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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Approachable guide combining project management principles and proven best practices applied to transportation projects Transportation Project Management is a comprehensive and approachable work providing practical guidance on all aspects of managing transportation projects. It covers project management principles, practical applications, and proven best practices, all tailored specifically to the unique workflows of developing and designing transportation projects, from inception through to advertisement for construction. Detailed themes include technical competencies, industry constraints, organizational opportunities, and the range of soft skills necessary to be an effective leader in this role. This timely publication responds to recent trends in the industry, as transportation organizations become more project-centric in their strategic approach, to enable more efficient project and program delivery amidst increased spending on infrastructure. Some topics covered in Transportation Project Management include: * The "Triple Constraint" of budget, scope, and schedule, and meaningful change management * The transportation Project Development Process and its unique interdependencies, opportunities, and constraints * Creating your project management plan, a living document providing guidance and clarification on how the project will be managed during development * Organizational structures, establishing and understanding how your organization operates, including who makes what decisions * Understanding the fundamental differences between projects, programs, and portfolios, enabling successful project management within any organizational structure * Critical Project Management soft skills, including communication, time management, leading meetings, stakeholder engagement, influence management, and managing expectations * Developing and leading focused, efficient, and effective project teams * Partnering with consultants to manage risks, drive development, and increase quality Aimed at professional transportation project managers in both the public and private sectors, along with engineering undergraduate and graduate students in related programs of study, Transportation Project Management provides the foundations for practitioners to become great transportation project managers.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023
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Transportation Project Management
Rob Tieman
This edition first published 2023
© 2023 Rob Tieman
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The right of Rob Tieman to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
1 Project Management 101
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Triple Constraint
1.3 The Project Management Plan
1.4 Organizational Basics
1.5 A Look Ahead
2 Project Development Process
2.1 Safety First
2.2 Overview
2.3 Scoping Phase
2.4 Preliminary Design Phase
2.5 Detailed Design Phase
2.6 Final Design and Right-of-Way Acquisition Phase
2.7 Advertise Plans
3 Budgets and Estimates
3.1 Overview
3.2 The Basics
3.3 Types of Estimates
3.4 Managing the Budget
3.5 Performance Metrics
4 Scope
4.1 Scoping Process
4.2 Schedule and Budget Baselines
4.3 Roles and Responsibilities
4.4 Scope Management
5 Schedule
5.1 Critical Path Method (CPM)
5.2 Schedule Management Plan
5.3 Scheduling Issues
6 Managing Risk
6.1 Why Risk Management Matters
6.2 Risk Management Plan
6.3 Risk Identification
6.4 Risk Analysis
6.5 Risk Responses
6.6 Monitoring Risks
7 Managing Resources
7.1 Developing and Managing a Team
7.2 Personality Assessments
7.3 Resource Planning
7.4 Managing Consultants
8 Managing Quality
8.1 Defining Quality
8.2 Monitoring and Controlling Quality
8.3 Measuring Quality
8.4 The Costs of Quality
9 Communications
9.1 Project Communications
9.2 Stakeholder Involvement and the Stakeholder Engagement Plan
9.3 Media Relations
10 Controlling the Project
10.1 Managing Expectations
10.2 Monitor/Control the Project
10.3 Change Management
10.4 Balancing Innovation – Performance-Based Design
10.5 Goals and OKRs
10.6 Project Management Methodologies
10.7 Performance Metrics
11 PM Soft Skills
11.1 The Importance of Soft Skills
11.2 Characteristics of a Successful PM
11.3 Meetings
11.4 Time Management
11.5 Influence Management
11.6 Advancing and Refuting Arguments
11.7 Professional Development
12 Real-World Challenges
12.1 Ethics
12.2 Project Continuity
12.3 Managing Chaos
12.4 Surviving an Audit
12.5 Scaling Project Approaches
12.6 Guidance Pyramid
12.7 Planning Fallacy
12.8 Closing Thoughts
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
CHAPTER 01
Figure 1.1 Triple constraint.
Figure 1.2 Project management plan...
Figure 1.3 Organizational structures for...
Figure 1.4 Projects, programs, and...
Figure 1.5 Comparison of projects...
CHAPTER 02
Figure 2.1 Traditional vs. Safe...
Figure 2.2 Fatality risks based...
Figure 2.3 Safety standards –...
Figure 2.4 Safety standards –...
Figure 2.5 Five project stages...
Figure 2.6 Five questions every...
Figure 2.7 Five PDP phases...
Figure 2.8 Scoping inputs....
Figure 2.10 Preliminary design phase...
Figure 2.11 Detailed design phase...
Figure 2.12 Final design phase...
Figure 2.13 Advertise phase....
Figure 3.2 Pick two....
Figure 3.4 Estimate knowledge quadrant...
Figure 3.5 Cost estimate components...
Figure 3.6 Estimate risks and...
Figure 3.7 Cone of uncertainty...
Figure 3.8 Types of estimates...
Figure 3.9 Types of preliminary...
Figure 3.10 Managing the triple...
CHAPTER 04
Figure 4.1 Closing scoping....
CHAPTER 05
Figure 5.1 Finish to Start...
Figure 5.2 Start to Start...
Figure 5.3 Start to Finish...
Figure 5.4 Finish to Finish...
Figure 5.5 CPM example workflow...
Figure 5.6 CPM task detail...
Figure 5.7 CPM example forward...
Figure 5.8 CPM example backward...
Figure 5.9 CPM example critical...
Figure 5.10 CPM example Gantt...
CHAPTER 06
Figure 6.1 Organizational risk tolerance...
Figure 6.2 Risk management workflow...
Figure 6.3 Knowledge quadrant....
Figure 6.5 Risk assessment matrix...
Figure 6.6 Quantitative risk analysis...
Figure 6.7 Negative risk (threat...
Figure 6.8 Negative (threat) risk...
Figure 6.9 Positive risk (opportunity...
Figure 6.10 Positive (opportunity) risk...
Figure 6.11 Risk metrics and...
Figure 6.12 Risk burndown chart...
CHAPTER 07
Figure 7.1 Tuckman ladder....
Figure 7.3 MBTI overview....
Figure 7.5 DISC overview....
Figure 7.7 SDI overview....
Figure 7.9 SDI focus areas...
Figure 7.10 Enneagram overview....
Figure 7.12 Enneagram type descriptions...
Figure 7.13 Enneagram type descriptions...
Figure 7.14 Enneagram lines....
Figure 7.16 Professional service procurement...
Figure 7.17 DOT compared to...
Figure 7.18 DOT compared to...
Figure 7.19 DOT compared to...
Figure 7.20 DOT compared to...
Figure 7.21 DOT compared to...
Figure 7.22 DOT compared to...
Figure 7.23 DOT compared to...
Figure 7.24 DOT compared to...
CHAPTER 08
Figure 8.1 QA/QC relationship...
Figure 8.2 QA/QC comparison...
Figure 8.3 Approach to monitor...
Figure 8.4 Quality and organizational...
Figure 8.5 Organizational maturity comparison...
CHAPTER 09
Figure 9.1 Communications plan components...
Figure 9.2 Four different communications...
Figure 9.3 Stakeholder influence and...
Figure 9.4 Stakeholder engagement plan...
Figure 9.5 Identifying stakeholders....
Figure 9.7 Stakeholder quadrant responses...
Figure 9.8 Salience model....
CHAPTER 10
Figure 10.1 Expectation gap....
Figure 10.3 Tiers of importance...
Figure 10.4 Managing expectations....
Figure 10.6 Managing the triple...
Figure 10.7 When crisis occurs...
Figure 10.8 40/70 “...
Figure 10.9 Change management plan...
Figure 10.10 Performance-based design...
Figure 10.11 Fixed and flexible...
Figure 10.12 Project management methodologies...
Figure 10.13 Project approach comparison...
Figure 10.14 Waterfall compared to...
Figure 10.15 Varying PM methodologies...
Figure 10.16 Waterfall vs. Agile...
Figure 10.17 Performance metrics organizational...
Figure 10.18 Simpson’s...
Figure 10.19 Simpson’s...
Figure 10.20 EVM overview....
Figure 10.22 Cost Variance (CV...
Figure 10.23 Schedule Variance (SV...
Figure 10.24 Cost Performance Index...
Figure 10.25 Schedule Performance Index...
Figure 10.26 CPI and SPI...
CHAPTER 11
Figure 11.1 Core competencies....
Figure 11.3 Pareto principle (80...
Figure 11.4 Influence management....
Figure 11.6 Deductive vs. Inductive...
CHAPTER 12
Figure 12.1 Guidance pyramid.
Guide
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
End User License Agreement
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1 Project Management 101
“Leaders think and talk about the solutions. Followers think and talk about the problems.”
– Brian Tracy
1.1 Introduction
“Expect the best, plan for the worst, and prepare to be surprised.”
– Denis Waitley
What is a Project Manager?
Someone convinced they can successfully leverage nine women to deliver a baby in one month.
An organizational leader dedicated to the imposition of order upon chaos, even if chaos is perfectly happy with the status quo.
The person assigned by the performing organization to achieve the project objectives.
While there may be some truth in each of these options, the sixth edition of the Project Management Institute (PMI) Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK) defines a Project Manager (PM) as choice C. After twenty-five years of transportation project, program, and portfolio management, I like choice B.
The mental image of boldly facing the raging tempest and taming the chaos seems especially relevant to transportation projects. Most other engineering disciplines operate in closed systems where you can quantitatively define, and directly control, most project risks. Transportation projects are decidedly different.
Project boundaries and scopes can be expanded with citizen input. Project objectives and success criteria can unpredictably change with the political tide. Legislative action and agency promulgation can dramatically change the rules of engagement mid-project by modifying processes, procedures, standards, and grandfathering new regulations. Weather can directly impact your schedule. Market conditions may increase your estimates even as your disconnected budget is declining. Other private entities are also constantly playing in your sandbox and often do not coordinate their efforts with your project. You work closely with a myriad of local, state, and federal organizations that often have very different definitions of “a helpful and timely response.” Bureaucratic inertia, indecision, and personal and professional agendas are commonplace. And so much more.
Transportation Project Management is a fascinatingly complex game. It will challenge your patience, intelligence, and determination. And it will fill you with pride as you develop and deliver tangible and enduring products that improve the safety and quality of life for the community.
This book will paint a broad-stroke, contextual picture of foundational transportation knowledge, provide a comprehensive examination of project management fundamentals, and offer practical guidance on how to efficiently plan, develop, and deliver public transportation projects.
1.1.1 The Big Picture
At their core, most transportation owner-operators are funding organizations. This is increasingly the case as more design, development, construction, maintenance, and operations activities are being contracted out and not performed with in-house staff. Public agencies operate under completely different paradigms than private companies. They are not a for-profit enterprise. They are also not a bank. Their continued existence and success is not dependent upon the size of their cash reserves or its ability to optimize a positive financial advantage in the transaction of goods or services. Their directive is to spend the money in a reasonable and responsible way that directly and significantly improves the public’s safety, mobility, and quality of life. While the public entity may own and operate the transportation asset, it is important to understand that the money that flows through its various projects, programs, and portfolios supports and enables a host of other public agencies, consultants, contractors, manufacturers, suppliers, and services that drive an entire industry with far-reaching economic impacts.
Most state Departments of Transportation (DOTs) have remarkably similar mission statements. They typically include planning, delivering, operating, and maintaining safe, accessible, and reliable multimodal transportation systems that enable efficient movement of people and goods, enhance the economy, and improve the overall quality of life. Most DOTs also cite shared values that typically include safety, trust, honesty, integrity, accountability, transparency, fiscal responsibility, innovation, sustainability, and responsive service. These are ambitious and noble goals. The PM plays a critical role in the execution of this mission.
To meet these challenges, DOTs and other transportation system owners and operators must work collaboratively and strategically to ensure they are planning, developing, and delivering the right projects. Significant time and effort is spent evaluating and prioritizing the projects that make cost-effective and significant impacts to the transportation systems and the traveling public. Once a project is selected, funded, and initiated, it becomes the PM’s responsibility to develop and deliver the project.
I have yet to meet an engineer who went through the gauntlet of an engineering education so they could live their dream of filling out forms and shuffling papers. Engineers solve problems. Engineers create and innovate. Engineers build things. That is why we are engineers. A transportation PM has to juggle many factors and risks, work with a wide range of stakeholders, all while strategically and stubbornly navigating their project to satisfy sometimes complex and conflicting success criteria. At times this can be exhausting and overwhelming. Resist surrendering that sense of wonder and excitement you had building Lego creations as a kid. Remember, the goal is to build a solution that solves a problem and improves the community’s quality of life. That is a noble goal.
Life is short. Harvey Mackay said, “Time is free, but it’s priceless. You can’t own it, but you can use it. You can’t keep it, but you can spend it. Once you’ve lost it you can never get it back.” In your professional career you only get so many projects to manage and lead. Seize the limited opportunities to make a tangible and significant difference in the world.
1.2 Triple Constraint
“Nothing is so simple that it cannot be misunderstood.”
– Freeman Teague, Jr.
In 2016, the worldwide management consulting firm McKinsey & Company estimated large transportation projects typically finish 80% over budget and 20% beyond the original schedule. Pending the sample set of projects, the results can be even more bleak. Bent Flyvbjerg, of Oxford Business School, estimated 90% of mega projects go over budget. Meanwhile, on the other end of the spectrum, small local transportation projects may be no better. While the lack of holistic and consistent performance metrics over the life of the project and across state and locality lines can make it difficult to determine if transportation organizations are developing and delivering projects on-time and on-budget compared against a common schedule and budget baseline, there is no denying transportation projects have a history of being chronically late and over budget.
Why is this? In a recent Gallup poll of most trusted and ethical professions, engineers rank second behind nurses, ahead of medical doctors and pharmacists. Top college engineering programs are among the most competitive for entrance, and most rigorous to complete. Transportation professionals are typically well-intentioned, bright engineers who are driven to solve problems and build solutions. Where is the disconnect?
Many of the reasons for this uninspiring performance will be discussed and addressed in this book. Some of these reasons are outside of our control, but most are not. An organization or individual cannot expect success if their level of transportation project management expertise and experience is low. This book will equip you to succeed.
We start at the very beginning. Project Management 101 is the Triple Constraint. It is so simple. Most every engineer, manager, or administrator can describe it. Yet project performance indicates most don’t understand it, properly utilize it, or grasp its power.
As PM, the Triple Constraint is fundamental to all you do. It is graphically shown as a triangle, with the three legs being labelled for Budget, Scope, and Schedule.
This triangle, illustrated in Figure 1.1, represents your project. Your project’s budget, scope, and schedule are individual constraints that are inherently interconnected. Once set, you cannot change one without impacting the other two. Think of the area within the triangle as fixed. The option of simply enlarging the triangle is rarely realistic without compromising the project’s success. So, if you extend the schedule line, the budget and/or scope must decrease in order for the area within the triangle to remain the same. This results in the common quip that you can have your project fast, cheap, or good – pick two of the three.
Figure 1.1 Triple constraint.
It is important to recognize that you don’t have a project unless that project has a budget, scope, and schedule. You may have an idea, a hope, a plan, or even a commitment, but you do not have a project until you have a budget, scope, and schedule. Once the project is active, the triple constraint is established. Once established, the PM lives within this triangle. All project work should be conducted within this space. To be successful, you must fiercely monitor and guard these three critical constraints. As PM, this is your primary job.
George Box said, “All models are wrong, but some are useful.” This is true of the Triple Constraint. The three constraints have very different units of money (budget), time (schedule), and content (scope). As such, there may be other constraints of similar units. For instance, a decrease in funding, an anticipated funding shortfall due to a revised construction cost estimate, or higher than anticipated project expenses may all fall under the budget of the Triple Constraint. It can be tempting to try to read too much into this model. However, while the concept is an oversimplification, it does effectively illustrate a project’s fundamental competing and interdependent constraints. This understanding and mindset correctly frames the context for successful Project Management and Change Management. The PM must constantly search for, and find, balance between these three constraints.
When considering the Triple Constraint, it is important to realize it provides different insights in different scenarios. When two of the three constraints are fixed, it can be problematic to adjust the third. If your budget and schedule are fixed, it is difficult to increase scope by adding design features. If your budget and scope are fixed, the project cannot extend its schedule without complications. If the schedule and scope are fixed, a budget decrease may jeopardize success.
The situation is different when only one constraint is fixed. In these situations, the remaining two constraints must be adjusted to balance the project. If the scope is fixed and your schedule is extended, your budget may need to be increased. If your scope is fixed and your budget is decreased, you will need to compress your schedule. If your schedule is fixed and your scope is increased, you may need to increase your budget. If your schedule is fixed and your budget is decreased, you may need to reduce scope. If your budget is fixed and your schedule is accelerated, you may need to reduce scope. If your budget is fixed and your scope is increased, you may need to fast-track your schedule.
In reality, most projects experience some variance in all three constraints. The scope may be increasing, which necessitates extending the schedule and increasing the budget. Or the schedule is suddenly accelerated, which necessitates increasing the budget to add resources and reducing scope by eliminating nonessential design elements. Or the budget is cut, which necessitates reducing the scope and modifying the schedule.
In all of these cases, effective Change Management is critical to project success. As PM, you need to strategically be preparing and moving the game pieces so that you are positioned to win, meaning that you develop and deliver the project on-time and on-budget in a way that satisfies the Project Management Plan (PMP) and achieves established success criteria.
Effectively managing a project’s Triple Constraint requires purposeful action. In the life of most projects, the Triple constraints will be strained. Past performance shows us these situations are not always handled well. Successful PMs are flexible in approach and adaptable to change while maintaining a laser-like focus on objectives, risks, and constraints. Planned change is one of the most powerful tools a PM can use to nimbly develop and deliver a successful project. Conversely, nothing will jeopardize a project faster than unplanned or unmanaged change. The PM is fully responsible to monitor and manage any and all changes to the Triple Constraint. Change Management is discussed at length in Chapter 10, Controlling the Project, Section 10.3, Change Management.
Many mature organizations have a project-centric approach. For our purposes, this means that every project has a schedule. Every schedule has essential tasks. Every task has a responsible resource. Every schedule has a defined critical path. Every project has a PM. Every project has a budget. Every dollar has a project. Every scope is defined. Every change is processed per approved change management procedures. Underlying all of these tenets is a fundamental reliance upon the triple constraint, which is the unyielding foundation for all successful projects.
While your primary responsibility as PM is the Triple Constraint, there are other factors you must also consider. Underlying the Triple Constraint of Budget, Scope, and Schedule, are the constant undercurrents of Risk, Resources, and Quality. None of these are inherently project constraints; although changes to budget, scope, and schedule may be dependent upon, or directly impact, Risks, Resources, and Quality. As such, any of these may become constraints that become entangled with the Triple Constraints. Identifying, managing, and responding to Risks can directly impact any or all of the triple constraints. The same can be true for Resources and Quality. Intentionally and proactively managing Risks, Resources, and Quality will position you for project success. Conversely, ignoring or mismanaging Risks, Resources, and Quality will almost certainly lead to failure. Each of these will be discussed at length in subsequent chapters.
1.3 The Project Management Plan
“An hour of planning can save you ten hours of doing.”
– Dale Carnegie
A project’s Purpose and Need defines the Why of the project. The project scope details the What to satisfy the Why. The Project Management Plan (PMP) details the How, Who, and When. This living document provides guidance and clarification on how the final product will be managed during development. It provides clarity and consistency, and serves as a tremendous resource during unexpected times or in the midst of critical staff transitions. The PMP is the responsibility of the PM.
When you see “Plan,” think “How.” The project schedule is not the PMP. At its core, the PMP is a collection of other plans, each one detailing how a critical area of the project will be managed. Much of this may already be defined in your organizational guidance. The intention of the PMP is not to recreate it, but to highlight key components. The final PMP should not be a physical or virtual binder that sits proudly on a shelf. The PMP should be a living document and a dynamic tool that is used and leveraged throughout the project.
All projects should have a PMP. Larger and more complex projects can have massive PMPs. However, even smaller projects can benefit from a very quick and simple PMP. Many organizations have PMP guidance or templates that should be used and followed. While each project is unique, the format can remain consistent. The content and level of detail should be tailored to the size and complexity of the project, per your organization’s guidance. If your organization does not have PMP guidance or template, you may use the following format illustrated in Figure 1.2.
Figure 1.2 Project management plan template.
1.3.1 Project Details
Every PMP should start with a section on Project Details. This should be tailored to the protocol and expectations of your organization. Typically, this would detail the project’s Purpose and Need, objectives, and goals. This section should also include a project narrative. High-level summaries of project phase details and the selected project delivery method should also be incorporated. If your organization requires a Project Charter or a Consultant’s Scope of Work, it should be included in this section.
1.3.2 Resource Management Plan
The Resource Management Plan details how the project team will interact throughout the project. An organizational chart and list of Roles and Responsibilities are critical components of this plan. Detailed information on developing and managing project teams is included in Chapter 7, Managing Resources. Additional information on the Resource Management Plan is included in Section 7.3, Resource Planning.
1.3.3 Scope Management Plan
The Scope Management Plan details how the project scope is defined, validated, and controlled throughout the project. This should describe the project development approach. The project’s Issue Log is a critical work product within this plan. Detailed information on Scopes is included in Chapter 4, Scope. Additional information about the Scope Management Plan is included in Section 4.4, Scope Management.
1.3.4 Schedule Management Plan
The Schedule Management Plan details how the schedule will be developed, monitored, and controlled throughout the project. The Project Schedule and Baseline Schedule are critical work products under this plan. Detailed information on schedules is included in Chapter 5, Schedule, with Section 5.2, Schedule Management Plan, focusing specifically on the Schedule Management Plan.
1.3.5 Cost Management Plan
The Cost Management Plan details how the project budget and estimates will be developed, monitored, and controlled throughout the project. The project’s budget and estimates, along with the baseline estimate, are critical work products under this plan. Detailed information on these financial issues included in Chapter 3, Budgets and Estimates. Additional information on the Cost Management Plan is included in Section 3.4, Managing the Budget.
1.3.6 Risk Management Plan
The Risk Management Plan details how risk will be identified, analyzed, and managed throughout the project. This includes the processes that will be followed, and the tools that will be utilized. The Risk Register and Assumption Log are key documents that should be part of this plan, and regularly updated. Detailed information on risk management and the Risk Management Plan are included in Chapter 6, Managing Risk, and Section 6.2, Risk Management Plan.
1.3.7 Communications Plan
The Communications Plan details how information will be collected and disseminated to the project team, leadership, and stakeholders throughout the project. The Stakeholder Register and Stakeholder Engagement Plan will be large components of the Communications Plan. Detailed information is included in Chapter 9, Communications, particularly in Section 9.1, Project Communications, and Section 9.2, Stakeholder Involvement and the Stakeholder Engagement Plan.
1.3.8 Quality Management Plan
The Quality Management Plan details how quality will be defined and measured throughout the project. This should address both process (via Quality Assurance) and the product (via Quality Control). Detailed information is included in Chapter 8, Managing Quality. Information specific to the Quality Management Plan is included in Section 8.2, Monitoring and Controlling Quality.
1.3.9 Change Management Plan
Change is inevitable. The Change Management Plan details how change will be managed and processed throughout the project. Established Change Management Procedures are critical to project success. The Change Log documents all project changes throughout the project. Detailed information on Change Management Plan is included in Chapter 10, Controlling the Project, within Section 10.3, Change Management.
1.4 Organizational Basics
“The war is not won with bayonets, but with effective organization.”
– Unknown
1.4.1 Organizational Structures
Organizations develop and deliver projects under different frameworks. These frameworks have far-reaching implications for how your organization operates, including who makes what decisions. Generally speaking, there are three different types of organizational structures for project management: Functional, Matrix, and Projectized. Matrix organizations can be subdivided into Weak Matrix, Balanced Matrix, and Strong Matrix organizations. Figure 1.3 shows the full range from Functional on one end to Weak Matrix, to Balanced Matrix, to Strong Matrix, with Projectized on the other end. This spectrum represents the scale of an organization from being Department Oriented to Project Oriented. The balance of power and authority between the Functional Manager and Project Manager transition along this range.
Figure 1.3 Organizational structures for project management.
A Functional Organization is divided into discipline-specific departments. Resources are controlled within their functional group, which is controlled by the functional manager. Employees are specialized by area. Rigid, disconnected organizational hierarchies can create “silos” that forces team members to first go up their own vertical chain of command for information outside of their silo. While this structure can concentrate expertise within efficient departments, it can also isolate resources and introduce turf battles. Decision making can be slow, and loyalty can first be to the silo and not the organization or project. In this arrangement, PMs have little-to-no power or authority over the project or team resources.
On the other end of the spectrum are Projectized Organizations. These organizations are highly project focused, and arrange their staffs accordingly as all activities are intentionally managed through projects. In this framework, the PM has tremendous power and authority. Resources are completely controlled by the PM within this dynamic and adaptive environment. This structure can enable nimble progress as decisions can be quickly made for a team that is first loyal to the project success. However, the inherent temporary nature of this structure can challenge continuity and introduce employee uncertainty as they may be reshuffled after each project. Additionally, while encouraging collaboration, it can limit discipline-specific expertise that is essential in technical industries.
Most transportation organizations are Matrix Organizations. A Matrix Organization sits comfortably in the middle, offering the best, and worst, of both worlds. An organization can tailor their resources and strengths to enable flexibility and encourage efficiencies across multiple objectives. Here resources answer to both the Functional Managers and PM. Which manager has more power and authority determines if the organization is Weak, Balanced, or Strong. In a Weak Matrix, the budget and schedule are controlled by the Functional Managers. The PM may be part-time and is more of a coordinator. In a Strong Matrix, the budget and schedule are predominantly controlled by the PM. Functional Managers fill a valuable support role. In a Balanced Matrix, they share control of the budget and schedule. Typically, the PM will lead project-related tasks while the Functional Manager is responsible for resource-related issues. This dynamic structure enables concentration of expertise and successful collaboration across department lines. However, it does necessitate effective communication to clarify potentially competing roles, responsibilities, and objectives.
1.4.2 Project Management Office (PMO)
PMI’s PMBOK defines a Project Management Office (PMO) as, “A management structure that standardizes the project-related governance processes and facilitates the sharing of resources, methodologies, tools, and techniques.” This typically means the PMO defines and maintains project management standards, while realizing economies of scale in project development. They should be the organization’s experts in project management practices and methodologies.
Not all PMOs are created equal. They too can have different structures and focus. There are three basic types of PMOs: Supporting, Controlling, and Directive. Think of them as a range, in this order.
A Supporting PMO encourages the PMs by providing optional resources, almost in a consultant, advisor, or coach role. Typically, they would provide templates, best practices, lessons learned, training, and manage any PM information systems. This structure supports the PMs by offering advice and guidance on an as-needed basis, if asked. Since interactions are voluntary, their control, influence, and authority are low. Consequently, this type of PMO can be summarily ignored without repercussions as they cannot enforce anything. A Supporting PMO can be effective where projects can be successfully managed in a loosely controlled environment.
The most common type of PMO is a Controlling PMO, which strikes the balance between being hands-off and a taskmaster. In this sweet spot, they emphasize support, governance, and conformance. Typically, they would also provide project management policies, procedures, forms, reporting, and other tools. This type of PMO works to establish the project management framework, and then enforces compliance with organizational practices and methodologies. A Controlling PMO can be extremely effective in complex environments where compliance with established practices is critical to success, such as in the transportation industry.
A Directive PMO directly manages the projects. In these instances, all PMs work directly for the PMO. Success requires strong governance framework as their goal is to become efficient project execution factories. A Directive PMO can be very effective in rigid, highly regulated, high-risk environments, or in larger matrix organizations.
Assuming your transportation organization has a PMO, it is likely some version of a Controlling PMO. As such, it will likely have some common objectives regarding project management, including but not limited to: Governance, Standards, Policies, Processes, Resources, Forms, Templates, Documentation, and Training. This all enables the organization to provide consistency in project development and delivery between PMs and across district, divisional, or department lines. This includes establishing and maintaining common processes and performance metrics. It also often includes administrating the organization’s project management software, tracking, and management tools.
The PMO should promote a pervasive project management culture that provides consistency and harmony while increasing productivity and consistent results. The influence footprint of a successful PMO is much larger than might be expected. It can be the tiny rudder that turns the entire ship. Often one of the most important responsibilities of a PMO is to minimize conflict and improve efficiencies at the critical links between people, processes, and technology. As such, the PMO may be in a unique position to break down organizational silos and build bridges of innovation. As a Transportation PM, understand the expertise within your PMO and leverage it to your advantage.
1.4.3 Projects, Programs, and Portfolios
Projects, programs, and portfolios are three distinct entities. Understanding the implications of their fundamental differences will better enable you to successfully manage your projects within your organization’s structure.
A Project is a temporary effort to develop and deliver a product within the established budget, scope, and schedule. A Program is a collection of projects that share a meaningful relationship. A Portfolio is the full collection of projects and programs that share the same strategic objectives. To use a music analogy, consider each individual song to be a project. An artist’s individual albums would be separate programs. The artist’s full catalog of albums and stray songs would be their portfolio. In transportation, every project is a project. Projects may then be grouped into Programs by some meaningful relationship between the projects. This may be a geographic district, a specific funding source, a defining discipline (e.g., bridges), who is administering the project (e.g., DOT managed or Locality managed), or some other useful distinction. For the purpose of performance metrics, projects may be analyzed in more than one program. For instance, you may first look at a geographic district’s entire program, and then look at all bridge projects across district lines. Every project should have a PM. Pending the size and structure of your organization, you may also have Program Managers. The portfolio would then be the entirety of programs and projects that share a strategic objective. This will typically be all construction projects within your organization’s multiyear funding plan. Figure 1.4 illustrates the relationship between these three entities.
Figure 1.4 Projects, programs, and portfolios.
Projects, programs, and portfolios operate at different levels that all need to work together to ensure organizational success. Those responsible at each level operate at very different altitudes and levels of expertise. It is helpful to realize each may have different focus and success criteria. Pending the size and maturity of your organization, these different levels may be clearly delineated or mostly blurred. The same person may fill one or more of these roles in smaller organizations. Larger transportation organizations may have different managerial and leadership individuals or entities at each level. For instance, there may be a hierarchy of PMs that are under District program PMOs, that in turn are under the Portfolio (or Enterprise) PMO in Central Office.
It is worth discussing the differences in approaches. On one side of the spectrum is Project Management, which is uniquely tactical in nature. This concentrates on doing, resolving the how, and focusing on day-to-day execution. Project Management drives the deliverables, and wants to improve “what is.” On the other side of the spectrum is Portfolio Management, which is uniquely strategic in nature. This concentrates on planning, determines the what and why, and focuses on defining the future. Portfolio Management drives the outcomes, and considers “what can be.” Program Management hovers in the middle, balancing strategic direction with tactical realities. Figure 1.5 summarizes some of the major differences between each level.
Figure 1.5 Comparison of projects, programs, and portfolios.
1.5 A Look Ahead
“Man’s mind, once stretched by a new idea, never regains its original dimensions.”
– Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.
When a PM traverses their completed transportation projects, they see the improvement in ways no one else does. They see the property with the belligerent owner who tried to kill the project. They see the now grassed area of the test hole that confirmed they had a massive utility conflict. They see the pipe outfall that needed to be extended and required additional survey that stressed the schedule. They see the storm inlets in the roundabout that were nearly impossible to adequately drain on the challenging incline. But that is not all they see. They also see the median break strategically positioned to accommodate the church’s masterplan for expansion. They see the pedestrian path that was extended to connect two neighbourhoods so residents could safely walk and bike to the nearby swim club. They see the improved roadway geometry and safety features that dramatically reduced accidents. They see the innovative bridge abutment design that saved that massive old oak tree.
When a PM looks at their completed project, they see so much more than just the completed assets. They see how the finished product came to be. They see the journey. Some of these memories are wildly successful tales of innovation and persistence. Others are pride-swallowing lessons learned. But they are all part of the story. They are all part of your journey.
Whether each memory and issue went your way or not, they are all testimonials to successful resolutions. PMs solve problems and make things happen, from megaprojects that change the landscape and character of cities and corridors, to small projects that improve safety at a pedestrian crossing. There are very few systems that directly impact our lives as much as the transportation network. Be it our individual travel for work or pleasure, or the transport of goods and services that enables our economy to survive and thrive. The economic and time benefits of transportation improvements are real.
It is said PMs find a way, or an excuse. As PMs, you drive this ship. You have the power to push development of an effective and efficient design. The larger your organization, perhaps the easier it is to lose the urgency of your mission. If the project is delivered next May or next September, does it really matter? If you are improving traffic efficiency, think of all the time you are saving and giving back to each person who drives that road. If you are improving a bike or pedestrian facility, think of the added joy families have using it, and of those who now run on it every day. If you are improving safety, think of those who may have been in serious or fatal accidents if the project were delayed. I guarantee that their loved ones would say your efforts mattered a great deal. This is exciting! You are making a difference. This should motivate you to wake up each day and drive your projects forward. You are making a very real and tangible difference in the lives of the community in which you and many, many others live, work, and play. As Ralph Waldo Emerson said, “The reward of a thing well done is to have done it.”
