139,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Studying the Ocean Planet requires measuring and sampling instruments to feed models that take into account its complexity. This book presents the diversity of observation and monitoring techniques at various scales, but also different kinds of model that take into account some conceptual schemes incorporating various scientific knowledge. Sampling is approached via the efficiency of fishing gears; underwater acoustics is used to detect, count, identify and listen to live and mobile living resources. Bio-logging allows us to rely on the behavior of marine animals to help investigate environments that are difficult to sample by conventional means, while listing the physiological changes they undergo. Modeling is presented not only in a functional framework, but also in an exploratory design incorporating various scenarios for ecosystem changes under the pressure of global change. This ninth volume completes the "Seas and Oceans" Set that adopts a transversal approach leading to the governance and sustainable management of the marine environment.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 535
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Title
Copyright
Foreword
1 For a Systemic and Transdisciplinary Approach to the Environment
1.1. Introduction
1.2. A complex and vulnerable ocean system
1.3. Suitable observation tools
1.4. Conclusion
1.5. Acknowledgments
1.6. Bibliography
2 Vulnerability to Global Change: Observation Strategies for the Marine Environment
2.1. Introduction
2.2. Marine environment observation strategies
2.3. Some large observation domains
2.4. Satellite contribution to observation strategies
2.5.
In situ
observation
2.6. Observation strategies
2.7. What next?
2.8. Bibliography
3 Fishing Technology for Fisheries Research
3.1. Introduction
3.2. The methods employed to measure selectivity
3.3. The tools and observation methods of fishing gear
3.4. Computer simulation tools
3.5. Perspectives
3.6. Bibliography
4 Acoustics to Detect and Measure Underwater Organisms
4.1. Introduction
4.2. How animals use acoustics
4.3. How researchers use acoustics
4.4. Practical uses of acoustics
4.5. Acknowledgments
4.6. Bibliography
5 “Bio-logging” as a Tool to Study and Monitor Marine Ecosystems, or How to Spy on Sea Creatures
5.1. Introduction
5.2. The variety of sensors and measurements
5.3. Attachment methods: limits and ethics
5.4. Current challenges
5.5. Some examples of discoveries resulting from bio-logging
5.6. Conclusion
5.7. Bibliography
6 Modeling Strategies for Ecosystems
6.1. Definition of mathematical modeling
6.2. Mathematical formalization
6.3. Metabolic foundations of population dynamics
6.4. Modeling complexity
6.5. Conclusion
6.6. Acknowledgments
6.7. Bibliography
7 The Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries: Reconciling Conservation and Exploitation
7.1. The ecosystem approach to fisheries: a shared view on the management of marine resources
7.2. The way marine ecosystems work
7.3. EAF and research on marine ecosystems
7.4. Ecological indicators Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD)
7.5. Implementing the EAF: the Benguela and Humboldt examples
7.6. Dynamic approaches to the ecosystem management of fisheries
7.7. Bibliography
8 Modeling in Contemporary Sciences: Efficiency and Limits Examples from Oceanography
8.1. Introduction
8.2. A language to describe reality
8.3. Relationships between models and reality
8.4. What about marine ecological systems and their management?
8.5. Interdisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity and modeling
8.5. Bibliography
List of Authors
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
1 For a Systemic and Transdisciplinary Approach to the Environment
Figure 1.1.
Semantic proliferation of environmental research
Figure 1.2.
Conceptual framework for a systemic and transversal approach (from ANR-ESS SSC)
Figure 1.3.
Schematic overview of the structure of the Seas and Oceans set
Figure 1.4.
Conceptual framework proposed for the management, protection and restoration of the North Sea [OSP 06]
Figure 1.5.
Example of PREMIVER cartographic output showing the concentration of chlorophyll-a in surface waters (2/10/2015)
Figure 1.6.
Salmon instrumented with an acoustic beacon allowing us to find out its location in the body of water in 3D
Figure 1.7.
Interaction between a hydrodynamic model (arrows) and a reconstruction of the salmon’s journey (white line) in the estuary of the Adour [MAH 10]
2 Vulnerability to Global Change: Observation Strategies for the Marine Environment
Figure 2.1.
Simplified pattern of thermohaline circulation [GIE 10]
Figure 2.2.
a) Reflection seismology records the echoes of the waves reflected by different subsoil strata; b) seismic refraction records the echoes of the waves refracted on the interfaces of different subsoil strata
Figure 2.3.
Examples of bathymetric maps (on the left) and of marine habitats (on the right)
Figure 2.4.
Earthquakes in metropolitan France
Figure 2.5.
The European Multidisciplinary Seafloor Observatory network
Figure 2.6.
A map of the distribution of surface floats (Argos system)
Figure 2.7.
Networks of measurements taken by merchant ships fitted with thermo salinographs
Figure 2.8.
Simplified diagram of a drifting buoy followed by the Argos satellite
Figure 2.9.
An example of the structure of an ARGO deep-sea profiler
Figure 2.10.
ARGO floats in operation at the end of 2010 (those submerged by France are shown in yellow)
Figure 2.11.
Distribution of profile measurements taken by instrumented marine mammals in the circum-Antarctic area
Figure 2.12.
The French SEAEXPLORER “glider”
Figure 2.13.
European Center of Submarine Technology “glider” fleet
Figure 2.14.
Working principle of a “glider” (source: IFM-GEOMAR). The “glider” dives into deep waters (up to 1000 meters) and then resurfaces, all the while measuring physicochemical parameters. Upon reaching the surface, it sends the data obtained during the submersion to a satellite and recovers information from the control center, piloted by a “gliderman”, for its next dive
Figure 2.15.
Front view of the manned Nautile submarine
Figure 2.16.
View of the ROV Victor 6000
Figure 2.17.
View of the AUV Idefx
Figure 2.18.
The Hybrid ROV, able to reach depths of 3000 meters
Figure 2.19.
The “Sea Explorer”, a French glider
3 Fishing Technology for Fisheries Research
Figure 3.1.
An example of modern bottom trawl with its different parts
Figure 3.2.
“Everything is linked”
Figure 3.3.
The T90 is a kind of mesh rotated 90° in relation to the normal orientation N of the diamond mesh (on the left). The mesh T90 (on the right) will remain open even when it is stretched in water by the drag of the trawl. The diamond mesh with a normal orientation will tend to close when under traction
Figure 3.4.
Mesh gap and gauge measurement: a) the “mesh gap” measured by the gauge; b) triangular manual gauge; c) ICES mechanical gauge (P. Larnaud)
Figure 3.5.
The OMEGA gauge
Figure 3.6.
Typical example of the selectivity curve of a trawl
Figure 3.7.
Example of cod-end with a small-mesh “trawl blinder”
Figure 3.8.
Example of trawl cod end with small-mesh cover pocket
Figure 3.9.
Example of a small-mesh collection pocket above a square-mesh otter door
Figure 3.10.
An example of a Siamese trawl
Figure 3.11.
An example of twin trawls
Figure 3.12.
An example of a sampling beam trawl
Figure 3.13.
A “mesopelagos” scientific trawl
Figure 3.14.
The principle of gillnetting
Figure 3.15.
Fish in a gillnet laid on the seafloor
Figure 3.16.
Typical selectivity curve of a gillnet
Figure 3.17.
Principle of trammel nets
Figure 3.18.
Typical selectivity curve of a trammel net
Figure 3.19.
Example of surface longline
Figure 3.20.
Example of bottom longline
Figure 3.21.
180-degree view of the basin of Boulogne sur Mer and mock-ups of trawl otter doors (source: Ifremer/B. Gaurier). On the right, view of the basin of Lorient
Figure 3.22.
Excitation and 3D trajectography system set up to study the dynamics of a trawl otter door in the basin of Lorient
Figure 3.23.
View of a basin and of its main components
Figure 3.24.
Testing a mock-up trawl and an actual size fist pot in a basin
Figure 3.25.
EROC (Engin Remorqué pour l’Observation des Chaluts or Towed Vehicle for the Observation of Trawls) on deck of the Thalassa
Figure 3.26.
EROC images, classic trawl otter door, Jumper otter door with low floor impact, footrope and headrope of a trawl, IFREMER images
Figure 3.27.
Towed vehicle used by the “Aberdeen Marine Laboratory” [MAI 77]
Figure 3.28.
Installation of a video system on a selective trawl device; a square-mesh panel
Figure 3.29.
On the right: tensionsensors on the bracket of an experimental trawl, positioning system, system used to measure distance between the otter doors and their depth, otter door angle sensor (vertical cylinder). On the right: acoustic beacons working as master-slave to measure the horizontal opening of a pelagic trawl in relation to its rigging
Figure 3.30.
Operating phases of a software simulation program: preparation of data, processing through computer algorithms, analysis of the results in the virtual environment
Figure 3.31.
Six-panel bottom trawl simulated by the Ifremer commercial software DynamiT, used by several authors for fishing research purposes [DAN 09, TRU 15]. The colors of the cables represent their internal tension
Figure 3.32.
The shape of a Danish seine changing during a turning maneuver
4 Acoustics to Detect and Measure Underwater Organisms
Figure 4.1.
The relation between the size of a target and the volume insonified by an echosounder placed on the hull of a ship (on the left) and an image of the echoes received by the same echosounder (on the right): a) single targets (individual fish) < insonified volume; b) multiple targets (fish school or plankton layer) > insonified volume. θ represents the opening angle of the echo-sounder. The thickness of the insonified volume depends on pulse duration and celerity C of the signal emitted by the echosounder
Figure 4.2.
Target strength as a function of the emission frequency for different marine organisms. This curve is called frequency response curve (redrawn from [STA 10] and modified)
Figure 4.3.
A multibeam ME70 acoustic antenna (part of the Simrad echosounder)
Figure 4.4.
Beam pattern of a Simrad ES -1207C transducer at 120 kHz in polar coordinates, the 7° angle at -3 dB is shown by the crosses on the main lobe (at the center, 0°), the side lobes (small side beams) have been optimized to less than -25 dB by the manufacturer
Figure 4.5.
Echogram of a tungsten sphere and its weight used to stabilize the sphere for a multibeam ME70 echosounder configuration with (left) and without (right) minimization of side lobes. In the latter case, the double echoes of the targets and the seafloor significantly complicate data analysis
Figure 4.6.
Spectrogram of a whistle produced by an Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops aduncus)
Figure 4.7.
Spatiotemporal scope of a single observation unit for different observation methods. The lower left-hand corner of each polygon shows the resolution and the upper right-hand corner the range. The dark green area indicates the overlap between the volumes sampled by passive and active acoustics to drawn from [TRE 11] and modified
Figure 4.8.
A herring school diving on approach of the survey vessel. a) 3D view, b) 2D lateral view
Figure 4.9.
Echosounders installed on the hull of RV Thalassa
Figure 4.10.
Volume sampled by a vertical fisheries echosounder
Figure 4.11.
Seafloor maps obtained with a Simrad ME70 multibeam echosounder; a) a bathymetric image; b) reflectivity image
Figure 4.12.
Environmental Acoustic Reader (EAR) in a coral reef
Figure 4.13.
Digital Acoustic Recording Tag (DTAG) on an Atlantic bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus)
Figure 4.14.
Transect design of the acoustic survey carried out in the Bay of Biscay. The diameter of the circles is proportional to the biomass of acoustically detected anchovies
Figure 4.15.
Installation plan of a fixed station in the south of the Bay of Biscay designed to observe an artificial reef
Figure 4.16.
Flow diagram of acoustic data acquisition and processing for biomass index estimation. The solid-lined boxes correspond to examples of specific software programs
Figure 4.17.
3D representation of fish schools above the seafloor
5 “Bio-logging” as a Tool to Study and Monitor Marine Ecosystems, or How to Spy on Sea Creatures
Figure 5.1.
An example of a picture taken by a micro-camera attached directly to a Cape gannet (Morus Capensis). The picture was taken as the animal fitted with it was diving (it is possible to see the bird’s back and wings in the foreground), and shows a fellow gannet about to capture a prey in the presence of a dolphin (Delphinus capensis)
Figure 5.2.
A Peruvian booby (Sula variegata) fitted with a miniaturized GPS recorder (which weighs 12 grams)
6 Modeling Strategies for Ecosystems
Figure 6.1.
The result of a simulation of a prey/predator system based on a Lotka-Volterra equation: a) evolution of the two variables over time; b) phase plan ad velocities
Figure 6.2.
The evolution of a variable x in relation to a Verhulst’s equation for two different initial values
Figure 6.3a–b.
a) Diagram representing the bio-interactions between the state variables of Soetaert and Herman’s NPZD model [SOE 09], b) the result of a simulation showing the variable dynamics over time
Figure 6.3
c
The representation of the same results in a phase plan
Figure 6.4.
a) Functional diagram of the processes and state variables of a Dynamic Energy Budget (DEB) model, b) an example of simulation of individual growth and reproduction for different temperature and food values (phytoplankton)
7 The Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries: Reconciling Conservation and Exploitation
Figure 7.1.
Major institutional steps of the advancement in the construction of ecosystem approach to fisheries
Figure 7.2.
Diagram of the main ecological and socio-economical inner workings of the “fishery system”
Figure 7.3.
Bottom-up control or control through primary production in a simplified four-level food chain in a marine ecosystem
Figure 7.4.
Top-down control or trophic cascade in the food chain for four trophic levels in a marine ecosystem
Figure 7.5.
a) Wasp-waist control in a simplified four-level food chain in a marine ecosystem. b) The abundance of prey fish (small pelagic fish), which depends on the environment, controls at once the abundance of predators and primary producers
Figure 7.6.
A diagram of the concept of bottom-up transfer of spatial structuring
Figure 7.7.
An example of sea-surface temperature fields (in ºC) simulated thanks to the Regional Ocean Modeling System model in the south-western Pacific (on the left) and in two specific regions illustrated by the black frames in the left-hand graph. We can see the presence of a large number of eddies and fronts that structure very significantly the oceanic landscape
Figure 7.8.
A conceptual model which describes the relative importance of self
-
organization and environmental constraints in relation to the spatial organization of gregarious fish depending on the scale considered. The diagram is plotted around two axes, one based on self-organization (on the left) and the other on environmental forcing
Figure 7.9.
Vertical and horizontal integration of end-to-end models
Figure 7.10.
An example of alternative food chains: a) drawn from [PAR 02], b) drawn from [VAN 06], and c) drawn from [MUR 077]
Figure 7.11.
The perimeter of the four French marine sub-regions of the MSFD (drawn from DRIEE Ile de France and modified)
Figure 7.12.
A presentation of the eleven MSFD descriptors and their indicators of state (s), pressure (p), and impact (i) (from [BOR 10])
Figure 7.13.
A diagram of the environmental scenarios in the Humboldt Current ecosystem (from [BER 11])
Figure 7.14.
A 3D structure of the habitat of anchovies, defined by the area of cold coastal waters and the depth of the oxycline. This 3D habitat is estimated on the basis of scientific research at sea employing multi-frequency acoustics. The image shown was taken during scientific research conducted in winter 2005 (austral) and the volume of the anchovy habitat is estimated at 9138 km
3
(from [BER 10])
Figure 7.15.
Probability of encountering breeding birds of three different species according to the sites considered. The size of the circles represents the breeding probability of each species (in %, Guanay cormorants in black, gannets in red, pelicans in blue). Islands are shown in green and peninsulas in red. For ease of reference, the coastline is shifted longitudinally and is shown in yellow
Figure 7.16.
Warm and cold ecological scenarios triggered by oceanic Kelvin wave forcing on the Humboldt Current coastal system. ST: surface temperature, CCW DC: average distance of cold coastal waters from the coast, Dist. coast: average distance of anchovies from the coast, Spatial conc.: spatial concentration index for the biomass of anchovies, School depth: average depth of the schools of anchovies (from [BER 08b])
8 Modeling in Contemporary Sciences: Efficiency and Limits Examples from Oceanography
Figure 8.1.
Diagram of the spatialized dynamics of fishing resources showing the boundary conditions from which solutions of the model may be studied
Figure 8.2.
Smith’s model compared to historical data on whaling (Clark, op. Cit.). The fishing effort E is assumed to be equal to the number of ships. This model provides for certain parameter values a fixed point, which is a stable focus. Data coming from logbooks of ships do not contradict this result
Figure 8.3.
Intermittencies in population dynamics: the example of sardines in the Pacific Ocean estimated from sedimentary marine deposits off of the coast of California (see Ferrière and Cazelles [FER 99]). Years are before present (2000)
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Pages
C1
iii
iv
v
xi
xii
xiii
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
326
327
328
329
330
331
332
333
334
335
337
338
339
340
341
342
G1
G2
G3
From the Seas and Oceans Set
coordinated by
André Mariotti and Jean-Charles Pomerol
Tools for Oceanography and Ecosystemic Modeling
Edited by
André Monaco
Patrick Prouzet
First published 2016 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd
27-37 St George’s Road
London SW19 4EU
UK
www.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
111 River Street
Hoboken, NJ 07030
USA
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2016
The rights of André Monaco and Patrick Prouzet to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016939646
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
ISBN 978-1-84821-778-2
Foreword
We have been asked by ISTE to stimulate work in the area of the environment. Therefore, we are proud to present the “Seas and Oceans” set of books, edited by André Monaco and Patrick Prouzet.
Both the content and the organization of this collection have largely been inspired by the reflection, initiatives and prospective works of a wide variety of national, European and international organizations in the field of the environment.
The “oceanographic” community in France – which is recognized for the academic quality of the work it produces, and is determined that its research should be founded on a solid effort in the area of training and knowledge dissemination – and internationally was quick to respond to our call, and now offers this set of books, compiled under the skilled supervision of the two editing authors.
Within this community, there is a consensus about the need to promote an interdisciplinary “science of systems” – specifically in reference to the Earth’s own “system” – in an all-encompassing approach, with the aim of providing answers about the planet’s state, the way it works and the threats it faces, before going on to construct scenarios and lay down the elementary foundations needed for long-term, sustainable environment management, and for societies to adapt as required. This approach facilitates the shift of attention from this fundamental science of systems (based on the analysis of processes at play, and the way in which they interact at all levels, and between all the constituent parts making up the global system) to a “public” type of science, which is finalizable and participative, open to decision-makers, managers and all those who are interested in the future of our planet.
In this community, terms such as “vulnerability”, “adaptation” and “sustainability” are commonly employed. We speak of various concepts, approaches or technologies, such as the value of ecosystems, heritage, “green” technologies, “blue” chemistry and renewable energies. Another foray into the field of civilian science lies in the adaptation of research to scales which are compatible with the societal, economic and legal issues, from global to regional to local.
All these aspects contribute to an in-depth understanding of the concept of an ecosystemic approach, the aim of which is the sustainable usage of natural resources, without affecting the quality, the structure or the function of the ecosystems involved. This concept is akin to the “socio-ecosystem approach” as defined by the Millennium Assessment (http://millenniumassessment.org).
In this context, where the complexity of natural systems is compounded with the complexity of societies, it has been difficult (if only because of how specialized the experts are in fairly reduced fields) to take into account the whole of the terrestrial system. Hence, in this editorial domain, the works in the “Seas and Oceans” set are limited to fluid envelopes and their interfaces. In this context, “sea” must be understood in the generic sense, as a general definition of bodies of salt water, as an environment. This includes epicontinental seas, semi-enclosed seas, enclosed seas, or coastal lakes, all of which are home to significant biodiversity and are highly susceptible to environmental impacts. “Ocean”, on the other hand, denotes the environmental system which has a crucial impact on the physical and biological operation of the terrestrial system – particularly in terms of climate regulation, but also in terms of the enormous reservoir of resources it constitutes Oceans covering 71% of the planet’s surface, with a volume of 1,370 million km3 of water.
This set of books covers all of these areas, examined from various aspects by specialists in the field: biological, physical or chemical function, biodiversity, vulnerability to climatic impacts, various uses, etc. The systemic approach and the emphasis placed on the available resources will guide readers to aspects of value-creation, governance and public policy. The long-term observation techniques used, new techniques and modeling are also taken into account; they are indispensable tools for the understanding of the dynamics and integral functioning of the systems.
Finally, treatises will be included which are devoted to methodological or technical aspects.
The project thus conceived has been well received by numerous scientists renowned for their expertise. They belong to a wide variety of French national and international organizations, focusing on the environment.
These experts deserve our heartfelt thanks for committing to this effort in terms of putting their knowledge across and making it accessible, thus providing current students with the fundaments of knowledge which will help open the door to the broad range of careers that the area of the environment holds. These books are also addressed to a wider audience, including local or national governors, players in decision-making authorities, or indeed “ordinary” citizens looking to be informed by the most authoritative sources.
Our warmest thanks go to André Monaco and Patrick Prouzet for their devotion and perseverance in service of the success of this enterprise.
Finally, we must thank the CNRS and Ifremer for the interest they have shown in this collection and for their financial aid, and we are very grateful to the numerous universities and other organizations which, through their researchers and engineers, have made the results of their reflections and activities available to this instructional corpus.
André MARIOTTI
Professor Emeritus at University Pierre and Marie CurieHonorary Member of the Institut Universitaire de FranceFrance
Jean-Charles POMEROL
Professor Emeritus at University Pierre and Marie CurieFrance
1For a Systemic and Transdisciplinary Approach to the Environment
1.1. Introduction
In terms of research and technologies, the last ten years have been marked by an undeniably increased awareness of the problems posed by the evolution of our natural environment and societies. In the face of the visible changes of the dynamics of systems and the uses of resources, we called upon science to provide the elements necessary to understand these changes and to pave the way for the future by providing those tools that can help us make decisions.
Furthermore, the researchers working in the wide field of the environment have become familiar with the several initiatives, methods, and programs resulting from the reflection of the international community on the notion of “earth system research for global sustainability” (ESRGS); [REI 10] identify five “great challenges of future earth” which link global change to sustainable development. In France, the research and development programs follow the main directions of public policies, especially those of the National Research and Innovation Strategy (NRIS, Paris, 2009) of the Ministry of Higher Education and Research, to cope with and adapt to the accelerated development of economic, social and environmental pressures.
Internationally, programs are deeply rooted in several bodies and actions, including the international council for science (ICSU) and the joint programming initiative (JPI), which focus on water, climate, agriculture or the sea, and the International Group of Funding Agencies for Global Change Research (IGFA)/Belmont Forum1, a group of funding agencies for global research on environmental change. The “Belmont” challenge aims at “providing the knowledge necessary to action aiming to adapt to and reduce harmful changes in the environment and extreme events”. The priorities of collaborative research action (CRA) have to do with the safety of water resources and the vulnerability of coastal areas. These organizational concepts and priorities can be found in national research institutions in Europe as well as in the United States. We could even start to worry about the standardization of the research calls from authorities concerned.
Whatever the research field may be, every one of these programs advises a multi- inter- transdisciplinary approach which details the historical development of environmental sciences. This transversality represents and denotes, quite simply, an increasing amount of disciplines being integrated and applied to the environment, in particular social studies and finally, an interaction with the users and policy makers who use the research results in management strategies (see section 3.1). There is even talk of a “co-design” of research programs involving all the actors and participants to the projects. This stage really still seems out of reach. Nevertheless, the literature offers such a variety of terms, concepts and paradigms that it has become difficult for the lay person to get his or her bearings (Figure 1.1).
Figure 1.1.Semantic proliferation of environmental research.
After this quick reminder about the development of environmental research, and while there is an increasingly wider range of occupations and professions in the environmental field, we have to make this observation: the future practitioners,, i.e. students at different stages in their education, who are increasingly specialized in their sector, seem almost completely dissociated from these national and international considerations and projects. This explains the current difficulties faced when attempting to concretely apply the scientific knowledge into the complex problems posed by changes in the environment (Figure 1.2).
This remark constitutes the basis for thee “Seas and Oceans” collection, which draws from the most recent reflections and national and international directives in terms of earth and environmental sciences to propose: i) a systemic approach to the ocean and its interfaces; ii) an order in which the volumes are published, which simulates the strategies advised for the organization of environmental studies; in other words, starting with the way the marine system works and ending with ocean governance, passing by various cases of vulnerability (Figure 1.3). To ensure this transition between the environment and the socio-economic sector, we have focused on the living resource which best integrates the functions and the changes in the natural environment and its usages.
Figure 1.2.Conceptual framework for a systemic and transversal approach (from ANR-ESS SSC).
This transition, through the resources that make up a vulnerable human capital, is essential and raises awareness among the public with less scientific knowledge since it is closely linked to society and its uses. For example, the “earth overshoot day”, when our planet has consumed more than what it produces yearly, makes it possible to raise public awareness about the pressure that our societies exert on these resources and somehow represents the degree of pressure that we exert on the environment. In French, this is called jour du dépassement global, i.e. the date on which theoretically the Earth’s renewable resources have been depleted2: the first “earth overshoot day” dates back to the December 31, 1986, when the world first consumed in a year more than the planet could offer. However, in 2015 it was on August 3 that we consumed the renewable resources of a whole year.
1.2. A complex and vulnerable ocean system
The Seas and Oceans set of books that we have coordinated has been defined by an editorial board3 of experts in different scientific domains covering a wide range of subject fields, making it possible to tackle the complexity of marine ecosystems but also their vulnerability4. The contribution of experts in economics and social studies has also allowed us to see how human societies have exploited, but also sometimes destabilized, marine resources and how these societies could adapt to the change factors resulting from different natural and anthropogenic pressures. The value of resources has not only focused on traditional activities like fishing, aquaculture or maritime transport; it is also derived from the exploitation of the diversity of goods and services offered by the marine environment: renewable forms of energies, pharmacology of marine organisms, microalgae and biotechnology. Figure 1.3 describes the structure of the set schematically.
Its goal is to provide a body of work that allows us to get a better grasp of how the ocean system works in order to more precisely analyze the vulnerability of ecosystems and become more aware of the risks run by a liquid environment that covers more than two-thirds of our planet, the resources of which are increasingly being constrained by the global change. The latter does not only take into account the effects induced by climate change, but also those caused by the increasingly harmful consequences of our formidable technological power, which we find difficult to control [LAR 01, JON 97].
Figure 1.3.Schematic overview of the structure of the Seas and Oceans set
Our actions, usually performed in an exceedingly sectorial context (not much thought is given to the synergy of the effects of our actions upon the functioning and quality of the environment), have consequences and impacts on different levels – local, regional or global – which are illustrated in the various chapters of this set of books5.
The authors have been chosen in relation to the general subject treated: each contributes in his or her own specialty, creating a work of multidisciplinarity across several chapters and volumes. Nonetheless, if interdisciplinarity is difficult to implement, it is perhaps more effective when it comes to oceanography, due to the necessary pooling of large and expensive means of exploration (ships, satellites, etc.), analysis and modeling platforms, multi-parametric and long-term networks and observation stations, often gathered in working sites or research networks. In total, the contributions of more than 120 specialists in the most diverse fields in relation to the marine environment – physics, chemistry, biogeochemistry, biology, ecology, economics, sociology, fishing, public policy analysis, resource exploitation and technology – have been addressed while making sure to link them together to show that the approach is not only pluri- or interdisciplinary, but also and necessarily, transdisciplinary.
All temporal and spatial scales are considered, since they are often inseparable if we want to understand the dynamics of an environment with no boundaries but whose exchange interfaces are very significant areas. The interest of long-term observations and measurements is well-established when it comes to evolution; if models and scenarios are often marred by uncertainties, it is often because of a lack of references in the past. This necessity is understood and acknowledged, but it implies the commitment of institutions and communities, which is not especially compatible with administrative rules and political actions.
Therefore, in the logic of the transversal approach ranging from the functioning and state of the ocean system to its management (Figure 1.3), 8 volumes, which provide an overview of the latest developments, have already been published. However, this accumulation of data would not have been possible without the development of observational techniques on all scales of the system. This is the subject matter of this last volume (9), which is concerned with the tools linked most closely to the themes dealt with in the set, including modeling strategies for ecosystem dynamics and supporting management of living resources and fisheries.
Volume 1: Ocean in the Earth System addresses the interactions of this system with the atmosphere and the biosphere. Seawater chemistry is seen from the perspective of the exchanges of heat flows, fluids, terrigenous and biological elements. The interactions between the marine components of biogeochemical cycles are described in great detail.
Volume 2: The Land-Sea Interactions covers the hydrological and geochemical exchanges that maintain a natural land-sea sytem. The intensification of human pressures on this interface increasingly leads to physical and chemical disequilibria (radioactive pollution, plastic waste) and ecological misfunctions (eutrophication) which, along with climate warming, are major components of global change.
Volume 3: Ecosystem Sustainability and Global Change deals with the ocean as a source of amazing biodiversity and an important reserve of food resources. The activity of marine organisms affects the concentration of chemical elements in the biosphere, hydrosphere and geosphere, as well as affecting biogeochemical mechanisms. The book analyzes the state and evolution of these resources, by defining some indicators as well as the impacts of global change on the dynamics of the living exploited resources.
Volume 4: Vulnerability of Coastal Ecosystems and Adaptation highlights different examples and types of risks: chemical, biological, climatic or linked to extreme events. It mentions the importance of the toxic chemical and biological pressures particularly exerted on estuary, littoral and coastal waters. These environments, whose quality has strongly deteriorated, are subjected to changes, at various speeds, linked to natural catastrophes (storms and tsunamis) or sea-level rise. All of this makes the coast a heritage site that is undergoing a transformation and a system study that’s significant particularly for the assessment of the vulnerability and adaptation of societies to change factors.
Volume 5: Development of Marine Resources sketches a relatively comprehensive outline of what marine resources can contribute in the future through the development of marine biotechnologies, the pharmacology of marine reef organisms and renewable forms of marine energy channeling the force of currents or winds. This work also mentions some perspectives that can be more or less unrelated.
Volume 6: Value and Economy of Marine Resources presents the diversity of goods and services provided by the ocean and proven to be indispensable to human communities. Use of these services and exploitation of goods will have to be developed in a responsible and sustainable manner. New approaches and scenarios based on the analysis of the aquaculture and fishing production chain are developed to ensure an ecological economy linked to the use of living marine resources. An overview of EU maritime economy and policies is also presented.
Volume 7: Marine Ecosystems: Diversity and Functions illustrates biological diversity and the variety of habitats, structures and foodwebs in different oceans and systems: the phytoplankton, the first level of ecological and climatic dynamics via the carbon cycle; the coral ecosystems and their associated coastal seagrass, among the most diverse on the planet; and the deep ecosystems, oases around hydrothermal vents on mid-ocean ridges. In addition, the authors address the problem of preservation of resources, living and non-living and the services rendered to our societies endangered by environmental change. Thus, concepts and strategies emerge as ecological resilience.
Volume 8: Governance of Seas and Oceans tackles how society participates in making decisions about the marine environment from a legal perspective mainly, presenting Law of the Sea as key determining factor. It deals, therefore, with matters of ship transport, marine pollution, management and exploitation of renewable and non-renewable resources, legal or socioeconomic stakes linked to the development of forms of renewable marine energy or to the implementation of protected marine areas. The sustainable development of seas and coastlines is also dealt with by mentioning the integrated management of these areas in a context of globalization which has resulted in the increased importance of maritime issues in terms of flows and resources. In this context, importance of the partnership among the actors of the maritime sector and the awareness of their knowledge and expertize are vital to ensure the sustainable development of the maritime sector.
The objective of the present volume (9) is not to describe all the tools employed in oceanography or the history of their development, but to provide an overview of the tools, technologies and strategies developed before assessing the complexity and vulnerability of the marine environment to global change. It focuses on the observation and study of living organisms: the use of acoustics to assess the abundance and behavior of schools of fish, the instrumentation of marine animals enabling us not only to study their migration, but also to see some characteristics of the environment they explore. A chapter is also dedicated to the technological and experimental methods developed to study and sample fishing stocks, the reliability and performances of which have to be tested to gauge how qualitatively or quantitatively representative the samples taken are. It deals with the strategies employed to model marine ecosystems, for example by laying the metabolic foundations for population dynamics and showing how to model the complexity of food chains. The ecosystemic approach to fisheries is exhaustively described through its history and goals but also the content that characterizes it. Lastly, it raises the question of how to model the complexity and shows the interest in combining models coming from different domains in a systemic approach.
1.3. Suitable observation tools
Research, technology and innovation are inseparable and their development has gone hand in hand with the emergence of issues linked to the environment. Since 1977, the international council of scientific union (ICSU) and its scientific committee on problems of the environment (SCOPE) have defined monitoring as “the collection for a predetermined purpose of systematic, inter-comparable measurements or observations in a space-time series of any environmental variables which provide a synoptic view or a representative sample of the environment (global, regional, national or local). Such a sample may be used to assess existing and past states and to predict probable future trends in environmental features” [HOL 77]. No changes need to be made to this definition of a monitoring strategy triggered by problems of pollution, especially marine pollution, caused by the most diverse products of human activity. [QUE 11] examined the question of chemical monitoring exhaustively in 2011; the same author is updating the study within the framework of the Seas and Oceans set currently.
Step by step, the strategies and technologies devoted to the survey of the chemical quality of water and of marine organisms have evolved to adapt to an ecosystemic and more global approach to the environment, with respect to the new challenges associated with climate, but also in conjunction with public policies. In any case, the development and diversification of observation technologies have kept up with the increasing awareness of the demand of society and demand for decision support with the development of the concepts of vulnerability, social acceptability of risk, adjustment to change and sustainable management. To address all these issues, research will have to take into account the complexity of conceptual models integrating at the same time life sciences and social sciences and humanities.
As a consequence of this evolution, we have seen a proliferation of conventions, jurisdictions and scientific programs too numerous to go through but traceable throughout the volumes of the collection. [QUE 11] makes an inventory of these protection instruments and of a certain number of international conventions and treaties. As for the marine environment, we will mention the global network global ocean observing system (GOOS) and, on a European level, the water framework directive (WFD) and the marine strategy framework directive (MSFD). Decision-making tools have led to a regional organization of long-term observations, so that the planet Ocean has been divided into Regional Seas United Nations environment program (UNEP).
In the last volume of the set, after a presentation of the vast panoply of observations, measurement technologies and strategies that support the progress of research and its applications, we chose to prioritize the tools employed in ecosystem approaches that have do with living organisms and to the operational transition closest to the socioeconomic demand.
1.3.1. For a systemic vision of the ocean
The systemic approach that takes shape in a modeling process relies on four basic concepts: complexity (together with its notions of haziness, uncertainty, unpredictability, etc.), system (the set of elements interacting dynamically and organized around a purpose: ranging between physical and social systems), globality (the interdependence and coherence of the elements of the system), interaction and feedback (the relationship between the components of the system taken two by two). Through the remaining seven chapters of this volume, we will show that the systemic vision requires a 4D approach that includes long-term observation.
It is important to take complexity into account as it goes beyond the mere description of the set of elements making up the system studied. Complexity means that “the whole is more than the sum of its parts”. According to Edgar Morin, “complexity not only includes interacting quantities of unities which challenge our calculating capabilities; it also includes uncertainties, indetermination and random phenomena”. As a result, our societies will have to learn (or re-learn) how to live in an uncertain world.6
In this context, one of the roles of science will consist of assessing the nature of the risk involved and its plausibility. Given the complex nature of the system, this will only be feasible with an approach which is at least interdisciplinary to guarantee that the methods of one discipline will be transferred to another. It will also be necessary to go even further by developing a transdisciplinary vision that can allow us to better grasp this complexity and the assessment of the risk involved by opening all disciplines “to that which they share and to that which lies beyond them”7. We will have “to piece together the knowledge acquired to overcome the crazed myopia of the retreat into oneself”, since, according to Edgar Morin, “a piece of knowledge is only pertinent if able to find its place within a context and the most sophisticated knowledge, if completely isolated, stops being pertinent” [MOR 98].
As for environmental management, we are still far from adopting this systemic vision since, in terms of research, we hesitate to leave our disciplinary perspective behind and, in terms of expertise, our approach still remains too sectorial. Hans Jonas8 highlights this last point: “We control the technological operations on nature, but we have no control on the whole of the process, which raises the problem of the mastery of our (technological) mastery”.9
1.3.2. To assess our vulnerability to global change
System approach constitutes the conceptual framework for the socio-ecosystem approach defined by the Millennium Assessment10. This requires an articulation between research, assessment, decision and management, according to an outline which may be based on the one set up for the protection and restoration of the North Sea (Figure 1.4)11.
Figure 1.4.Conceptual framework proposed for the management, protection and restoration of the North Sea [OSP 06]
This framework changes our perspective on management by turning it from a mono-specific vision in a stable system to a multi-specific one in a complex and changeable system. It also incorporates decision support, which refers to the notion of expertise as well as to the notions of risk prevention and social acceptability of risk.12
Decision support requires the availability of operational tools which allow us to assess the state of ecosystems, to analyze their evolution as a result of global change, and to predict the impacts in response to different societal scenarios.
1.3.3. The contribution of operational oceanography
Operational oceanography (see section 1.3.3.1), which enables us to integrate large volumes of data derived from different observations13 to supply digital models, constitutes a significant component of the control panels devised in accordance with DPSIR structure.14 It makes it possible to provide a more realistic view of the characteristics of the oceans and of their development.
1.3.3.1. Summary of operational oceanography and its development
Operational oceanography (OO) allows us “to predict the state of the ocean system; to produce instantaneous values and realistic statistics of the target parameters, even in the absence of direct measurements of these parameters; to rerun past events while integrating data unavailable in real time, so as to generate in a deferred fashion the best possible descriptions of phenomena and situations; to simulate future situations according to several scenarios with the potential to support public decisions”.15
OO expanded during the early 1990s and has stimulated research in different fields: treatment of in situ observations and satellite imagery, digital modeling and data assimilation16, validation and oceanographic interpretation of the information produced, technological development of several physical, chemical and biogeochemical sensors.17
Satellite networks generate significant streams of data. For example, the altimetric measurements taken by the TOPEX/POSEIDON satellite since 1992, then by its successor JASON-1, launched in 2001 and finally by JASON-2, put into orbit in 2008, have covered more than 90% of the surface of the oceans with data streams of 50,000 pieces of information per day and a local altimetric precision of less than 5 centimeters. This enables us to monitor with precision the evolution of sea levels.
These considerable streams of data and observations (in 2007 the network of profiling floats Argo18 with 3,000 active floats took 100,000 temperature and salinity profiles) have favored the development of digital calculation abilities in relation to the modeling and assimilation of data, which has made it possible in France, since 2001, to produce a first forecast thanks to MERCATOR Océan (www.mercator-ocean.fr).
In 2007, the PREVIMER project (www.previmer.org) made it possible to make coastal forecasts (Figure 1.5) on metropolitan and ultramarine littorals.
Figure 1.5.Example of PREMIVER cartographic output showing the concentration of chlorophyll-a in surface waters (2/10/2015).
On a European level, EuroGOOS, set up in 1994, allows the development of OO on a European scale. The European program COPERNICUS/GMES (global monitoring for environment and security) aims at assessing the impact of its environmental policies. In this framework, the objective of the MyOcean consortium consists of setting up the “monitoring and forecast” component of European marine services.
Globally, global ocean data assimilation experiment (GODAE) and then the 2008 GODAE ocean view, have to favor scientific exchanges about OO.
1.3.4. New technologies applied to the living world
The development of satellites and the automation of data collection do not make the set-up of in situ monitoring superseded and obsolete, as is evident. Chapters 3, 4 and 5 of this volume provide examples that illustrate how population sampling and the assessment of their abundance or behaviors have only been able to progress thanks to the implementation of reliable catching techniques and investigations by means of acoustics or imaging. More and more behavioral observations are, therefore, coupled with the physical structures of the aquatic environments on different scales. Certain fish, mammals or marine reptiles are instrumented with beacons and sensors that allow us not only to detect very precisely their movements in water but also their reactions to physical or chemical structures. This ultimately consists of making certain marine animals indispensable collaborators to man to investigate in an ecosystemic way the quality and alterations of habitats (Figures 1.6 and 1.7).
Figure 1.6.Salmon instrumented with an acoustic beacon allowing us to find out its location in the body of water in 3D
(source Bégout-Ifremer)
Figure 1.7.Interaction between a hydrodynamic model (arrows) and a reconstruction of the salmon’s journey (white line) in the estuary of the Adour [MAH 10].
The different gauges inserted in the image show that it is nighttime (on the left below), that the tide is high at the mouth of the Adour (at the top, by considering the three indicators from left to right), that the salmon is moving upstream (positive velocity) and that the river current is starting to move downstream (negative velocity).
1.4. Conclusion
Data collection is, thus, extremely diverse as much in its content as in its form, and tackles several problems that future researchers, actors and managers will have to deal with. The ocean actually is and will be the regulator of climate and consequently of its variability. As for its uses, we can be confident that they will do nothing but multiply, as we can see with the planned development of maritime transport (industrial, military and touristic) and the dimensions of ships, coastal tourism, aquaculture, renewable forms of energy, biotechnologies, etc.
In these conditions, it becomes necessary to reinforce the links between sciences and societies, and to develop the ways in which knowledge is passed on and acquired. This is the first goal of this series of works, which has to be considered as a whole for a global vision of current knowledge and future challenges. The collection is aimed at higher education students who will have to work in the field but, more broadly, at an informed public of actors, managers and policymakers.
So sea or ocean? At the end of the set of book throughout the chapters and including specialists who use both terms, we can give the following advice: the difference between the two words remains valid according to the respective dimensions of the systems considered. However, the word Sea, as it has been historically used, is most often associated with a space close to man and his uses.
1.5. Acknowledgments
To the authors, institutions and especially the IFREMER and the CNRS/INSU, that supported this initiative right from the beginning, to the editors.
1.6. Bibliography
[BAH 13] BAHUREL et al., Prospective scientifique de l’Océanographie opérationnelle, Final report, p. 40, 2013.
[HOL 77] HOLDGATE M.W., WHITE G.F. (eds), “Environmental issues”, SCOPE Report 10, Wiley, New York, 1977.
[JON 97] JONAS H., “La technique moderne comme sujet de réflexion éthique”, In Responsabilité-Questions philosophiques, NEUBERG M. (ed.), Paris, PUF, 1997.
[LAR 01] LARRÈRE C., “La nature à l’épreuve des nouvelles mutations”, Les Grandes Mutations Rencontres Internationales de Genève, vol. XXXVIII, 2001.
[MAH 10] MAHAUT D., PROUZET P., “Life and behavioural characteristics of Atlantic salmon in the Adour”, International Meeting of Small-scale Professional Sea and Inshore Fishers, The Official Records, p. 128, 2009.
[MIL 05] MILLENIUM ECOSYSTEM ASSESSMENT, Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis, Island Press, Washington, DC, 2005.
[MON 14a] MONACO A., PROUZET P. (eds), Ecosystem Sustainability and Global change, ISTE, London and John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2014.
[MON 14b] MONACO A., PROUZET P. (eds), Vulnerability of Coastal Ecosystems and Adaptation, ISTE, London and John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2014.
[MOR 98] MORIN E., BONNEFOY Y., Articuler les savoirs, Centre National de la documentation pédagogique, 1998.
[QUE 11] QUEVAUVILLER PH., ROOSE P., VERREET G. (eds), Chemical Marine Monitoring – Policy Framework and Analytical Trends, John Wiley and Sons, New York, 2011.
[REI 10] REID W.V., CHEN D., GOLDFARB L., “Earth System Science for Global Sustainability: Grand Challenges”, Science, vol. 30, pp. 916–917, 2010
1
http://www.igfagcr.org/index.php/bellmont-forum
.
2
This date is calculated by the ONG, or Global Footprint Network, which came up with the concept of the ecological footprint (Wikipedia).
3
The members of the editorial board were P. Bertrand (CNRS/INSU), G. Boeuf (MNHN/UMPC), J. Boncoeur (UBO/AMURE), P. Cury (IRD/CRHMT), L. Eymard (UMPC/LOCEAN), P. Gros (Ifremer/DM), Y. Henocque (Ifremer), M. Heral (ANR/Envt-Ress. Biologiques), R. Kalaydjian (Ifremer), M. Lafaye (CNES), L. Legendre (UMPC/LOV), A. Mariotti (UMPC), A. Monaco (CNRS/INSU), J.-C Pomerol (UMPC), P. Prouzet (Ifremer/DS), P. Roy-Delecluse (CNRS/INSU), and M.-H. Tusseau-Vuillemin (Ifremer/DS).
4
Combination of the probability of exposure to a pressure, of the sensitivity to pressure, and of the restoration potential.
5
Hans Jonas, quoted by [LAR 01], mentions an actual cosmic power of man: “Technology places man in a role which only religion has sometimes assigned to him: that of steward or guardian of creation”.
6
After the French Revolution, the perception of risk for our “modern societies” has shifted from divine fate to right to security [SÉB 06].
7
Article 3 of the Chart of Transdisciplinarity – CIRET – November 1994 –
http://ciret-transdisciplinarity.org/chart.php
.
8
Quoted by [LAR 01].
9
On a political level, according to [LAR 01]: “When we want to introduce nature into politics and more generally to draw the attention of human communities to the fact that our relationships are not merely a matter of technological objectification, but involve moral and even philosophical problems, we refer to catastrophes”.
10
The Bergen declaration in March 2002 adopts the following definition of an ecosystem approach: “integrated management of human activities based on the knowledge about the ecosystem dynamics in an effort to achieve a sustainable use of the goods and services associated with the ecosystem, and to maintain its integrity”.
11
Drawn from the OSPAR Commission report, 2006: Report on North Sea Pilot project on Ecological Quality Objectives, p. 22.
12
See Volumes 3 and 4 [MON 14a, MON 14b].
13
See
Chapter 2
.
14
Driving Forces, Pressures, States, Impacts, Responses: framework adopted by the European Environment Agency.
15
For more detailed information, one should read the final report on Operational Oceanography Foresight dating back to 9/10/2013 written by Bahurel
et al
., [BAH 13] p. 40.
16
A method that allows us to combine a model with observations.
17
See
Chapter 2
.
18
In 2001, this network of floats enabled the launch of CORIOLIS (
www.coriolis.eu.org
) which allowed us to obtain the satellite and
in situ
data provided by oceanographic research and aimed at physical oceanography.
Chapter written by André MONACO, Patrick PROUZET and Patrick VINCENT.
