naval powers: the United States, Great Britain, France, Japan, and Italy. The treaty, however, delayed rather than ended such arms races.
Later, in the 1930s, Congress engaged in another effort to promote isolationism by way of the Neutrality Acts, laws forbidding American support for or involvement with countries at war. Under these laws, the Lusitania might never have been sunk, as it could not have carried supplies to Britain or even entered British ports. As a security issue, the laws represented a major challenge to presidential power, as they restricted the flexibility the president enjoys as commander‐in‐chief and as the chief architect of US foreign policy.
Between wars, ocean barriers and relatively secure borders continued to provide security for the United States. Canada to the north was a proven ally, requiring a minimal security presence. To the south, however, Mexico was emerging from a bitter civil war and internal revolution. In fact, before the US entry into World War I, the Mexican revolutionary leader Pancho Villa staged a series of attacks into the United States, the most famous being the Columbus, New Mexico, raid of March 19, 1916. This led to the legendary General Pershing expedition into Mexico in pursuit of Villa, and it also included a mobilization of a number of National Guard units to the border to provide security. The expedition ended in 1917 with US entry into World War I and diplomatic efforts between the American and Mexican governments to avoid further conflict. By the end of World War I, the Mexican revolution had moved toward stabilization under a new regime, which would eventually emerge as Mexico’s dominant political party for the next 70 years.
Immediately prior to the start of World War II, the United States began aggressively developing its air and naval capabilities, allowing it to be able to project power where and when necessary. The United States also expanded its military overseas presence in places like the Philippines, Cuba, Panama, Puerto Rico, the Midway Islands, and the Hawaiian Islands. Set up as strategic coaling stations, naval bases at these locations provided the US forward presence in areas it deemed to have strategic interests. At the same time, Britain and France, still suffering “war weariness,” were attempting to pull back from some of their overseas commitments and colonial holdings, leaving power vacuums that were quickly filled by Japan, Italy, and Germany, the countries that would be known as the Axis Powers during World War II.
1.1.2 National Security and World War II
World War II began in 1939 with the German invasion of Poland, followed by declarations of war by Britain and France. The United States did not officially enter the conflict until 1941, following Japan’s surprise attack on Pearl Harbor. By its end in 1945, World War II had inflicted over 62 million casualties from at least 50 countries. Major operational campaigns occurred in the Atlantic and Pacific theaters, as well as throughout Europe, Eastern Europe and Russia, Asia, China, Africa, and the Middle East. British and German vessels even fought near the tip of South America. The sheer magnitude of the conflict impacted people and nations throughout the world such that security took on new meaning for different nations. For the United States, it meant that the nation would never again be able to return to an isolationist foreign policy and its national security would be directly linked to that of Europe, Asia, and other regions of the world.
From 1939 to 1941, the United States maintained its neutrality with regard to World War II, despite Winston Churchill’s pleas for a formal alliance with Britain. America demonstrated this neutrality by avoiding direct conflict, preferring to support the Allies through other means. For example, Franklin Roosevelt’s lend/lease program provided Britain with essential war materials to continue military operations against Germany, even though this policy contravened the Neutrality Acts. This security strategy further provided for prepositioning
