Threats to Springs in a Changing World E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Serie: Geophysical Monograph Series
- Sprache: Englisch
Documents the declining quality and quantity of springs around the world and efforts to preserve, protect, and restore them. Anthropogenic causes, including climate change, have been degrading springs around the world. Changes in spring water quality and flow impact human health, cultural values, ecology, and livelihoods. Threats to Springs in a Changing World: Science and Policies for Protection presents a range of international studies illustrating the causes of spring degradation and strategies being used to safeguard springs both now and for the future. Volume highlights include: * Examples of threatened springs in diverse hydrogeologic settings * Innovative methods and tools for understanding the hydrogeology of spring systems * Current policy and governance approaches for alleviating damage to springs * Different approaches to management of springs * A call for practitioners, policy makers, scientists, and the public to work together The American Geophysical Union promotes discovery in Earth and space science for the benefit of humanity. Its publications disseminate scientific knowledge and provide resources for researchers, students, and professionals. "The audience for this book is researchers, educators, and natural resource managers working to conserve dug pits, trenches, and shallow bores. In doing so, it extends the reach of the book, but readers should also be prepared to encounter discussions of features and environments that differ from their own conceptualization of a spring." --Groundwater, Nov/Dec 2023
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Table of Contents
Cover
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
1 Protecting Springs in a Changing WorldThrough Sound Science and Policy
1.1. INTRODUCTION
1.2. THREATS TO SPRINGS AND THEIR VALUES
1.3. METHODS, TOOLS, AND TECHNIQUES TO UNDERSTAND SPRING HYDROGEOLOGY
1.4. POLICY AND GOVERNANCE APPROACHES FOR THE PROTECTION OF SPRINGS
REFERENCES
Part I: Threats to Springs and Their Values
2 Assessing Pollution and Depletion of Large Artesian Springs in Florida's Rapidly Developing Water‐Rich Landscape
2.1. THE ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS OF FLORIDA'S ARTESIAN SPRINGS
2.2. QUANTIFYING SOURCES OF FLORIDA SPRING/AQUIFER POLLUTION AND DEPLETION
2.3. UTILIZING WATER AND NUTRIENT MASS BALANCES TO DIRECT SPRINGS PROTECTION AND RECOVERY
2.4. INFORMING THE PUBLIC OF SPRINGS AND AQUIFER HEALTH STATUS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
3 Regional Passive Saline Encroachment in Major Springs of the Floridan Aquifer System in Florida (1991–2020)
3.1. INTRODUCTION
3.2. FLORIDAN AQUIFER SYSTEM
3.3. ENCROACHMENT
3.4. STUDY AREA, MATERIALS, AND METHODS
3.5. STATISTICAL METHODS
3.6. RESULTS
3.7. DISCUSSION
3.8. POTENTIAL DRIVERS OF THE OBSERVED PASSIVE ENCROACHMENT
3.9. UNRESOLVED ISSUES AND NEED FOR ADDITIONAL ENCROACHMENT MONITORING
3.10. KEY FINDINGS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
4 Karst Spring Processes and Storage Implications in High Elevation, Semiarid Southwestern United States
4.1. INTRODUCTION
4.2. STUDY AREA
4.3. RESEARCH METHODS
4.4. RESULTS
4.5. DISCUSSION
4.6. SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
5 Nitrogen Contamination and Acidification of Groundwater Due to Excessive Fertilizer Use for Tea Plantations
5.1. INTRODUCTION
5.2. METHODS AND MATERIALS
5.3. SOIL WATER CHEMISTRY AT TEA PLANTATIONS LOCATED ON VOLCANIC LOAM (FIELD RESULT 1)
5.4. WATER CHEMISTRY FOR THE KIKU TEA PLANTATION, SHIZUOKA, EXHIBITING A LOW PHOSPHORUS CONCENTRATION SPRING (FIELD RESULT 2)
5.5. WATER CHEMISTRY FOR A CATCHMENT CONTAINING A TEA PLANTATION AND OTHER LAND USES (FIELD RESULT 3)
5.6. DISCUSSION
5.7. CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
6 Springs of the Southwestern Great Artesian Basin, Australia: Balancing Sustainable Use and Cultural and Environmental Values
6.1. INTRODUCTION
6.2. THE GREAT ARTESIAN BASIN SPRINGS
6.3. OLYMPIC DAM AND ITS GAB WELLFIELDS
6.4. ASSESSING WELLFIELD A IMPACTS ON SPRINGS AND BORES
6.5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
Part II: Methods, Tools, and Techniques to Understand Spring Hydrogeology
7 Environmental Tracers to Study the Origin and Timescales of Spring Waters
7.1. INTRODUCTION
7.2. BEFORE TRACERS ARE APPLIED
7.3. ENVIRONMENTAL TRACERS: KINDS, THE CONCEPT OF AGE, AND SIMPLE MODELING
7.4. CASE STUDY: THE FISCHA‐DAGNITZ SPRING, AUSTRIA
7.5. SUMMARY
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
8 Assessment of Water Quality and Quantity of Springs at a Pilot‐Scale: Applications in Semiarid Mediterranean Areas in Lebanon
8.1. INTRODUCTION
8.2. FIELD SITE
8.3. INVESTIGATION METHODS
8.4. DISCUSSION AND RESULTS
8.5. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
9 Uncertainties in Understanding Groundwater Flowand Spring Functioning in Karst
9.1. PECULIARITIES OF KARST HYDROGEOLOGY
9.2. MATERIALS AND METHODS
9.3. THE ALBURNI MASSIF
9.4. RESULTS
9.5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
10 The Great Subterranean Spring of Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, and the Potential Impact of Subsurface Urban Heat Islands
INTRODUCTION
10.2. BACKGROUND
10.3. METHODS
10.4. RESULTS
10.5. DISCUSSION
10.6. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
Part III: Policy and Governance Approaches for the Protection of Springs
11 Community‐Based Water Resource Management:Pathway to Rural Water Security in Timor‐Leste?
11.1. INTRODUCTION
11.2. COMMUNITY‐MANAGED RURAL WATER INFRASTRUCTURE
11.3. GROWING WATER SECURITY CHALLENGES
11.4. TOWARD IMPROVED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: GOVERNMENT AND COMMUNITY APPROACHES
11.5. WATER SECURITY REQUIRES RESILIENT SOCIOECOLOGICAL‐TECHNICAL WATER SYSTEMS
11.6. METHODOLOGY
11.7. COMMUNITY‐BASED WATER RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: A PATHWAY TO RURAL WATER SECURITY IN TIMOR‐LESTE?
11.8. CONCLUSION
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
12 Setting Benthic Algal Abundance Targets to Protect Florida Spring Ecosystems
12.1. INTRODUCTION
12.2. DERIVATION OF BENTHIC ALGAL TARGETS IN STREAMS: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
12.3. COMPARISON OF ALGAL TARGETS TO SELECTED FLORIDA SPRING‐RUN STREAMS
12.4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
13 Protecting Springs in the Southwest Great Artesian Basin, Australia
13.1. INTRODUCTION
13.2. THE GREAT ARTESIAN BASIN AND ITS ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE
13.3. THREATS TO GAB SPRINGS THROUGH RECENT GROUNDWATER SCIENCE
13.4. THE NATIONAL REGULATORY RESPONSE TO SPRING THREATS
13.5. THE SOUTH AUSTRALIAN REGULATORY RESPONSE: THE FAR NORTH WATER ALLOCATION PLAN
13.6. TRACKING PROGRESS THROUGH MONITORING
13.7. GAB SPRINGS ADAPTIVE MANAGEMENT PLAN AND TEMPLATE (GABSAMP)
13.8. CLOSING REMARKS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
14 Patterns in the Occurrence of Fecal Bacterial Indicatorsat Public Mineral Springs of Central Victoria, 1986–2013
14.1. BACKGROUND AND MONITORING HISTORY
14.2. SPRING FLOW SYSTEMS AND OCCURRENCE
14.3. BACTERIAL MONITORING
14.4. CLIMATE AND SPRING HYDROLOGY
14.5. OUTCOMES OF REMEDIATION OF SPRING SITES
14.6. CONCLUSIONS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
15 Towards a Collective Effort to Preserve and Protect Springs
REFERENCES
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 First magnitude springs and spring groups recorded in Florida
Table 2.2 BWA estimated nitrogen loads to the land surface and reaching the...
Table 2.3 BWA estimated groundwater extraction from the FAS within each of ...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Monitoring sites used in this report
Table 3.2 Statistical summaries for rain, discharge, sodium, and chloride
Table 3.3 Results of regional Kendall tests for springs for the entire stud...
Table 3.4 Results of regional Kendall tests for the E and L period by regio...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 List of springs, hydrostratigraphic unit, spring classification, ...
Table 4.2 Monsoon recession events for each spring
Table 4.3 General statistical summary, ephemerality, and discharge variabil...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1 Estimated water balance of the Cadna‐Owie / Hooray aquifer system...
Table 6.2 Comparison of predicted versus actual impacts on key GAB springs ...
Table 6.3 Synthesis of key hydrogeological impacts due to Wellfield A
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Geological and hydrogeological characteristics of the three inves...
Table 8.2 Information provided by the measured parameters/experiments on sp...
Table 8.3 Spring volumes illustrating the variation from wet (2018–2020), i...
Table 8.4 Characteristics of the tracer experiments, results of the graphic...
Table 8.5 Concentrations of micropollutants and bacteriological analysis in...
Chapter 9
Table 9.1 Springs surrounding the Alburni Massif, and related discharge val...
Table 9.2 Caves where water has been found within the karst systems
Table 9.3 Hydrological parameters obtained from the recharge analysis for th...
Chapter 10
Table 10.1 Thermometric survey of cave and tunnels, 15 April 2007
*
Chapter 11
Table 11.1 Proportion of tested water systems recording some level of
E.col
...
Table 11.2 Overview of the number of community members engaged in interview...
Table 11.3 Key data from SWiM survey from each of the six communities
Table 11.4 Overview of social, ecological, and technical (SETS) factors imp...
Chapter 12
Table 12.1 Spring‐run streams and sampling transect identifiers in the SJRW...
Table 12.2 Comparison of maximum macroalgal abundance measures of nine spri...
Chapter 13
Table 13.1 Volumes for oil, gas, and water production from the Cooper‐Eroma...
Table 13.2 Summary of key elements of GABSAMP template
Chapter 14
Table 14.1 Summary of the average changes in bacterial monitoring results b...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Florida Springs Region and four principal Florida Springs Restora...
Figure 2.2 Median nitrate‐nitrogen concentrations in 57 springs monitored by...
Figure 2.3 BWA nitrogen footprint results for the Florida Springs Region (an...
Figure 2.4 BWA estimated nitrogen load in the Florida Springs Region by sour...
Figure 2.5 BWA estimated FAS groundwater withdrawal footprint in the Florida...
Figure 2.6 Informational summary of the FDEP Public Water System for nitrate...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Spring monitoring sites used in the study. Florida water manageme...
Figure 3.2 Floridan aquifer system in Florida with confinement. Study area i...
Figure 3.3 Annual precipitation and spring discharge (1991–2020). Solid circ...
Figure 3.5 Fresh groundwater lens changes over a long dry period: (a) Lens a...
Figure 3.4 Annual sodium and chloride means. Straight lines represent regres...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Digital elevation model (DEM) of the Colorado Plateau and surroun...
Figure 4.2 Time series data for (a) North Canyon, (b) Robber's Roost, (c) Cl...
Figure 4.3 Event‐scale representation of typical Clover Springs monsoon resp...
Figure 4.4 Linear regression models at Clover Springs of (a) relationship be...
Figure 4.5 Stable isotope delta values for Clover, Hoxworth, Robber's Roost,...
Figure 4.6 Stable isotope ratios for (a) Robber's Roost Springs, (b) Hoxwort...
Figure 4.7 Annotated photograph of epikarst outcrop near Clover Springs show...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Tea plantation in Yame and Shimizu districts. Many fans protect f...
Figure 5.2 Shimizu and Kiku study areas and land use of the Kiku River catch...
Figure 5.3 (a) pH and concentrations of component, (b) SO
4
2–
, (c) NO
3
‐...
Figure 5.4 Concentrations of trace elements, (a) total Al, (b) Ni, (c) Mn, (...
Figure 5.5 (a) pH values and (b) NO
3
‐N and trace elements, (c) total Al, (d)...
Figure 5.6 Water chemistry change for groundwater and surface water caused b...
Figure 5.7 The relationship between (a) NO
3
‐N concentrations and amounts of ...
Figure 5.8 The relationship among pH values and NO
3
‐N and trace element conc...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 The Bubbler mound spring (Coward springs subgroup, location shown...
Figure 6.2 Location of (a) Wellfields A and B for the Olympic Dam project an...
Figure 6.3 Location of production, monitoring and pastoral bores and springs...
Figure 6.4 (a) Water extraction by Wellfields A and B and pastoral activity,...
Figure 6.5 Relationship between groundwater levels and spring flows for the ...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Conceptualization of groundwater flow from recharge to the spring...
Figure 7.2 Timescales for the different tracers available to quantify the ve...
Figure 7.3 Input functions of the tracers.
Figure 7.4 Conceptualization of the Fischa flow system. The underlying tecto...
Figure 7.5 Comparison of the measured concentrations in the tritium time ser...
Figure 7.6 Comparison of the measured concentrations of (a):
3
He
trit
(Gerber...
Figure 7.7 Age distribution of the Fischa‐Dagnitz Spring.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 (a) Geological map showing the location of the three investigated...
Figure 8.2 Spring hydrographs for the three monitored springs illustrating t...
Figure 8.3 Tracer breakthrough curves (BTC) recorded at Qachqouch Springs fr...
Figure 8.4 Tracer breakthrough curves (BTC) recorded at Assal and Laban spri...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Geological map of the Alburni Massif.
Figure 9.2 Map showing dolines and endorheic basins on the summit plateau of...
Figure 9.3 Hydrogeological schematic cross section across the Alburni Massif...
Figure 9.4 Karst features of the Alburni Massif: (a) the sump at Grotta del ...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Location of the Minneapolis‐St. Paul metropolitan area (star) (a...
Figure 10.2 Location of Schieks Cave (star) on Hennepin County bedrock map, ...
Figure 10.3 Dornberg's 1939 map of Schieks Cave, a maze cave in the St. Pete...
Figure 10.4 A concrete chamber inside Schieks Cave hosts the anthropogenical...
Figure 10.5 Spring issuing from fissure in the Washington Avenue tunnel, loc...
Figure 10.6 The Old Artesian Well flowing in the “wrong” direction, showing ...
Figure 10.7 Geological cross section of Minneapolis at Schieks Cave (not to ...
Figure 10.8 Schematic of aquifer of thickness h at depth S below the ground ...
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 Examples of water infrastructure in rural Timor‐Leste: (a), (b),...
Figure 11.2 (a) Retention basin; (b) tree saplings ready for planting.
Figure 11.3 Overview of key social, ecological, and technical components of ...
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Plots (a) and (b) showing mean epiphytic algal AFDW at transects...
Figure 12.2 Mean epiphytic algal AFDW at a site on Alexander Springs Creek o...
Figure 12.3 Correlation comparison of the EPT Index score and % Cyanobacteri...
Chapter 13
Figure 13.1 (a) Map of the GAB, spring super groups and generalized inferred...
Figure 13.2 Springs of the South Australian portion of the GAB: (a) Irrwanye...
Figure 13.3 Uses, impacts, and associated mitigation strategies: (a) Energy ...
Figure 13.4 Licensed volumes sourced from the GAB in South Australia as a pe...
Figure 13.5 FNPWA monitoring network. Note pressure status trends are based ...
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Records for bacterial indicators in monitored mineral springs 19...
Figure 14.2 Averages for monthly maximum values for Plate Count, Total Colif...
Figure 14.3 Monthly curves for rainfall surplus, stream flow, and groundwate...
Figure 14.4 The percentage of positive readings for fecal bacterial indicato...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
PREFACE
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Geophysical Monograph Series
224 Hydrodynamics of Time-Periodic Groundwater Flow: Diffusion Waves in Porous MediaJoe S. Depner and Todd C. Rasmussen (Auth.)
225 Active Global SeismologyIbrahim Cemen and Yucel Yilmaz (Eds.)
226 Climate ExtremesSimon Wang (Ed.)
227 Fault Zone Dynamic ProcessesMarion Thomas (Ed.)
228 Flood Damage Survey and Assessment: New Insights from Research and PracticeDaniela Molinari, Scira Menoni, and Francesco Ballio (Eds.)
229 Water-Energy-Food Nexus – Principles and PracticesP. Abdul Salam, Sangam Shrestha, Vishnu Prasad Pandey, and Anil K Anal (Eds.)
230 Dawn–Dusk Asymmetries in Planetary Plasma EnvironmentsStein Haaland, Andrei Rounov, and Colin Forsyth (Eds.)
231 Bioenergy and Land Use ChangeZhangcai Qin, Umakant Mishra, and Astley Hastings (Eds.)
232 Microstructural Geochronology: Planetary Records Down to Atom ScaleDesmond Moser, Fernando Corfu, James Darling, Steven Reddy, and Kimberly Tait (Eds.)
233 Global Flood Hazard: Applications in Modeling, Mapping and ForecastingGuy Schumann, Paul D. Bates, Giuseppe T. Aronica, and Heiko Apel (Eds.)
234 Pre-Earthquake Processes: A Multidisciplinary Approach to Earthquake Prediction StudiesDimitar Ouzounov, Sergey Pulinets, Katsumi Hattori, and Patrick Taylor (Eds.)
235 Electric Currents in Geospace and BeyondAndreas Keiling, Octav Marghitu, and Michael Wheatland (Eds.)
236 Quantifying Uncertainty in Subsurface SystemsCeline Scheidt, Lewis Li, and Jef Caers (Eds.)
237 Petroleum EngineeringMoshood Sanni (Ed.)
238 Geological Carbon Storage: Subsurface Seals and Caprock IntegrityStephanie Vialle, Jonathan Ajo-Franklin, and J. William Carey (Eds.)
239 Lithospheric DiscontinuitiesHuaiyu Yuan and Barbara Romanowicz (Eds.)
240 Chemostratigraphy Across Major Chronological ErasAlcides N.Sial, Claudio Gaucher, Muthuvairavasamy Ramkumar, and Valderez Pinto Ferreira (Eds.)
241 Mathematical Geoenergy: Discovery, Depletion, and RenewalPaul Pukite, Dennis Coyne, and Daniel Challou (Eds.)
242 Ore Deposits: Origin, Exploration, and ExploitationSophie Decree and Laurence Robb (Eds.)
243 Kuroshio Current: Physical, Biogeochemical and Ecosystem DynamicsTakeyoshi Nagai, Hiroaki Saito, Koji Suzuki, and Motomitsu Takahashi (Eds.)
244 Geomagnetically Induced Currents from the Sun to the Power GridJennifer L. Gannon, Andrei Swidinsky, and Zhonghua Xu (Eds.)
245 Shale: Subsurface Science and EngineeringThomas Dewers, Jason Heath, and Marcelo Sánchez (Eds.)
246 Submarine Landslides: Subaqueous Mass Transport Deposits From Outcrops to Seismic ProfilesKei Ogata, Andrea Festa, and Gian Andrea Pini (Eds.)
247 Iceland: Tectonics, Volcanics, and Glacial FeaturesTamie J. Jovanelly
248 Dayside Magnetosphere InteractionsQiugang Zong, Philippe Escoubet, David Sibeck, Guan Le, and Hui Zhang (Eds.)
249 Carbon in Earth’s InteriorCraig E. Manning, Jung-Fu Lin, and Wendy L. Mao (Eds.)
250 Nitrogen Overload: Environmental Degradation, Ramifications, and Economic CostsBrian G. Katz
251 Biogeochemical Cycles: Ecological Drivers and Environmental ImpactKaterina Dontsova, Zsuzsanna Balogh-Brunstad, and Gaël Le Roux (Eds.)
252 Seismoelectric Exploration: Theory, Experiments, and ApplicationsNiels Grobbe, André Revil, Zhenya Zhu, and Evert Slob (Eds.)
253 El Niño Southern Oscillation in a Changing ClimateMichael J. McPhaden, Agus Santoso, and Wenju Cai (Eds.)
254 Dynamic Magma EvolutionFrancesco Vetere (Ed.)
255 Large Igneous Provinces: A Driver of Global Environmental and Biotic ChangesRichard. E. Ernst, Alexander J. Dickson, and Andrey Bekker (Eds.)
256 Coastal Ecosystems in Transition: A Comparative Analysis of the Northern Adriatic and Chesapeake BayThomas C. Malone, Alenka Malej, and Jadran Faganeli (Eds.)
257 Hydrogeology, Chemical Weathering, and Soil FormationAllen Hunt, Markus Egli, and Boris Faybishenko (Eds.)
258 Solar Physics and Solar WindNour E. Raouafi and Angelos Vourlidas (Eds.)
259 Magnetospheres in the Solar SystemRomain Maggiolo, Nicolas André, Hiroshi Hasegawa, and Daniel T. Welling (Eds.)
260 Ionosphere Dynamics and ApplicationsChaosong Huang and Gang Lu (Eds.)
261 Upper Atmosphere Dynamics and EnergeticsWenbin Wang and Yongliang Zhang (Eds.)
262 Space Weather Effects and ApplicationsAnthea J. Coster, Philip J. Erickson, and Louis J. Lanzerotti (Eds.)
263 Mantle Convection and Surface ExpressionsHauke Marquardt, Maxim Ballmer, Sanne Cottaar, and Jasper Konter (Eds.)
264 Crustal Magmatic System Evolution: Anatomy, Architecture, and Physico-Chemical ProcessesMatteo Masotta, Christoph Beier, and Silvio Mollo (Eds.)
265 Global Drought and Flood: Observation, Modeling, and PredictionHuan Wu, Dennis P. Lettenmaier, Qiuhong Tang, and Philip J. Ward (Eds.)
266 Magma Redox GeochemistryRoberto Moretti and Daniel R. Neuville (Eds.)
267 Wetland Carbon and Environmental ManagementKen W. Krauss, Zhiliang Zhu, and Camille L. Stagg (Eds.)
268 Distributed Acoustic Sensing in Geophysics: Methods and ApplicationsYingping Li, Martin Karrenbach, and Jonathan B. Ajo-Franklin (Eds.)
269 Congo Basin Hydrology, Climate, and Biogeochemistry: A Foundation for the Future (English version)Raphael M. Tshimanga, Guy D. Moukandi N’kaya, and Douglas Alsdorf (Eds.)
269 Hydrologie, climat et biogéochimie du bassin du Congo: une base pour l’avenir (version française)Raphael M. Tshimanga, Guy D. Moukandi N’kaya, et Douglas Alsdorf (Éditeurs)
270 Muography: Exploring Earth’s Subsurface with Elementary ParticlesLászló Olÿh, Hiroyuki K. M. Tanaka, and Dezso˝ Varga (Eds.)
271 Remote Sensing of Water-Related HazardsKe Zhang, Yang Hong, and Amir AghaKouchak (Eds.)
272 Geophysical Monitoring for Geologic Carbon StorageLianjie Huang (Ed.)
273 Isotopic Constraints on Earth System ProcessesKenneth W. W. Sims, Kate Maher, and Daniel P. Schrag (Eds.)
274 Earth Observation Applications and Global Policy FrameworksArgyro Kavvada, Douglas Cripe, and Lawrence Friedl (Eds.)
275 Threats to Springs in a Changing World: Science and Policies for ProtectionMatthew J. Currell and Brian G. Katz (Eds.)
Threats to Springs in a Changing World
Geophysical Monograph 275Science and Policies for Protection
Matthew J. CurrellBrian G. Katz
Editors
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Currell, Matthew J., editor. | Katz, Brian G., editor. | John Wiley ' Sons, publisher. | American Geophysical Union, publisher.Title: Threats to springs in a changing world : science and policies for protection / Matthew J. Currell, Brian G. Katz, editors. Other titles: Geophysical monograph seriesDescription: Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-American Geophysical Union, 2023. | Series: Geophysical monograph series | Includes bibliographical references and index.Identifiers: LCCN 2022034908 (print) | LCCN 2022034909 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119818595 (cloth) | ISBN 9781119818601 (adobe pdf) | ISBN 9781119818618 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Springs–Pollution. | Spring–Management. | Water quality management.Classification: LCC TD420 .T495 2023 (print) | LCC TD420 (ebook) | DDC 628.1/68–dc23/eng/20221011LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022034908LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022034909
Cover Design: WileyCover Image: Madison Blue Spring in Florida, USA. Courtesy of Brian G. Katz
LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS
Rosangela AddessoMIDA FoundationPertosa, Italy
Mohamad AlaliDepartment of GeologyAmerican University of BeirutBeirut, Lebanon
Michel AounDepartment of GeologyAmerican University of BeirutBeirut, Lebanon
Greg BrickLands and Minerals DivisionMinnesota Department of Natural ResourcesSt. Paul, Minnesota, USA
Nick BrownRoyal Melbourne Institute of TechnologyMelbourne, Australia
Simona CafaroMIDA FoundationPertosa, Italy
Rick CopelandAquiferWatch Inc.Tallahassee, Florida, USA
Matthew J. CurrellSchool of EngineeringRoyal Melbourne Institute of TechnologyMelbourne, Australia
Ilenia M. D’AngeliDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity Aldo MoroBari, Italy
Keegan M. DonovanSchool of Earth and SustainabilityNorthern Arizona UniversityFlagstaff, Arizona, USA
Joanna DoummarDepartment of GeologyAmerican University of BeirutBeirut, Lebanon
Reda ElghawiDepartment of GeologyAmerican University of BeirutBeirut, Lebanon
Libera EspositoDepartment of Science and TechnologyUniversity of SannioBenevento, Italy
Marwan FahsInstitut Terre et Environnement de StrasbourgUniversity of StrasbourgStrasbourg, France
Francesco FiorilloDepartment of Science and TechnologyUniversity of SannioBenevento, Italy
Christoph GerberCSIRO Land and WaterAdelaide, Australia
George GoddardEngineers Without Borders AustraliaBrisbane, Australia
Melissa HorganSouth Australian Arid Lands Landscape BoardPort Augusta, Australia
Hiroyuki IiFaculty of Systems EngineeringWakayama UniversityWakayama, Japan
Anne JensenEnvironmental ConsultantAdelaide, Australia
Assaad H. KassemDepartment of GeologyAmerican University of BeirutBeirut, Lebanon
Brian G. KatzEnvironmental ConsultantWeaverville, North Carolina, USA
Mark KeppelDepartment for Environment and WaterGovernment of South AustraliaAdelaide, Australia
Robert L. KnightFlorida Springs InstituteHigh Springs, Florida, USA
Eugenio LemosPermatilDili, Timor‐Leste
Guido LeoneDepartment of Science and TechnologyUniversity of SannioBenevento, Italy
Isabella S. LisoDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity Aldo MoroBari, Italy
Gary MaddoxAquiferWatch Inc.Tallahassee, Florida, USA
Robert A. MattsonSt. Johns River Water Management DistrictPalatka, Florida, USA
Angeline MeeksFlorida Springs InstituteHigh Springs, Florida, USA
Gavin M. MuddSchool of EngineeringRoyal Melbourne Institute of TechnologyMelbourne, Australia
Jack NugentEngineers Without Borders AustraliaMelbourne, Australia
Jihad OthmanDepartment of GeologyAmerican University of BeirutBeirut, Lebanon
Mauro PagnozziDepartment of Science and TechnologyUniversity of SannioBenevento, Italy
Mario PariseDepartment of Earth and Environmental SciencesUniversity Aldo MoroBari, Italy
Roderic A. ParnellSchool of Earth and SustainabilityNorthern Arizona UniversityFlagstaff, Arizona, USA
Tanja RosenqvistRoyal Melbourne Institute of TechnologyMelbourne, Australia
Aleixo SantosPlan InternationalDili, Timor‐Leste
Andrew ShuggFederation University AustraliaBallarat, Australia
Aaron SmithSouth Australian Arid Lands Landscape BoardPort Augusta, Australia
Abraham E. SpringerSchool of Earth and SustainabilityNorthern Arizona UniversityFlagstaff, Arizona, USA
Simone StewartDepartment for Environment and WaterGovernment of South AustraliaAdelaide, Australia
Axel SuckowCSIRO Land and WaterAdelaide, Australia
Benjamin W. TobinKentucky Geological SurveyUniversity of KentuckyLexington, Kentucky, USA
Andy WoeberAquiferWatch Inc.Tallahassee, Florida, USA
Elsa XimenesEngineers Without Borders AustraliaDili, Timor‐Leste
PREFACE
Natural springs are special places where groundwater reaches the land surface, providing a reliable source of water. Spring waters are critical to sustaining plant, animal, microbial, and human communities throughout the world. Springs hold a special place in our imaginations; in many languages and cultures, they are sites of deep spiritual significance, featuring prominently in religious ceremonies, folklore, songs, and art. Some languages describe springs as “windows” or “eyes” to the underground world and celebrate their powers of healing and regeneration. It is hard to think of a place more central to sustaining life than a permanent spring pool, particularly in the world's drylands.
It is now widely accepted that humanity is having an unprecedented impact on our planet's life‐support systems. Climate change, land clearing, chemical pollution, wastewater disposal, and direct human interventions in hydrological processes (such as megadams and large‐scale groundwater and surface water extraction schemes) are all dramatically altering Earth systems. As connected, integral parts of the global hydrological cycle, springs are highly vulnerable to the effects of these changes. Springs and their associated ecosystems typically depend (for their existence and healthy function) on the maintenance of aquifer water levels and quality within narrow tolerance thresholds. It can thus be argued that they are some of the most sensitive, high‐value sites (systems) in danger from humanity's actions in the epoch many people now call the Anthropocene.
Threats to Springs in a Changing World: Science and Policies for Protection examines case studies from around the world where springs are facing the threat of pollution and depletion as a result of local, regional, or global‐scale anthropogenic impacts. In Part I we document these threats; in Part II we provide guidance on scientific methods that can be employed to better understand spring hydrology, water quality, and vulnerability; and in Part III we examine policy and management approaches for protection of springs and the values they sustain. We hope readers find the book and its topics timely and that it inspires them to get involved in spring science, conservation work, and springs protection activities.
We dedicate this book to the countless generations of people who have cared for springs since time immemorial, so that these unique systems may survive and thrive for future generations of people, plants, and animals to enjoy. The springs we cherish today are the legacy of these peoples’ selfless work, and their care for the future of the human and nonhuman world.
We would like to acknowledge and thank our peers and colleagues who contributed to the development of the ideas outlined in the book, and who helped us see and learn about springs and their incredible values over the years. These include Rod Fensham, Dongmei Han, Ian Cartwright, Clint Hansen, Angus Campbell, Peter Dahlhaus, Adrian Werner, John Webb, Derec Davies, Jim Stevenson, Wes Skiles, Richard Hicks, Stacie Greco, David Hornsby, Cynthia Barnett, Ken Ringle, Craig Pittman, and Sam Upchurch.
We sincerely thank all the peer reviewers who generously gave their time and effort to help improve the 15 chapters of the book.
A special thanks to Ritu, Keerthana, Noel, Layla, and Lesley at Wiley; Jenny and Lieke at AGU Books; and the rest of their teams who worked hard to make the book happen and keep it on track.
Finally, thank you to our dear families who inspire us and support the work we do, day after day.
Matthew J. CurrellRoyal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Australia
Brian G. KatzEnvironmental Consultant, USA
1Protecting Springs in a Changing WorldThrough Sound Science and Policy
Matthew J. Currell1 and Brian G. Katz2
1 School of Engineering, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology, Melbourne, Australia
2 Environmental Consultant, Weaverville, North, Carolina, USA
ABSTRACT
For many communities, springs represent, both literally and symbolically, a source of life. Springs have long been sites of spiritual significance for many of the world's Indigenous peoples and remain so today. They figure prominently in stories, songs, fables, and artworks throughout the world's cultures. Sadly, mounting evidence has emerged showing that many of the world's springs are in decline, and numerous springs have either been lost or rendered inactive. With new and emerging pressures created by global climate change and ever‐increasing demands to develop water, mineral deposits, and land for economic purposes, the threat of degradation of springs is likely to intensify, leading to significant harm for many people and ecological communities. Carefully developed policies and management plans will thus be needed to safeguard springs and their incalculable values across diverse geological, climatic, and anthropogenic settings. These must be informed by high‐quality scientific data collection and analysis programs, extensive community participation, and effective monitoring, reporting, and governance.
1.1. INTRODUCTION
For many communities, springs represent, both literally and symbolically, a source of life. Springs have long been sites of spiritual significance for many of the world's Indigenous peoples and remain so today. They figure prominently in countless stories, songs, fables, and artworks throughout the world's regions and cultures (Ah Chee, 2002; Palmer, 2015; Brake et al., 2019).
Springs are an essential source of water upon which many rare ecological communities depend, including endemic species that would otherwise not exist (e.g., Ponder, 2002; Fensham et al., 2010; Rossini et al., 2020). Their role as refuges for people, plants, and animals in varied and often harsh climates over geologic timescales is well recognized. This is evident in extensive geochemical and archaeological evidence (Hughes & Lampert, 1985; Cuthbert et al., 2017), high levels of endemism in spring biota and associated genetic evidence (e.g., Murphy et al., 2009; Rossini et al., 2018; Fahey et al., 2019), and the stories and songs of many Indigenous people (Ah Chee, 2002; Wangan & Jagalingou Family Council, 2015; Moggridge, 2020). Springs also provide the primary source of drinking water for millions of people worldwide (including many major cities), supply public baths and other tourism sites (e.g., geothermal springs), and provide water for agriculture and industries, such as bottled spring water, throughout the world (Kresic & Stevanovic, 2010). It is hard to overstate the immense value of spring waters to humanity and the global biosphere (Cantonati et al., 2020).
Sadly, mounting evidence has emerged over recent decades showing that many of the world's springs and spring systems are in decline, and numerous springs have either been irreparably lost or rendered inactive (Powell et al., 2015; Powell & Fensham, 2016). Some springs that have been sites of great significance for countless generations recorded in written and oral histories are now sustained only artificially, for example, using bore water to maintain flows at the spring outlet, wetland, or pool, to prevent complete loss of their value (e.g., Ponder, 2002; Zhu et al., 2020). Damage to and loss of springs is primarily due to water extraction in the aquifers sustaining them (Knight, 2015; Powell & Fensham, 2016; Fensham et al., 2016), but also occurs due to land degradation, livestock damage, and colonization with invasive species (Brake et al., 2019; Cantonati et al., 2020). Chemical and biological pollution is another major problem, which to date has received relatively little attention in the literature. Pollution has left the waters emanating from many springs degraded or unusable for drinking, irrigation, or recreational purposes and has damaged spring‐dependent ecology, including triggering toxic algal blooms (Knight, 2015; Katz, 2020).
Together, the loss of spring flows and degraded water quality result in major negative consequences for water supplies, human health, environment, and culture. Spring quality and quantity degradation most commonly relate to the following anthropogenic activities:
Agricultural operations (fertilized cropland and animal farming), which extract large quantities of groundwater and/or release high levels of nutrients, bacteria, and agrichemicals to the land and waterways (Katz,
2020
)
Mining, oil, gas extraction, which dewater aquifers and discharge pollutants that migrate to springs through surface and subsurface pathways (Martin & Dowling,
2013
; Llewellyn et al.,
2015
; Currell et al.,
2017
)
Inappropriate sanitation and other waste management systems, which contaminate groundwater and associated springs with nutrients and bacteria (Graham & Polizzotto,
2013
)
The current and looming impacts of global climate change on rainfall patterns, sea levels, and evapotranspiration rates, which can impact on springs directly and indirectly (e.g., through changing recharge patterns or stimulating increased demand to extract groundwater), add further pressure, as do demands for domestic and municipal water from aquifers sustaining springs in areas of population or water demand growth.
It is impossible here to adequately summarize the cultural, ecological, and economic values that are at stake or lost when springs are damaged and/or threatened by the above processes. The Wangan and Jagalingou People, who petitioned the United Nations to intervene to protect the sacred Doongmabulla Springs (in northeast Australia) from coal mining on their country, summarized the significance of the issue as follows:
These springs are the starting point of our life, and our dreaming totem, the Mundunjudra (also known as the Rainbow Serpent), travelled through the springs to form the shape of the land. Today, our songlines describe the path of the Mundunjudra and the shape of the land, and tell us how to move through our country …. We perform ceremonies and rituals at the springs and other sacred places, like along the Carmichael River, to obtain access to the Mundunjudra and other ancestral beings and spiritual powers …. The mine is very likely to devastate Doongmabulla Springs, which are the starting point of our life and through which our dreaming totem, the Mundunjudra, travelled to form the shape of the land. If our land and waters are destroyed, our culture will be lost, and we become nothing. Our children and grandchildren will never know their culture or who they are, and will suffer significant social, cultural, economic, environmental and spiritual damage and loss. (Wangan & Jagalingou Family Council, 2015, p. 19)
With new and emerging pressures created by global climate change and ever‐increasing demands to develop water, mineral resources, and land for economic purposes, the threat of degradation of springs is likely to intensify, leading to realization of such consequences for many people and ecological communities. In line with recent calls for improved global stewardship of springs (Cantonati et al., 2020; Rossini et al., 2020), carefully developed policies and management plans will be needed to safeguard springs and their incalculable values across diverse geological, climatic, and anthropogenic settings. These policies must be informed by (1) high‐quality scientific data collection and analysis programs; (2) extensive community consultation and participation; and (3) effective monitoring, reporting, and governance mechanisms.
The aim of this volume is to provide case studies and guidance toward these goals, helping practitioners, policy makers, scientists, and the public to work together (and advocate) to better preserve, protect, and/or enhance springs and the many unique values associated with them. The volume is structured into three major parts, designed to give readers overviews of key topics and examples from around the world. The major contributions in each section are briefly summarized below.
1.2. THREATS TO SPRINGS AND THEIR VALUES
Part I, “Threats to Springs and Their Values,” explores and examines causes of their degradation in a variety of contexts. In Chapter 2, Robert L. Knight and Angeline Meeks document the causes of declining water quality in the springs of Florida, the world's largest concentration of artesian karst springs. They show how integrated analysis of land and water‐use data in a GIS model can help identify the dominant source(s) of pollution to springs and uncover links between groundwater extraction and water quality degradation. Their Blue Water Audit tool and associated resources have spread awareness of threats to the springs, educating many people about these. In Chapter 3, also focused on Florida, Rick Copeland and coauthors describe how climatic drivers have contributed to the salinization of Florida's spring waters, through passive encroachment of saltwater under conditions of reduced rainfall and rising sea level. Their study serves as a warning of what may come with further unabated climate change in coastal aquifer systems, which sustain springs and water supplies around the world. Moving to the southwest United States in Chapter 4, Keegan Donovan and coauthors use coupled hydrograph and stable isotopic analysis to demonstrate the threat posed by climate change to ecologically significant springs of the Colorado Plateau in Arizona. They show how the timing and duration of seasonal snowpack melt (under threat due to climate change) is crucial for buffering spring flows against seasonal precipitation fluctuations. In the process, they illustrate the value of stable isotopes in hydrograph analysis, and the importance of high‐resolution climate and spring‐flow monitoring in settings containing vulnerable spring ecosystems.
In Chapter 5, Hiroyuki Ii reviews the impacts of tea plantation fertilization on spring, groundwater, and surface water quality in Japan, showing how reducing fertilizer application rates can reduce spring nutrient pollution, up to a point. In Chapter 6, Gavin M. Mudd and Matthew J. Currell present an analysis of the effects of artesian groundwater extraction for Australia's largest mining operation on the culturally and ecologically significant Mound Springs of the southwestern Great Artesian Basin (Australia's largest interconnected aquifer system). They combine spring‐flow and artesian bore water level measurements to illustrate the effects of mine water extraction on different springs in the unique Kati‐Thanda complex.
1.3. METHODS, TOOLS, AND TECHNIQUES TO UNDERSTAND SPRING HYDROGEOLOGY
Part II, “Methods, Tools, and Techniques to Understand Spring Hydrogeology,” explores methods for understanding spring hydrogeology (including the sources and timescales of water flows) and determining the causes of pollution and associated dynamics. In Chapter 7, Axel Suckow and Christoph Gerber provide an in‐depth review of the use of environmental tracers to study of the origins and timescales of spring water and solute flows, with a particular focus on radioactive isotopes. They explain the complexities involved in the analysis and interpretation of such tracer data and show the value of multitracer “snapshot” sampling and time‐series isotope records for understanding the age profile of spring waters. They utilize an unusually long time‐series record of tritium measurements at the Fischa‐Dagnitz spring to demonstrate these concepts.
In Chapter 8, Joanna Doummar and coauthors demonstrate the integrated use of high‐resolution climatic and spring monitoring data, along with artificial tracer tests and targeted analysis of micropollutants, to provide insights into recharge, flow, and pollution sources in critically important water‐supply springs of Lebanon. Their study shows how these techniques can be combined to improve conceptual hydrogeological models (e.g., defining fast and slow flow pathways) and understand pollution sources and transport, including estimation of key solute transport parameters, for use in modeling studies.
In Chapter 9, Francesco Fiorillo and coauthors demonstrate the value of direct geological investigation for springs within karst terrains focusing on the Alburni Massif in Italy. Their chapter shows how cave mapping and exploration (in conjunction with other hydrogeological investigation techniques) are vitally important for constraining drainage and flow patterns, which in turn can be applied in the estimation of recharge to springs across karst terrains (and specific zones therein). Further illustrating the importance and value of cave exploration in spring vulnerability studies, in Chapter 10 Greg Brick provides an example of how direct observations of geology, and measurement of water temperatures and flow rates, can identify the causes and extent of anthropogenically driven thermal anomalies focusing on a subterranean spring in the midwestern United States.
1.4. POLICY AND GOVERNANCE APPROACHES FOR THE PROTECTION OF SPRINGS
Part III, “Policy and Governance Approaches for the Protection of Springs,” examines different approaches to management of springs, their water quality, and associated values. In Chapter 11, Tanja Rosenqvist and coauthors investigate the strengths and limitations of community‐based water resources management (CBWRM) for springs that are vital drinking water sources in rural communities of Timor‐Leste. Maintaining water security in the face of natural and anthropogenic pressures on these springs presents significant challenges for these communities. Through field research and interviews, they show that there is a high willingness among some community members to adopt CBWRM. However, the resilience of water supply systems was not guaranteed under this model, as revealed when analyzed through a socioecological‐technical (SETS) lens. The authors provide recommendations to strengthen institutional and governance arrangements to better define and support community roles and responsibilities.
Returning to Florida in Chapter 12, Robert A. Mattson explains the use of benthic algal targets as a management strategy for the protection of spring‐fed streams, which have been experiencing ecological degradation due to increased algal abundance. Based on a comparison of targets proposed in the literature with data on algal cover, dry weight, and chlorophyll a from springs in north and central Florida, he finds that such targets have promise as management tools for preserving values associated with the springs, albeit with further detailed research required to determine the most appropriate targets for specific areas and springs. In Chapter 13, Mark Keppel and colleagues present an overview of the scientific evidence‐based policies that are being used to manage the springs of the southwest Great Artesian Basin in northern South Australia (including those at Kati‐Thanda examined by Mudd and Currell earlier) and the outstanding ecological and cultural values associated with these. The primary policy tools include the licensing and capping of groundwater extractions, with the goal of maintaining artesian pressures near springs, and the application of a new springs monitoring risk assessment and adaptive management plan (encompassing measures to limit disturbance from surface activities). These are both considered critical for guarding against ongoing and future threats to these remarkable springs, and to build on the success of a recent bore capping and infrastructure upgrade program.
Finally, in Chapter 14, Andrew Shugg analyzes the success of different management strategies (including various remediation measures) implemented over a period of decades and designed to address recurring bacterial contamination of cold‐water mineral springs in central Victoria, Australia. Through careful analysis of a 30 year time series of bacterial monitoring data and the hydrogeological regime, the dynamics of the contamination problem and limits to successful remediation are identified.
Together, the contributions in each section give readers an up‐to‐date picture of the threats faced by springs across diverse settings. Relevant information is provided on methods for better understanding the nature and extent of such threats. Furthermore, these chapters describe management tools and approaches that are being used and/or developed in response to the strong desire of many people worldwide to safeguard springs and their immense value into the future.
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Part IThreats to Springs and Their Values
2Assessing Pollution and Depletion of Large Artesian Springs in Florida's Rapidly Developing Water‐Rich Landscape
Robert L. Knight and Angeline Meeks
Florida Springs Institute, High Springs, Florida, USA
ABSTRACT
The area of north and central Florida has one of the largest concentrations of large artesian springs in the world. These springs and the rivers they create, including their productive and highly adapted biota, are dependent upon flows of groundwater from the Floridan aquifer, fed by rainfall recharge over a land area of about 100,000 square miles. The Floridan aquifer is also the source of water used for drinking, irrigation, and commercial/industrial industries by more than 14 million people. Human uses of the region's groundwater are in direct conflict with spring flows resulting in long‐term flow reductions for the majority of Florida's springs. In addition to this water quantity issue, human activities, including the use of nitrogen fertilizers and disposal of human and animal wastewaters, have polluted a large portion of the Floridan aquifer with nitrogen, implicated in springs eutrophication evidenced by loss of native vegetation and replacement by filamentous algae. While these impairments have been recognized for more than 20 years and are the subject of state efforts to protect spring flows and water quality, conditions are worsening in most springs. The Blue Water Audit is a GIS‐based tool that quantifies the sources of water quantity and quality stresses on a parcel‐by‐parcel basis to facilitate the prioritization of restoration actions. Web‐based dissemination of this “aquifer footprint” information is helping to highlight these issues for the public and its elected representatives.
2.1. THE ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS OF FLORIDA'S ARTESIAN SPRINGS
At 100,000 square miles, the Floridan aquifer system (FAS) is one of the largest freshwater supplies on the planet Earth, encompassing all of Florida, much of Georgia's coastal plain area, and additional areas of South Carolina, Alabama, and Mississippi. Trillions of gallons of freshwater occupy the porous limestone that compose the landward portion of the Florida Platform, an accumulation of marine sediments deposited over the past 50 million years (Bellino et al., 2018). With rising and falling sea levels, some of the limestone has been hollowed out by dissolution due to slightly acidic rainfall. The combined void spaces of these eroded cavities as well as porosity of the limestone itself provide storage volume for groundwater. Coastal extensions of the platform are filled with seawater as are the deeper portions of the aquifer under much of the state (Williams & Kuniansky, 2016). But high average annual rainfall of about 50 in. each year continuously replenishes the upper volume of the aquifer and naturally overflows in the form of artesian springs across much of the aquifer's area.
2.1.1. Florida Springs Regional Occurrence and Magnitude
The majority of Florida's artesian springs are located north of I‐4, from Tampa on the southwest to Orlando on the east (Fig. 2.1). The areas of Florida that provide freshwater recharge to the FAS, known as Florida's “Springs Region,” include about 27 million acres. The total official springs count in Florida's Springs Region is currently 1,090, possibly the largest concentration of artesian springs in the world. Dozens of additional artesian springs, also dependent upon the FAS, are located in South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi (Williams & Kuniansky, 2016).
Figure 2.1 Florida Springs Region and four principal Florida Springs Restoration Areas delineated. (Adapted from FSI 2018).
2.1.2. Summary of Florida Springs Flow and Water Quality Changes
Florida has the reputation as the state with the highest number of first magnitude springs (median annual discharge over 100 cfs) in the United States and world (Rosenau et al., 1977; Scott et al., 2002). While some of Florida's large springs are river resurgences, at least 27 first magnitude artesian springs are found in the state that predominantly discharge clear groundwater (Table 2.1). Table 2.1 includes reported historic flows from these giants as well as more recent average flows over the past 20 years. In addition to the biggest springs, there are an estimated 70 second magnitude (>10 cfs), 190 third magnitude (>1 cfs), and up to 800 fourth magnitude (>0.1 cfs) or smaller springs in Florida (USGS, 1995).
Prior to modern development, springs were the primary discharge points from the FAS (Bush & Johnston, 1988). Currently, in Florida alone, there are an additional 30,000 groundwater extraction permits authorizing one or more large wells to withdraw more than 100,000 gal per day from the FAS (Knight, 2015). Many more large wells tap the FAS in Georgia as well as an estimated 1 million smaller self‐supply wells in Florida and Georgia (Knight, 2015). In combination, these groundwater extractions have reduced average statewide spring flows by about 32% (Knight & Clarke, 2016).
Table 2.1 First magnitude springs and spring groups recorded in Florida
Source: Historic average flows adapted from Bush and Johnston (1988); recent (2000–2020) flows from Harrington et al. (2010), Florida Springs Institute (2018), and USGS (1995).
Spring/spring group name
County
Historical average flow (cfs)
Recent average flows (cfs)
Spring Creek
Wakulla
1,610
255
Crystal River
Citrus
916
465
Silver
Marion
820
519
Rainbow
Marion
763
596
Alapaha Rise
Hamilton
608
392
St. Marks
Leon
519
550
Wakulla
Wakulla
375
461
Wacissa
Jefferson
374
343
Ichetucknee
Columbia
358
310
Holton
Hamilton
289
243
Blue
Jackson
190
108
Manatee
Levy
181
140
Kini
Wakulla
176
150
Weeki Wachee
Hernando
176
136
Homosassa
Citrus
174
93
Troy
Lafayette
166
111
River Sink
Wakulla
164
No data
Hornsby
Alachua
163
51
Blue
Volusia
160
143
Gainer
Bay
159
149
Chassahowitzka
Citrus
138
62
Falmouth
Suwannee
125
49
Blue
Madison
123
102
Silver Glen
Marion
112
99
Natural Bridge
Leon
106
73
Fanning
Levy
102
66
Alexander
Lake
100
100
In stark contrast to this rapid rise in human groundwater extractions, long‐term average rainfall totals in Florida's Springs Region have been relatively consistent over the past 100 years (Knight & Clarke, 2016). The anticipated effects of rising air temperatures and sea levels associated with ongoing climate changes are an increase in Florida's precipitation over the long term (EPA, 2016). Current rainfall data have not confirmed this expected trend as annual rainfall totals in Florida's Springs Region continue to range from about 34 to 72 in. per year with an average in the low to mid 50s. While annual average spring flows vary in response to these wet and dry rainfall years, changes in groundwater pumping provide the strongest correlation with long‐term spring flow declines (Knight & Clarke, 2016).
Based on historic data, background concentrations of nitrate nitrogen in the FAS and springs were formerly at or near the analytical detection limit of 0.05 mg/L (Harrington et al., 2010). Nitrate concentrations in Florida's groundwaters have been increasing throughout the past 100 years to current levels that are considered to be problematic for springs and downstream receiving waters (Brown et al., 2008). Figure 2.2 provides a summary of observed nitrate‐nitrogen increases in 57 sentinel springs identified by the Florida Springs Institute (2018). Average groundwater nitrate concentrations throughout the Florida Springs Region are on the order of 1.0 mg/L, about 20 times the historic baseline (Knight, 2015). About 8% of Florida's springs have nitrate concentrations over 2 mg/L with a few large springs over 5 mg/L, and at least one with more than 40 mg/L in an area of high groundwater contamination by a dairy (Knight, 2015; Florida Springs Institute, 2020).
2.1.3. Observed Ecological Impairments in Florida Springs
Florida springs unimpacted by human development have highly efficient and productive assemblages of aquatic plants and animals. Florida's Silver Springs had average gross primary productivity measured as 17.5 g dry weight/m2/d (57,100 lb/acre/year) in the 1950s (Odum, 1957). Respiratory metabolism was also high, resulting in a well‐balanced ecosystem with only a moderate amount of net productivity that was exported downstream. This high rate of ecosystem function was supported by a classic trophic pyramid of primary producers (submerged aquatic plants and attached algae), primary consumers (larval insects and herbivorous turtles and fish), and several levels of consumers, including fish, alligators, and water‐dependent birds and mammals (Odum, 1957).
Subsequent research at Silver Springs confirmed the ecological stability of this well‐developed natural ecosystem in response to declining flows and increasing nitrate pollution, but within 50 years after Odum's seminal study, it was clear that known and unknown stresses were taking a toll on the healthy balance of the aquatic ecosystem (Munch et al., 2006; Brown et al., 2010). Structural ecological changes observed at Silver Springs included a proliferation of benthic and attached filamentous algae, reduced populations of emerging aquatic insects, reduced and altered fish populations and biomass, and reduced aquatic productivity. Similar and new changes are still occurring at Silver Springs as evidenced by continuing research (Hicks & Holland, 2012; Reddy et al., 2017; Florida Springs Institute, 2019). The damming of the downstream Ocklawaha River, which receives critical tributary flows from the Silver River, not only has resulted in major shifts in fish populations and diversity but also has contributed to explosive expansions of nonnative fish species such as sailfin catfish and blue tilapia (Florida Springs Institute, 2020).
Figure 2.2
