Traffic Safety E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 623

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2016

Beschreibung

Transport systems are facing an impossible dilemma: satisfy an increasing demand for mobility of people and goods, while decreasing their fossil-energy requirements and preserving the environment. Additionally, transport has an opportunity to evolve in a changing world, with new services, technologies but also new requirements (fast delivery, reliability, improved accessibility).

The subject of traffic is organized into two separate but complementary volumes: Volume 3 on Traffic Management and Volume 4 on Traffic Safety.

Traffic Safety, Volume 4 of the Research for Innovative Transports Set, presents a collection of updated papers from the TRA 2014 Conference, highlighting the diversity of research in this field. Theoretical chapters and practical case studies address topics such as road safety management and policies, accident analysis and modeling, vulnerable road users' safety, road infrastructure safety, ITS and railway safety.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title

Copyright

Acknowledgments

Preface

Introduction

PART 1: Road Safety Policy

1 Analysis of Road Safety Management Systems in Europe

1.1. Introduction

1.2. Methodology

1.3. Qualitative analyses of road safety management systems in Europe

1.4. Quantitative analyses

1.5. Conclusion

1.6. Key messages and recommendations

1.7. Acknowledgments

1.8. Bibliography

2 Conceptualizing Road Safety Management through a Territorialized Complex System: Context and Goals

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Methodological challenge: integration of different road safety concepts into territorial complex system modeling

2.3. A practical example: ZIVAG

2.4. Conclusion and followings

2.5. Bibliography

3 Development of the European Road Safety Knowledge System

3.1. Introduction

3.2. Data/knowledge collecting and processing

3.3. Key road safety analyses and summaries

3.4. Conclusion and next steps

3.5. Acknowledgments

3.6. Bibliography

PART 2: Accident Analysis and Modeling

4 Structural Time Series Modeling of the Number of Fatalities in Poland in Relation to Economic Factors

4.1. Introduction

4.2. Current state of knowledge

4.3. Methodology

4.4. The data

4.5. Results

4.6. Discussion

4.7. Conclusion and outlook

4.8. Bibliography

5 Risk of Road Traffic Injuries for Pedestrians, Cyclists, Car Occupants and Powered Two-Wheel Users, based on a Road Trauma Registry and Travel Surveys, Rhône, France

5.1. Introduction

5.2. Material and methods

5.3. Results and interpretation

5.4. Discussion and conclusions

5.5. Acknowledgments

5.6. Bibliography

6 Development of Safety Performance Functions for Two-Lane Rural First-Class Main Roads in Hungary

6.1. Introduction

6.2. Literature review

6.3. General overview of first-class main roads

6.4. Data collection and segmentation

6.5. Modeling

6.6. Discussion and conclusions

6.7. Acknowledgments

6.8. Bibliography

PART 3: Vulnerable Road Users’ Safety

7 Mobility and Safety of Powered Two-Wheelers in OECD Countries

7.1. Introduction

7.2. Mobility and safety figures of PTWs

7.3. Contributory factors of PTW crashes

7.4. Toward an integrated road safety strategy for PTW

7.5. Measures for PTW safety improvement

7.6. Key messages and recommendations

7.7. Bibliography

8 Comparison of Car Drivers’ and Motorcyclists’ Drink Driving in 19 Countries: Results from the SARTRE 4 Survey

8.1. Introduction

8.2. Method

8.3. Results

8.4. Discussion

8.5. Acknowledgments

8.6. Bibliography

9 Trajectories of Multiple People in Crowds Using Laser Range Scanner

9.1. Introduction

9.2. Approach

9.3. Detection

9.4. Multiple tracking

9.5. Experimental results

9.6. Conclusions

9.7. Bibliography

10 Safety of Urban Cycling: A Study on Perceived and Actual Dangers

10.1. State of urban cycling

10.2. Perceived safety of urban cycling

10.3. The Austrian accident database

10.4. Comparison of perceived safety and recorded accidents

10.5. Conclusion and outlook

10.6. Acknowledgments

10.7. Bibliography

PART 4: Road Infrastructure Safety

11 Speed Distribution and Traffic Safety Measures

11.1. Introduction and aim of the study

11.2. Method

11.3. Results

11.4. Discussion

11.5. Acknowledgments

11.6. Bibliography

12 Ex-ante Assessment of a Speed Limit Reducing Operation - A Data-driven Approach

12.1. Introduction

12.2. Method for predicting the injury or fatality accident count

12.3. The part of the ALLEGRO motorway network concerned with speed limit reduction

12.4. Ex-ante assessment results of the speed decrease in the ALLEGRO motorway network

12.5. The threefold validation of the approach

12.6. Conclusions

12.7. Appendix: relationships between injury accidents and traffic conditions estimated from the Marius network

12.8. Bibliography

13 Development of a Guideline for the Selection of Vehicle Restraint Systems – Identification of the Key Selection Parameters

13.1. Introduction

13.2. Objectives of the first work package of the SAVeRS project

13.3. Collation and examination of national guidelines and standards

13.4. Collation and examination of published literature

13.5. Conclusions

13.6. Acknowledgments

13.7. Follow-up

13.8. Bibliography

14 For the Vision of “Zero Accidents at Intersections”: A Challenge between Road Safety and Capacity

14.1. Introduction

14.2. Traffic turning left at signal-controlled intersections

14.3. Recommendations

14.4. Conclusion

14.5. Bibliography

15 Safety Inspection and Management of the Road Network in Operation

15.1. Introduction

15.2. Road safety inspection tools in Europe

15.3. Design of new software tools for road inspection

15.4. Case study

15.5. Conclusion

15.6. Bibliography

PART 5: ITS and Safety

16 Improving Safety and Mobility of Vulnerable Road Users Through ITS Applications

16.1. Introduction

16.2. Methodology

16.3. Accident data analysis and identification of critical scenarios

16.4. User needs analysis

16.5. ITS applications for the critical scenarios and user needs

16.6. Results

16.7. Conclusions

16.8. Acknowledgments

16.9. Bibliography

17 Experimentation with the PRESERVE VSS and the Score@F System

17.1. Introduction

17.2. Test methodology

17.3. Performance indicators

17.4. Test environment

17.5. Test case description

17.6. Test results

17.7. Conclusion

17.8. Acknowledgments

17.9. Bibliography

18 Safety Bus Routing for the Transportation of Pupils to School

18.1. Introduction

18.2. The school bus routing problem

18.3. Methodology for solving the SBRP in SAFEWAY2SCHOOL

18.4. Application to Thessaloniki

18.5. Conclusions

18.6. Acknowledgments

18.7. Bibliography

19 Spreading Awareness of Traffic Safety through Web Application

19.1. Introduction

19.2. Current state of traffic accident data in Slovenia

19.3. Identification of conflict points

19.4. Application structure

19.5. Use of the web application

19.6. Conclusion

19.7. Acknowledgments

19.8. Bibliography

PART 6: Railway Safety

20 Overview of Freight Train Derailments in the EU: Causes, Impacts, Prevention and Mitigation Measures

20.1. Introduction

20.2. Research methodology

20.3. Results and discussion

20.4. Conclusions and recommendations

20.5. Acknowledgment

20.6. Bibliography

21 A Risk Assessment Tool for Public Transportation

21.1. Security – a growing concern for Public Transport operators

21.2. The risk assessment procedure

21.3. Conclusions

21.4. Acknowledgments

21.5. Bibliography

22 The GETAWAY Project – Improving Passenger Evacuation Techniques in Railway Stations (and Other Transport Hubs)

22.1. Introduction

22.2. External factors

22.3. Objectives of the GETAWAY project

22.4. The GETAWAY system concept

22.5. The GETAWAY-IADSS development

22.6. The Active Dynamic Signage System (ADSS)

22.7. Fire Detection System (FDS) development

22.8. CCTV Analysis Engine (CAE)

22.9. Decision Engine (DE) and Evacuation Simulation Engine (ESE)

22.10. The level of IADSS application

22.11. Evaluation of the GETAWAY sy stem

22.12. Conclusion

22.13. Acknowledgments

22.14. Bibliography

23 Interpretive Structural Modeling of Security Systems for Better Security Management in Railways

23.1. Introduction

23.2. Complexity of railway systems

23.3. Nominal Group Technique (NGT)

23.4. Interpretive Structural Modeling (ISM)

23.5. Policy implications

23.6. Conclusions and avenues for future research

23.7. Acknowledgments

23.8. Bibliography

List of Authors

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

1 Analysis of Road Safety Management Systems in Europe

Table 1.1. Summary of models linking road safety management (RSM) with road safety performance

Table 1.2. Key messages and recommendations for the improvement of road safety management in Europe

3 Development of the European Road Safety Knowledge System

Table 3.1. Snapshot of Master Table

Table 3.2. 2012 Basic Fact Sheets

4 Structural Time Series Modeling of the Number of Fatalities in Poland in Relation to Economic Factors

Table 4.1. Results and performance criteria of the five models fitted on the log of the monthly numbers of fatalities in Poland in the period January 1998–December 2012 (outputs Oxmetrics 6.1)

Table 4.2. Results and performance criteria of the models fitted on the log of the monthly numbers of fatalities in Poland in the period January 1998–December 2012 (outputs Oxmetrics 6.1) (contin.)

5 Risk of Road Traffic Injuries for Pedestrians, Cyclists, Car Occupants and Powered Two-Wheel Users, based on a Road Trauma Registry and Travel Surveys, Rhône, France

Table 5.1. All-injury rates, according to mobility measure and ratios by type of road user, gender, age and location; medical registry and road travel survey corrected for seasonality, Rhône County, 2005–2006

Table 5.2. Multivariate analysis for the number of all-injury adjusted for type of road users, gender, age groups and location, with regards to time spent traveling; medical registry and Regional Travel Survey corrected for seasonality, Rhône County, 2005–2006

Table 5.3. Multivariate analyses for the number of all-injury by type of road user, adjusted for gender, age groups and location, with regards to time spent on traveling; medical registry and Regional Travel Survey corrected for seasonality, Rhône County, 2005–2006

Table 5.4. Hospitalization rates and ratios by type of road user, gender, age and location; medical registry and Regional Travel Survey corrected for seasonality, Rhône County, 2005–2006

Table 5.5. Serious-injury (MAIS 3+) rates according to different mobility measures and ratios by type of road user, gender, age, and location; medical registry and road travel survey corrected for seasonality, Rhône County, 2005–2006

6 Development of Safety Performance Functions for Two-Lane Rural First-Class Main Roads in Hungary

Table 6.1. Continuous variables and their descriptive statistics

Table 6.2. Categorical variables and their frequencies

Table 6.3. Model parameters for the base model and one-variable models

Table 6.4. Model parameters for the full model

Table 6.5. Model parameters for tangent sections

Table 6.6. Likelihood ratio tests

7 Mobility and Safety of Powered Two-Wheelers in OECD Countries

Table 7.1. Evolution (%) in the PTW and passenger car fleets for a selection of OECD countries 2001–2010

Table 7.2. Deaths per billion veh-km in 2011 for motorcyclists and car occupants

Table 7.3. Key messages and recommendations on PTW mobility and safety

8 Comparison of Car Drivers’ and Motorcyclists’ Drink Driving in 19 Countries: Results from the SARTRE 4 Survey

Table 8.1. Frequencies by country, percentages

Table 8.2. Linear regression on drink-drive behavior (“even a small amount”)

10 Safety of Urban Cycling: A Study on Perceived and Actual Dangers

Table 10.1. Mean bicycle count per day and year (January to December, Monday to Sunday) at Viennese counting stations, based on data published by the [GES 13a] for 2002–2010 and [RAD 13c] for 2011–2012

Table 10.2. Population by bicycle usage frequency

Table 10.3. Infrastructure preferences of the 26 participants of the Com-oVer questionnaire

Table 10.4. Trends of bicycle accident counts in Vienna between 2002 and 2011

Table 10.5. Trends of accident counts for the most common location characteristics

Table 10.6. Perceived safety and accident counts per home district

Table 10.7. Trends of km of bicycle routes in Vienna

Table 10.8. Trends of collisions with parking vehicles or objects

Table 10.9. Trends of accidents in traffic-reduced areas

Table 10.10. Trends of accidents with pedestrians

11 Speed Distribution and Traffic Safety Measures

Table 11.1. Description of measures

Table 11.2. Change in various measures when the speed limit was decreased from 110 to 100 km/h on rural roads without speed cameras

Table 11.3. Change in various measures when the speed limit was decreased from 90 to 80 km/h on rural roads with speed cameras

Table 11.4. Change in various measures when new speed cameras were introduced on roads with a speed limit of 90 km/h

Table 11.5. Change in risk of injured of differing severities with three traffic safety measures: speed limit change from 110 to 100 km/h on roads without speed cameras, speed limit change from 90 to 80 km/h on roads with speed cameras and introduction of new speed cameras on roads with a speed limit of 90 km/h. Risk changes calculated using the Power model

12 Ex-ante Assessment of a Speed Limit Reducing Operation – A Data-driven Approach

Table 12.1. Calibration of the exponents of the Power model – Marius network, excluding rainy periods and accidents

Table 12.2. Observed accidents and predicted accidents by accident type according to speed limit compliance assumptions

Table 12.3. Observed and predicted speed and density according to speed limit compliance assumptions

Table 12.4. Empirical and predicted risks according to speed limit compliance assumptions

Table 12.5. Observed accidents and predicted accidents, interurban part

Table 12.6. Observed accidents and predicted accidents, urban part

Table 12.7. Significant logistic regressions for daytime, single vehicle accidents, obtained with the software R

Table 12.8. Significant logistic regressions for daytime, crashes between vehicles, obtained with the software R

14 For the Vision of “Zero Accidents at Intersections”: A Challenge between Road Safety and Capacity

Table 14.1. Categorization of intersection types

16 Improving Safety and Mobility of Vulnerable Road Users Through ITS Applications

Table 16.1. ITS applications for VRUs, selected for further assessment

17 Experimentation with the PRESERVE VSS and the Score@F System

Table 17.1. Primary experimentation results of PRESERVE security solution within Score@F system

18 Safety Bus Routing for the Transportation of Pupils to School

Table 18.1. Risk categories

Table 18.2. Overestimation of the algorithms in relation to the best solution

19 Spreading Awareness of Traffic Safety through Web Application

Table 19.1. Descriptions of relevant data fields in Traffic Accident Database

20 Overview of Freight Train Derailments in the EU: Causes, Impacts, Prevention and Mitigation Measures

Table 20.1. Definition of assessment criteria

23 Interpretive Structural Modeling of Security Systems for Better Security Management in Railways

Table 23.1. Dimensions of railway security policy elements

Table 23.2. Top-most objectives appearing in cycles

List of Illustrations

1 Analysis of Road Safety Management Systems in Europe

Figure 1.1. Government organization background. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 1.2. “Reference” country meeting all the “good practice” criteria. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 1.3. Structures, processes and outputs in Belgium, 2010. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 1.4. Overview of road safety management good practice elements in Belgium, 2010

Figure 1.5. “Institutional organization”: mean values of availability of road safety management elements, by clusters of countries. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

2 Conceptualizing Road Safety Management through a Territorialized Complex System: Context and Goals

Figure 2.1. CRITERE Platform’s architecture design

Figure 2.2. a) Sum of rasters; b) weighted sum of rasters

Figure 2.3. “Urban intensity” modeling

Figure 2.4. a) First test map; b) second test map. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 2.5. Screenshot of CRITERE user interface. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

3 Development of the European Road Safety Knowledge System

Figure 3.1. Integrated Road Safety Knowledge System

4 Structural Time Series Modeling of the Number of Fatalities in Poland in Relation to Economic Factors

Figure 4.1. Annual number of fatalities in Poland in the period 1990–2012

Figure 4.2. Number of fatalities (Fat), unemployment rate (Un) and industrial production index (Ind) in Poland in the period 1998–2012. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 4.3. Cross-plot of the log number of fatalities and the industrial production index in Poland in the period 1998–2012. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 4.4. Cross-plot of the log number of fatalities and the unemployment rate in Poland in the period 1998–2012. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 4.5. Log number of fatalities: observed values (in black) and modeled as the sum of three components (in red): level + regression + interventions, seasonal, irregular. Outputs from Model 5, for January 1998–December 2012 (outputs Oxmetrics 6.1). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

5 Risk of Road Traffic Injuries for Pedestrians, Cyclists, Car Occupants and Powered Two-Wheel Users, based on a Road Trauma Registry and Travel Surveys, Rhône, France

Figure 5.1. Trends of the all-injury rates, per one million hours, and relative to 1996–1997 (reference 1), medical registry and RTSs corrected for seasonality, Greater Lyon

Figure 5.2. Trends of the serious-injury rates, per one million hours, and relative to 1996–1997 (reference 1), medical registry and RTSs corrected for seasonality, Greater Lyon

6 Development of Safety Performance Functions for Two-Lane Rural First-Class Main Roads in Hungary

Figure 6.1. CURE plot of the base model

7 Mobility and Safety of Powered Two-Wheelers in OECD Countries

Figure 7.1. Evolution in fatalities among PTW and other road users, OECD countries, 2001–2011

8 Comparison of Car Drivers’ and Motorcyclists’ Drink Driving in 19 Countries: Results from the SARTRE 4 Survey

Figure 8.1. “Over the last month, how often have you driven a car/motorcycle after having drunk even a small amount of alcohol?” percentage responding “never”. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

9 Trajectories of Multiple People in Crowds Using Laser Range Scanner

Figure 9.1. Laser measurement systems. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 9.2. a) Background image; b) image of the scene; c) background subtraction. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 9.3. Classification of attributes according to their Euclidean distances from the centroid. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 9.4. Laser fusion of different frames. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 9.5.

Figure 9.6. Laser-based people detection

Figure 9.7. Layout of laser scanners and their coverage at an exhibition hall

Figure 9.8. Screen copy of reproduced trajectories. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

10 Safety of Urban Cycling: A Study on Perceived and Actual Dangers

Figure 10.1. Trends of accident counts compared to bicycle counts based on year 2002. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 10.2. Trends of accident counts for the most common location characteristics. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

11 Speed Distribution and Traffic Safety Measures

Figure 11.1. Speed limit change from 110 to 100 km/h on rural roads without speed cameras. Speed distribution for all vehicles before and after new speed limit 100 km/h. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 11.2. Speed limit change from 90 to 80 km/h on rural roads with speed cameras. Speed distribution for all vehicles before and after new speed limit of 80 km/h. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 11.3. Introducing new speed cameras on roads with a speed limit of 90 km/h. Speed distribution for all cars before and after new cameras. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

12 Ex-ante Assessment of a Speed Limit Reducing Operation – A Data-driven Approach

Figure 12.1. Traffic conditions analysis and prediction

Figure 12.2. Predicting accidents by type

Figure 12.3. Speed limit reduction scheme near Lille. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 12.4. FD in the ALLEGRO motorway network according to the speed limit for daylight, no rain periods. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 12.5. The Marius urban motorway network near Marseille (France). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

13 Development of a Guideline for the Selection of Vehicle Restraint Systems – Identification of the Key Selection Parameters

Figure 13.1. Collection on national standards and guidelines on VRS. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

14 For the Vision of “Zero Accidents at Intersections”: A Challenge between Road Safety and Capacity

Figure 14.1. Comparison of the influence of a conflicting vehicle turning left using different control methods (large intersections with triangular islands and a cycle time of 90 seconds). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 14.2. Volume of traffic at an intersection using different control types (large intersections with triangular islands (case 6) with a cycle time of 90 seconds). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 14.3. Capacities for traffic turning left at a volume of oncoming traffic of 600 vehicles/(h*lanes) for different control variants for traffic turning left and different intersection types – results of the simulation runs. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

15 Safety Inspection and Management of the Road Network in Operation

Figure 15.1. Screenshot of graphical user interface of Eves, a) during inspection b) and post-processing [NAS 11]

Figure 15.2. Road Safety Inspection in Norway using Vidkon [NAS 11]

Figure 15.3. Road Safety Inspection in Ireland using UBIPIX

Figure 15.4. Architecture and organization of the system

Figure 15.5. GUI of the application

Figure 15.6. Data Analysis Module for office review

Figure 15.7. Road network optimization procedure

Figure 15.8. Program level – PV of road network investments vs. benefits and benefit/cost ratio

Figure 15.9. Project level – annual budget allocation in the road network sections. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

16 Improving Safety and Mobility of Vulnerable Road Users Through ITS Applications

Figure 16.1. Critical pedestrian scenarios: crossing the street remotely from a junction

Figure 16.2. Critical cyclist scenarios: a) vehicle pulling out into the path of an oncoming cyclist at an intersection; b) vehicle turning into the cyclist’s path

Figure 16.3. Critical PTW scenarios: a) PTW being hit by a vehicle heading in the same direction and then turning across the path of the PTW; b) vehicles pulling out from intersections into the path of the PTW

17 Experimentation with the PRESERVE VSS and the Score@F System

Figure 17.1. Communication architecture of an ETSI ITS station [ETS 10]

Figure 17.2. Score@F use cases

Figure 17.3. Score@F platforms

Figure 17.4. Satory test site. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 17.5. Yvelines – Versailles test site

18 Safety Bus Routing for the Transportation of Pupils to School

Figure 18.1. Thessaloniki speed and safety maps. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 18.2. Solutions obtained by the greedy NB (up-left), genetics NB (up-right), greedy LB (down-left) and genetics LB (down-right). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 18.3. Comparison of the performance of the solutions obtained by the various algorithms. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

19 Spreading Awareness of Traffic Safety through Web Application

Figure 19.1. Structure of the Traffic Accident Database

Figure 19.2. Road and railway network in Slovenia (red – state-managed roads, grey – municipal roads, black – railways). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 19.3. Marking on a state-managed road

Figure 19.4. Questionable locations of traffic accidents attached to objects with house numbers (yellow markers), actual locations of traffic accidents on the roads (green markers). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 19.5. Some possible arrangements of crossing points in junctions consisting of roads

Figure 19.6. Display of identified crossing points and junctions with their significance (colour and size of marker) and number of ways crossing (number in the marker) in a residential area of a city (past accidents displayed for reference). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 19.7. Web application structure

Figure 19.8. Interactive map with display setting tools and overlay pullout

Figure 19.9. Adjusting the display by adding data overlays (added overlays from top-left across to bottom-right: municipal boundaries, municipal roads, state-managed roads, railways, buildings, traffic accidents)

Figure 19.10. Search criteria entry form

Figure 19.11. Cloud pop-up with data on the selected spot on the map

Figure 19.12. Window with data on accident participants

Figure 19.13. Link to the current map display with applied filters

Figure 19.14. Two examples of filtered traffic accident displays (top: filtered by road, bottom: filtered by road section and type of participant). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

20 Overview of Freight Train Derailments in the EU: Causes, Impacts, Prevention and Mitigation Measures

Figure 20.1. Number of derailments per billion tonne-km for three selected European countries and from two European datasets over six years (2005–2010). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 20.2. Breakdown of number of derailments in Europe into major cause categories (harmonized data from new D-RAIL database). For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 20.3. Distribution of total derailment costs of selected derailments in the period 2005–2010

21 A Risk Assessment Tool for Public Transportation

Figure 21.1. The risk management process

Figure 21.2. Categorizing risks into risk families: example of security threats

Figure 21.3. Assigning risk families to risk owners and managers

22 The GETAWAY Project – Improving Passenger Evacuation Techniques in Railway Stations (and Other Transport Hubs)

Figure 22.1. Standard evacuation sign

Figure 22.2. The GETAWAY-IADSS concept and its components

Figure 22.3. The decision engine user interface

Figure 22.4. The dynamic signage system indicating a viable a) and non-viable b) exit. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Figure 22.5. The developed IADSS (GETAWAY system)

Figure 22.6. Intelligent decision-making within the IADSS

Figure 22.7. The test area of the Sant Cugat station for trials

Figure 22.8. The Active Dynamic Signage System used in Trial Series 3 conveying both positive (viable route) and negative (non-viable route) information. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

23 Interpretive Structural Modeling of Security Systems for Better Security Management in Railways

Figure 23.1. Condensed ISM of Railway Security

Figure 23.2. Cyclic representation of top level elements (objectives) for railway security

Guide

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Research for Innovative Transports Set

coordinated by

Bernard Jacob

Volume 4

Traffic Safety

Edited by

George Yannis

Simon Cohen

First published 2016 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

ISTE Ltd27-37 St George’s RoadLondon SW19 4EUUK

www.iste.co.uk

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USA

www.wiley.com

© ISTE Ltd 2016

The rights of George Yannis and Simon Cohen to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016936178

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-78630-030-0

Acknowledgments

The European Commission, DG MOVE and RTD, the Conference of European Road Directors (CEDR), the European Road Transport Research Advisory Council (ERTRAC), the European Rail Research Advisory Council (ERRAC) the European technology platform WATERBORNE-TP are acknowledged for their support and active contribution to the Programme Committee of the TRA2014, in charge of reviewing and selecting the papers presented at the conference, which forms the main input of this volume.

The French Institute for science and technology for transport, development and network (Ifsttar) is aknowledged for the successful organisaation organization of the conference TRA2014, in which 600 high quality papers were presented.

Joëlle Labarrère, former secretary of the Programme Committee of TRA2014, and executive assitant of the department COSYS with Ifsttar, is aknowledged for her valuable help to the editors and for this volume making.

Preface

The transport sector is very much concerned about environmental adaptation and mitigation issues. Most of these are related to the objective of curbing GHG emission by 20% by 2020, alternative energy and energy savings, sustainable mobility and infrastructures, safety and security, etc. These objectives require the implementation of advanced research work to develop new policies, and to adjust education and industrial innovations.

The theme and slogan of the Transport Research Arena held in Paris (TRA2014) were respectively: “Transport Solutions: From Research to Deployment” and “Innovate Mobility, Mobilise Innovation”. Top researchers and engineers, as well as private and public policy and decision-makers, were mobilized to identify and take the relevant steps to implement innovative solutions in transport. All surface modes were included, including walking and cycling, as well as cross modal aspects.

Policies, technologies and behaviors must be continually adapted to new constraints, such as climate change, the diminishing supply of fossil fuels, the economic crisis, the increased demand for mobility, safety and security, i.e. all the societal issues of the 21st Century. Transport infrastructures and materials, modal share, co-modality, urban planning, public transportation and mobility, safety and security, freight, logistics, ITS, energy and environment issues are the subject of extensive studies, research work and industrial innovations that are reported in this series of books.

This book is a part of a set of six volumes called the Research for Innovative Transports set. This collection presents an update of the latest academic and applied research, case studies, best practices and user perspectives on transport carried out in Europe and worldwide. The presentations made during TRA2014 reflect on them. The TRAs are supported by the European Commission (DG-MOVE and DG-RTD), the Conference of European Road Directors (CEDR) and the modal European platforms, ERRAC (rail), ERTRAC (road), WATERBORNE, and ALICE (freight), and also by the European Construction Technology Platform (ECTP) and the European Transport Research Alliance (ETRA).

The volumes are made up of a selection of the best papers presented at the TRA2014. All papers were peer reviewed before being accepted at the conference, and they were then selected by the editors for the purpose of the present collection. Each volume contains complementary academic and applied inputs provided by highly qualified researchers, experts and professionals from all around the world.

Each volume of the series covers a strategic theme of TRA2014.

Volume 1, Energy and Environment, presents recent research work around the triptych “transports, energy and environment” that demonstrate that vehicle technologies and fuels can still improve, but it is necessary to prepare their implementation (electromobility), think about new services and involve enterprises. Mitigation strategies and policies are examined under different prospective scenarios, to develop and promote alternative fuels and technologies, multi-modality and services, and optimized transport chains while preserving climate and the environment. Evaluation and certification methodologies are key elements for assessing air pollution, noise and vibration from road, rail and maritime transports, and their impacts on the environment. Different depollution technologies and mitigation strategies are also presented.

Volume 2, Towards Innovative Freight and Logistics, analyzes how to optimize freight movements and logistics; it introduces new vehicle concepts, points out the governance and organization issues, and proposes an assessment framework.

Volumes 3 and 4 are complementary books covering the topic of traffic management and safety.

Volume 3, Traffic Management, starts with a survey of data collection processes and policies and then shows how traffic modeling and simulation may resolve major problems. Traffic management, monitoring and routing tools and experience are reported and the role of traffic information is highlighted. Impact assessments are presented.

Volume 4, Traffic Safety, describes the main road safety policies, accident analysis and modeling. Special focus is placed on the safety of vulnerable road users. The roles of infrastructure and ITS in safety are analyzed. Finally railway safety is focused upon.

Volume 5, Materials and Infrastructures, is split into two sub-volumes, investigating geotechnical issues and pavement materials’ characterization, innovative materials, technologies and processes and introducing new techniques and approaches for auscultation and monitoring. Solutions to increase the durability of infrastructures and to improve maintenance and repair are presented, for recycling as well as for ensuring the sustainability of the infrastructures. Specific railways and inland navigation issues are addressed. A focus is put on climate resilient roads.

Volume 6, Urban Mobility and Public Transport, highlights possible innovations in order to improve transports and the quality of life in urban areas. Buses and two-wheelers could be a viable alternative in cities if they are safe and reliable. New methodologies are needed to assess urban mobility through new survey protocols, a better knowledge of user behavior or taking into account the value of travel for public transport. The interactions between urban transport and land planning are a key issue. However, these interactions have to be better assessed in order to propose scenarios for new policies.

Bernard JACOB, Chair of the TRA2014 Programme Committee

Jean-Bernard KOVARIK, Chair of the TRA2014 Management Committee

March 2016

Introduction

Advances in telecommunications and information technologies are changing the practices used in both everyday life and in professional life. The transport world, sensitive to innovation, does not escape this movement.

Our daily environment demonstrates successful mutations. New equipment is deployed along the roads or on board vehicles. Variable message signs display realtime travel times. Cameras detect incidents and trigger alerts. Information terminals provide service schedules and waiting times for buses or trains. Other technologies facilitate the management of daily travel, making it more reliable, safer and more comfortable.

These developments highlight various aspects of advanced traffic management as well as transport safety. Behind, there is transport research. Its role is to imagine, assess and support the emergence of new approaches and innovative systems. Multi-disciplinary by essence, transport research is well adapted to deal with these issues. This is the purpose of this volume resulting from the international TRA2014 Conference, held in Paris in April 2014. The Conference was organized under the sign of the transition from Research to deployment in Transport solutions.

The topic of traffic is organized in two separate but complementary volumes: Volume 3 on Traffic Management and Volume 4 on Traffic Safety; both presenting a selection of papers in the aforementioned fields. As a major event on transport in Europe, the conference covered a broad range of issues linked to Traffic Management and Safety. Naturally, the shortlist presented in these two volumes does not cover the wide spectrum of these areas. It aims to highlight its diversity through a choice of updated papers from the conference. Selection is primarily based on a quality criterion, also taking into account the geographical diversity of papers in order to restore the originality and richness of the current research.

Main findings

The selected 23 chapters that are included in this volume on traffic safety demonstrate how technological innovations as well as new methodologies applied to transport safety can modify usual practices and offer efficient solutions to the ongoing challenges of safety considerations, needs of vulnerable road users, environmental issues and economical constraints. Both theoretical papers and practical case studies explore topics such as road safety management and policies, accident analysis and modeling, vulnerable road users’ safety, road infrastructure safety, ITS and railway safety.

Nowadays, the issue of road safety plays an increasingly important role in traffic and mobility planning and management. In the European Union, systematic efforts for gathering and harmonizing road safety data at the European level have led to a significant upgrade and enhancement of the EU databases, supporting decision-making of both national and international authorities and stakeholders. The availability of detailed, high-quality road safety data is a prerequisite for accident analysis and modeling that can investigate the evolution of road fatalities and casualties, identify the risk of road injuries or allow the development of accident prediction models.

Vulnerable road users require special attention as far as safety is concerned. Innovative research methodologies, such as the use of scanners to track the trajectories of multiple pedestrians in a crowd open new fields of research that can eventually assist in the improvement of pedestrians’ safety. Furthermore, the rising popularity of cycling as a means of transportation in urban environments necessitates the re-evaluation of aspects of road design and operation, e.g. at intersections, in order to properly accommodate cyclists’ needs.

Speed management is an important issue in road safety, with a direct link to accident severity. Relevant research plays an important role in the evaluation of speed related measures, based on the availability of data for reliable statistical analyses.

The concepts of the safe system approach and the vision of zero accidents are becoming increasingly accepted by researchers, road safety practitioners and stakeholders internationally, and, within these concepts, the challenge to combine road safety with efficient traffic operations and capacity is investigated and promoted to decision makers.

The expansion of ITS applications to vulnerable road users (pedestrians, children travelling to/from school etc.), security and privacy issues related to ITS and the exploitation of further applications such as spreading public awareness of traffic safety seem to be some of the challenges that are currently investigated.

Research in railways safety also indicates that there is a significant potential for improvement, considering the latest technical innovations and developments. Innovative systems are being developed to assist railway management with regards to safety (e.g. evacuation of passengers) and new risk assessment methodologies are presented to help in risk identification and setting priorities.

This fourth volume, extracted from the TRA Conference 2014, will interest both the research and higher education communities, professionals in the management of road and rail traffic, economic and institutional decision-makers increasingly solicited on new forms of transport management. They will find both the state of the art of some key issues, chapters on various methods and illustrative case studies.

This volume on traffic safety includes six parts, covering aspects such as road safety management and policies, accident analysis and modelling, vulnerable road users’ safety, road infrastructure safety, ITS and safety as well as railway safety.

Part 1 deals with safety management in general, road safety policy and strategy and development of road safety knowledge systems. Researchers and decision makers can find a thorough investigation and analysis of road safety management in European countries, as well as a presentation of the European Road Safety Knowledge System that includes a wealth of data on road safety and various analyses results. Furthermore, decision makers may be interested in user-friendly tools allowing to integrate traffic safety in urban mobility plans.

Part 2 deals with detailed statistical analysis of accident data, in order to identify or understand road safety critical issues and develop accident models. The issue of the evolution of the number of road fatalities in Poland, in relation to economic factors, is presented, along with an analysis aiming to identify the risk of road traffic injuries for pedestrians, cyclists, car occupants and PTW riders in Rhône, France, based on a road trauma registry and travel surveys. Furthermore, interesting accident prediction models for main rural roads in Hungary are developed, with imminent and obvious practical applications.

Part 3 discusses road safety issues of vulnerable road users: pedestrians, cyclists, young drivers and PTWs. Decision makers will find the analysis of PTW mobility and safety in the OECD countries useful, which concludes in a number of measures integrated with the development of a safe system approach. Research methodologies are proposed to track multiple people in crowds of pedestrians. Finally, analysis of the results of two interesting surveys is presented: one on the patterns of drink driving processes for car drivers and motorcyclists and another on the perceived risk of urban cycling.

Part 4 refers to road infrastructure safety, with particular focus on speed limits, road restraint systems, infrastructure safety management, and various design issues. The part includes both theoretical and practical issues; a comprehensive review on the application of Vehicle Restraint Systems, evaluations of implemented safety measures, such as speed related measures in Sweden, and investigation of traffic signalization issues. Also, a presentation of a data-driven approach to assess the safety effects of a speed limit reducing operation before its implementation can be of assistance to road safety practitioners and decision makers, and the development of software tools for Road Safety Inspections can assist road agencies in the selection of road infrastructure rehabilitation and maintenance projects.

Part 5 explores the use, effectiveness and acceptability of Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) technologies in road safety. It focuses on safety and mobility impacts of ITS applications for vulnerable road users, on security and privacy enhancing technologies, on the development of routing algorithms and on the development of a web application to increase public awareness of the state of traffic safety.

Finally, Part 6 discusses railway safety, and includes a comprehensive overview of recent mainline freight train derailments in Europe, the proposal of a risk assessment methodology, and a discussion on the application of Interpretive Structural Modelling (ISM) to security systems in Indian Railways. Furthermore, a system conceived to provide additional clarification and guidance for the evacuation of large numbers of persons within a railway station during an emergency may prove useful to railway safety managers.

Conclusion

The work gathered in this volume provides an insight into research, best practices and transport policies with focus on state-of the-art advances in the field of traffic safety. They demonstrate the progress made in the various processes of data collection, modeling, management, information and assessment, assisting academics, transport professionals, practitioners and decision makers to a better understanding of the current and future trends. The crucial and increasing role of ITS applications becomes evident, and more frequently researchers and practitioners are applying a universal approach and interdisciplinary methodologies to address transport related issues, including global approaches in modeling. Furthermore, special focus is given to sustainability of presented traffic and safety solutions with special emphasis to the needs of vulnerable road users and to new concepts such as the safe system approach.

Introduction written by George YANNIS and Simon COHEN.

PART 1Road Safety Policy

1Analysis of Road Safety Management Systems in Europe

The objective of this chapter is the analysis of road safety management in European countries and the identification of “good practice”. A road safety management investigation model was created, based on several “good practice” criteria. Road safety management systems have been thoroughly investigated in 14 European countries on 2010, by means of interviews with both governmental representatives and independent experts, who filled in an extensive questionnaire. A reliable and accurate picture (“profile”) was created for each country, allowing for country comparisons. Then, statistical methods were used to make rankings of the countries, and analyze the relationship between road safety management and road safety performance. The results of the analyses suggest that it is not possible to identify one single “good practice”. Nevertheless, there were several elements that emerged as “good practice” criteria. On the basis of the results, recommendations are proposed at national and European level.

1.1. Introduction

In Muhlrad et al. [MUH 11] a road safety management system is defined as “a complex institutional structure involving cooperating and interacting bodies, which supports the tasks and processes necessary to the prevention and reduction of road traffic injuries”. By definition, a road safety management system should meet a number of “good practice” criteria spanning the entire policy-making cycle, from agenda setting to policy formulation, adoption, implementation and evaluation and including efficient structure and smooth processes, to enable evidence-based policy-making.

Effective organization of road safety management is assumed to be one of the conditions for obtaining good road safety results at the country level [DAC 12, ELV 12]. Moreover, as road safety is becoming more and more integrated into broader scoped transport or environment policies, and given the effects of the current economic recession on road safety resources, the need for optimization of road safety management systems becomes even more pronounced.

Within the DaCoTA research project, a road safety management investigation model proposed by Muhlrad et al. [MUH 11] is based on several “good practice” criteria, defined by an exhaustive literature review, to address the need for optimized road safety management systems, leading to better road safety performance in a changing environment.

The objective of this chapter is to present the analysis of a road safety management framework in European countries and the identification of “good practice” for the optimization of road safety management processes, carried out within the DaCoTA research project.

For that purpose, road safety management systems have been thoroughly investigated in 14 European countries in 2010, by interviews with governmental representatives and independent experts in each country, who filled in an extensive questionnaire on the degree to which the various road safety management systems meet the “good practice” criteria. A shorter version of the DaCoTA questionnaire has also been prepared in collaboration with the European Transport Safety Council (ETSC) and dispatched to the ETSC-PIN panel of experts. The data was then analyzed by means of both quantitative and qualitative analysis.

This chapter is structured as follows: in section 1.2, the road safety management investigation model is presented, and the data collection and handling procedures are described. In section 1.3, the results of qualitative analysis of the data are presented, while section 1.4 concerns the results of quantitative analysis. Section 1.5 presents the conclusions of the research in terms of road safety management “good practice” in Europe. Finally, section 1.6 summarizes the DaCoTA key messages and recommendations for the improvement of road safety management systems in Europe.

1.2. Methodology

1.2.1. Road safety management investigation model

The investigation model of [MUH 11] describes road safety management structures and outputs according to the policy-making cycle (agenda setting, policy formulation, adoption, implementation and evaluation) set against the background of a typical hierarchical national government organization (Figure 1.1). The most complete RS management system, which would have been obtained for a country fulfilling all the “good practice” criteria that was identified and was used as a reference (Figure 1.2). For each country, “good practice” elements, a lack of such elements and peculiarities can be then summarized in a “diagnosis” including structures, processes, policy-making tasks and outputs according to the investigation model.

Figure 1.1. Government organization background. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

1.2.2. Data collection and handling

On the basis of the investigation model, an extensive DaCoTA questionnaire was developed, by which various road safety management systems meet the “good practice” criteria. The questions related to the five main areas of Road Safety Management:

– institutional organization, coordination and stakeholders’ involvement;

– policy formulation and adoption;

– policy implementation and funding;

– monitoring and evaluation;

– scientific support and information, capacity building.

Figure 1.2. “Reference” country meeting all the “good practice” criteria. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

The questionnaire was filled in for 14 countries. More specifically, the DaCoTA partners represented the 12 countries: Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Greece, Israel, Italy, Latvia, the Netherlands, Poland, Spain and the United Kingdom, and were able to collect data in the native language of a further two: Ireland and Switzerland. To maximize the representativeness of the sample, questionnaires were sent by email to road safety actors in Latvia and Spain to fill in independently without an interview. However, clarifications were sought when necessary.

Two groups of road safety professionals were targeted:

– government representatives: road safety practitioners who are or have been directly involved in policy and decision making over a long enough period of time for them to have acquired wide-ranging experience in road safety;

– independent experts: road safety researchers or scientists who may contribute to policy but do not have a decision making role and could offer a non-partisan view of the Road Safety Management systems in place.

A shorter version of the DaCoTA questionnaire was been prepared in collaboration with the European Transport Safety Council (ETSC). This questionnaire includes 11 key questions similar to those of the original DaCoTA questionnaire and was dispatched to the PIN panel of the ETSC, i.e. the 30 high level national experts from ETSC network of member organizations. This gave a general overview of the Road Safety Management system in 30 countries, although in much less detail than the DaCoTA data.

The combined use of the two questionnaires allowed on the one hand the coverage of basic road safety management elements for all European countries (DaCoTA/ETSC-PIN questionnaire), and on the other hand the full in-depth analysis for a subset of European countries (DaCoTA questionnaire).

1.3. Qualitative analyses of road safety management systems in Europe

Within the qualitative analysis of the DaCoTA research project, a thorough analysis and cross-checking of the questionnaire responses and related comments was carried out, for both the governmental representatives and the independent experts, in order to draw a reliable and accurate picture or “profile” for each country, and allowing for in-depth country comparisons for selected key items. For further details, the reader is referred to Papadimitriou et al. [PAP 12].

1.3.1. Road safety management profiles

Country profiles of the road safety management systems in the 14 European countries were analyzed and compared to the reference “good practice” system (Figure 1.2). Road safety management structures and outputs are described according to the policy-making cycle (agenda setting, policy formulation, adoption, implementation and evaluation) and set against the background of a typical hierarchical national government organization. Because such a typical organization is not suited to managing road safety policies, which involve most government sectors, specific structures have been set up in most countries, modifying or shortcircuiting the typical hierarchical administration.

For each country, these structures as well as the working processes were charted to provide a graphic picture of the road safety management situation (“country profile”), such as the one presented in Figure 1.3 for Belgium, and the identification of “good practice” elements, such as those presented in Figure 1.4 for Belgium. Focus was on the national organization and the relationships between national and regional/local structures and not on road safety management at the decentralized level, as it was agreed at an earlier stage of methodology building that this aspect could not be tackled in the timeframe of the DaCoTA project.

The thorough analysis of the country profiles, together with additional information from the DaCoTA/ETSC-PIN data, allowed for an in-depth analysis and comparison of countries, leading to several observations and conclusions. These are summarized in section 1.3.2.

1.3.2. Summary of country analyses

1.3.2.1. Institutional organization, coordination and stakeholders’ involvement

A large variation was observed in the structures and processes at the higher level of road safety management. The component “Lead Agency formally appointed to take responsibility for road safety” had a higher availability level among the countries. However, different types of Lead Agencies (from strong departments of ministries, to interministerial committees and road safety councils) and with different specific roles were identified. In several cases, it is not easy to identify the “lead agency”.

Figure 1.3. Structures, processes and outputs in Belgium, 2010. For a color version of the figure, see www.iste.co.uk/jacob/safety.zip

Although it is widely acknowledged that effective road safety management can be achieved with lead agencies of various structural and procedural forms (BLI 09), the results of DaCoTA suggest that road safety management systems based on strong departments of ministries, or that use government agencies specifically established for this purpose, with clear responsibility for the government’s road safety policy, are more effective.

Figure 1.4. Overview of road safety management good practice elements in Belgium, 2010

The DaCoTA results clearly indicate that the establishment of a structure and process alone is not sufficient for effective road safety management. In several countries coordination and budget are the most critical links for setting the processes in motion. The effectiveness of road safety management systems can also be largely affected by the degree to which regional authorities, NGOs, stakeholders or the public at large are involved via systematic consultation at all stages of the policymaking process. Very few countries demonstrate such routines and fruitful consultation processes.

1.3.2.2. Policy formulation and adoption

Road safety policy formulation showed the largest degree of “consensus” between countries, especially with regards to the presence of a road safety strategy with specific quantitative targets for fatality reduction. Nevertheless, several inconsistencies and uncertainties are involved in the adoption of road safety programs and the participation or consultation of regional and local authorities.

Road safety visions and targets appear to be strongly influenced by either European Union proposals or road safety “leader” countries in Europe. The vast majority of countries have adopted the EU target for 2020, as they had also adopted the previous one of 2010. “Vision Zero”, “Sustainable Safety” and “Safe Systems” are the main visions endorsed by several countries. Almost all European countries have road safety strategies and programs, with the majority boasting the ambitious EU targets.

There is a lot of inconsistency in the design of the programs, the setting of priorities and the implementation schedule. Proposals coming from regional or local authorities are hardly ever integrated into national road safety programs. The same is the case for the allocation of resources, so that the regional or local budgets are seldom ensured or even defined at all. Finally, the formal adoption of road safety strategies and programs takes place under quite different procedures in different countries – and in several countries it remains pending.

1.3.2.3. Policy implementation and funding

In general, the implementation of programs and measures appears to be the weakest component of road safety management systems in Europe, especially with regards to the establishment of formal resource allocation procedures, the allocation of funding to evaluation, the sufficiency of funds and human resources and the drafting of plans to support implementation.

The problem of providing stable economic foundations for implementing and managing road safety programs is the key to improved effectiveness and efficiency of road safety work. A decision is seldom taken to ensure the availability of a budget for road safety activities from the national budget. Moreover, the lack of information on measures implementation costs at national and international level, combined with a lack of knowledge on the methods appropriate to calculate these costs, makes the evaluation of the actual implementation expenses an estimation by itself.

Moreover, formal procedures for budget allocation to the various actors are seldom in place, especially for the regional or local authorities. As a consequence, the agency responsible for implementation has to rely on its own budget, and the implementation itself depends on the resources available in this agency as well as on the priority it assigns to road safety.

In countries with a clearly designated “lead agency”, this agency takes over the majority of program management duties, otherwise it is not always clear who is responsible for what part of the implementation. A lack of coordination at the operational level is clearly identifiable, resulting in some sectors being more efficient than others in performing the road safety interventions that they have been assigned.

1.3.2.4. Monitoring and evaluation

A satisfactory level of availability was identified with respect to “benchmarking” for monitoring progress in the road safety situation in relation to the other countries. Nevertheless, most elements related to monitoring and evaluation had a medium or lower level of availability across the countries. In the majority of cases it involves collecting information when a program ends; only a couple of countries monitor programs while they are still in progress.