Understanding and Conducting Research in the Health Sciences E-Book

Christopher J. L. Cunningham

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 976

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

A comprehensive introduction to behavioral and social science research methods in the health sciences Understanding and Conducting Research in the Health Sciences is designed to develop and facilitate the ability to conduct research and understand the practical value of designing, conducting, interpreting, and reporting behavioral and social science research findings in the health science and medical fields. The book provides complete coverage of the process behind these research methods, including information-gathering, decision formation, and results presentation. Examining the application of behavioral and social science research methodologies within the health sciences, the book focuses on implementing and developing relevant research questions, collecting and managing data, and communicating various research perspectives. An essential book for readers looking to possess an understanding of all aspects of conducting research in the health science field, Understanding and Conducting Research in the Health Sciences features: * Various research designs that are appropriate for use in the health sciences, including single-participant, multi-group, longitudinal, correlational, and experimental designs * Step-by-step coverage of single-factor and multifactor studies as well as single-subject and nonexperimental methods * Accessible chapter explanations, real-world examples, and numerous illustrations throughout * Guidance regarding how to write about research within the formatting styles of the American Medical Association and the American Psychological Association The book is an excellent educational resource for healthcare and health service practitioners and researchers who are interested in conducting and understanding behavioral and social science research done within the health sciences arena. The book is also a useful resource for students taking courses in the fields of medicine, public health, epidemiology, biostatistics, and the health sciences.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Preface

Philosophy for Writing This Book

Order of Chapters

Acknowledgments

Part One: Overview of the Research Process

Chapter 1: Behavioral and Social Research in the Health Sciences

Introduction

Why Is Understanding Research Methods So Important?

The Role of Behavioral and Social Science

The Scientific Method

Brief History of Scientific Reasoning

Bacon's Legacy

Other Important Historical Figures

Assumptions of Science

Requirements for Scientific Research

Chapter Summary

Knowledge Check

Chapter Glossary for Review

Chapter 2: Ethics and Research

Introduction

What is Ethics?

Approaches to Ethical Analysis

Making Ethical Decisions

Ethical Health Sciences Research

Components of an Ethical Research Plan

Research in Action: Ethical Dilemmas

Knowledge Check

Knowledge Check

Knowledge Check

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Chapter 3: The Foundations of Research

Introduction

The Hypothesis in Research

Types of Hypotheses

Knowledge Check

Measurement

Reliability of Measurement

Validity of Measurement

Populations and Samples

Research in Action: Credit or Cash?

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Chapter 4: An Overview of Empirical Methods

Introduction

Internal, Statistical, and External Validity

Survey of Empirical Methods

Computers and Statistics

Research in Action

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Part Two: Nuts and Bolts of Research

Chapter 5: Writing the Research Report

Introduction

What Do Readers Appreciate in Good Writing?

Elements of Style

Special Grammatical Issues

Academic Integrity

Parts of the Research Report

Proofreading

Chapter Summary

Chapter 6: Reviewing the Literature

Introduction

Bibliographic Research

The Internet as a Source

Developing a Search Strategy

Searching the Literature: The Library

Research in Action: Does Listening to Mozart Make You Smarter?

Knowledge Check

Knowledge Check

Knowledge Check

Knowledge Check

Statistical Inference and Hypothesis Testing

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Chapter 7: Sampling

Introduction

The Nature of Samples

Overview of Probability Sampling

Probability Sampling Methods

Nonprobability Sampling

Knowledge Check

Central Limit Theorem

Applications of the Central Limit Theorem

Sources of Bias and Error: A Reprise

Research in Action: Sampling Matters

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Chapter 8: Assessments, Surveys, and Objective Measurement

Introduction

Purpose of Measurement

Caveat Assessor

Developing a Measurement Scale and Data Collection Strategy

Interviews, Questionnaires, and Surveys

Question–Response Formats

Knowledge Check

Writing Good Survey Items

Determining the Sample Size for a Survey

Observation

Research in Action: Analysis of Assaults

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Chapter 9: A Model for Research Design

Introduction

A Model for Research Design

What is the Independent Variable?

What Is the Dependent Variable?

Are There Confounding Variables?

Knowledge Check

What is the Research Hypothesis?

Evaluating Hypotheses

Evaluating Hypotheses: Practical Matters

Research in Action

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Part Three: Common Research Designs

Chapter 10: Correlational Research

Introduction

Conceptual Review of Correlation

Pearson's r

Interpreting the Correlation Coefficient

Factors That Corrupt a Correlation Coefficient

Sample Size and the Correlation Coefficient

Knowledge Check

Applications of the Correlation Coefficient

Regression Analysis

Introduction to Mediation and Moderation

Regression to the Mean

Research in Action: Zinc and Depression

Spearman Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Chapter 11: Between-Subjects Designs

Introduction

Student's t-Test for Independent Groups

Review of Hypothesis Testing

Testing Statistical Hypotheses

Knowledge Check

Common Errors in the Interpretation of p

The Power of a Test

Estimating the Sample Size

Knowledge Check

Statistics behind the Research

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Chapter 12: Single-Variable Between-Subjects Research

Introduction

Independent Variable

Cause and Effect

Gaining Control over the Variables

The General Linear Model

Components of Variance

The F-Ratio

H0 and H1

F-Ratio Sampling Distribution

Knowledge Check

Summarizing and Interpreting ANOVA Results

Effect Size and Power

Multiple Comparisons of the Means

Research in Action

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Chapter 13: Between-Subjects Factorial Designs

Introduction

The Logic of the Two-Variable Design

Advantages of the Two-Variable Design

Factorial Designs: Variables, Levels, and Cells

Main Effects and Interaction

Knowledge Check

Designing a Factorial Study

Identifying Samples and Estimating Sample Size

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Chapter 14: Correlated-Groups Designs

Introduction

Logic of the Correlated-Groups Research Design

Repeated-Measures Design

Knowledge Check

Cross-Sectional Sequential Designs

Matched-Groups Design

Knowledge Check

Research in Action: Mixed-Model Design

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Part Four: Special Research Designs

Chapter 15: Single-Participant Experiments, Longitudinal Studies, and Quasi-Experimental Designs

Introduction

Single-Participant Experiments

Research in Action: Treatment for Panic Disorder

Knowledge Check

Longitudinal Designs

Research in Action: Onset of Bulimia

Quasi Experiments

Research in Action: Traffic Laws and Safety

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Chapter 16: Research with Categorical Data

Introduction

Goodness-of-Fit Test

χ2 Test of Independence

χ2 Test of Homogeneity

Follow-Up Analyses

McNemar Test

Knowledge Check

Research in Action: Improving Colonoscopy Screening Rates among African American Men

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Chapter 17: Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Research

Introduction

Qualitative versus Quantitative Research

Theory and Perspectives Guiding Qualitative Research

Mixing Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Combined

Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Data Collection and Analysis

Benefits and Challenges of the Mixed-Methods Research

Sources of Published Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Research

Research in Action: Spiritual Aspects of Nursing Care

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

Appendix A: Reviewing the Statistics behind the Research

Introduction

X, Y, N, n

Subscripts (X1) and Superscripts (X2)

Population Parameters

Summation (Σ)

Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Variability

Standardized or Transformed Scores

Knowledge Check

Appendix B: Statistical Tables

Table B.1: Proportions of the Area under the Normal Curve

Table B.2: 1200 Two-Digit Random Numbers

Table B.3: Critical Values for Student's t-Test

Table B.4: Power of Student's Single-Sample t-Ratio

Table B.5.1: Power of Student's Two-Sample t-Ratio, One-Tailed Tests

Table B.5.2: Power of Student's Two-Sample t-Ratio, Two-Tailed Tests

Table B.6: Critical Values for Pearson's Correlation Coefficient

Table B.7: Critical Values for Spearman's Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient

Table B.8: r to z Transformation

Table B.9: Power of Pearson's Correlation Coefficient

Table B.10: Critical Values for the F-Ratio

Table B.11: Critical Values for the Fmax Test

Table B.12: Critical Values for the Studentized Range Test

Table B.13: Power of ANOVA

Table B.14: Critical Values for the Chi-Square Test

Table B.15: Critical Values for the Mann–Whitney U-Test

Index

Copyright © 2013 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved

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Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Cunningham, Christopher J. L., author.

Understanding and conducting research in the health sciences / Christopher J.L. Cunningham, Bart L. Weathington, David J. Pittenger.

p. ; cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-118-13540-2 (cloth) – ISBN 978-1-118-51494-8 (eBook) (print) – ISBN 978-1-118-51492-4 (ePDF) (print) – ISBN 978-1-118-51493-1 (ePub) (print) – ISBN 978-1-118-51490-0 (eMOBI) (print)

I. Weathington, Bart L., author. II. Pittenger, David J., author. III. Title.

[DNLM: 1. Biomedical Research–methods. 2. Research Design. W 20.5]

610.28'4–dc23

2013001307

We dedicate this book to the mentors, family members, students, andcolleagues who have guided and shaped us personally and professionally.

Preface

Understanding health requires understanding people and understanding people requires knowledge of behavioral and social science.

—Christopher J. L. Cunningham, Bart L. Weathington, and David J. Pittenger

Philosophy for Writing This Book

Professionals in the health sciences interact with people every day. It is increasingly the case that issues of cultural competence, humanism, interpersonal compassion, and patient perceptions of care quality are on the minds of those responsible for developing tomorrow's physicians. A shared characteristic of all these and many other issues is that they are based on perceptions, behaviors, and cognitions. These latter elements are core elements to human psychology and to the ways in which people interact with each other and their environments.

Given this reality, it is important to consider the role of behavioral and social science research within the health science professions. Unfortunately, many professionals-in-training in this area receive little to no training in basic social science research methods, focusing instead on biological or other forms of laboratory-based study. Although such highly controlled studies are important for the development and testing of new medications and treatments, the health sciences cannot simply ignore the more psychological and sociological factors that also impact the application of health science knowledge. This is our primary reason for writing this book.

The importance of social and behavioral processes within the health sciences is often overlooked. Because of this, we offer the present textbook to help teach core research concepts that can help health science professionals better understand and work with complex behavioral and social processes. For those of us who teach research methods, one of the most gratifying experiences is watching others develop a passion for conducting research and an understanding of the practical value of systematic information gathering and decision making. Because the vitality of any branch of science depends on a solid grounding on research methods and analytic strategies, it is our belief that understanding research methods is among the most important competency building blocks within the health sciences.

The present text represents our effort to provide a resource for health science professionals-in-training and for established professionals wishing to expand their expertise. The material we present may also be helpful to advanced undergraduate students who intend to pursue graduate work in the health sciences, especially given the increasing importance of this content in upcoming versions of the Medical College Admission Test and given the increasing emphasis placed on research within most graduate medical education programs. We have incorporated a variety of key features to make the material in this text accessible, interesting, and practically useful, without watering down the importance of systematically identifying questions and appropriate methods for answering those questions.

General Style

To keep this book accessible and useful, we have written this book in editorial style that is narrative in its tone and inviting for the reader. Although there is a clear conversational style to the text, there is no lack of rigor in the material that is presented. Throughout the text, we provide comprehensive accounts of behavioral and social scientists' best ideas and research methods.

Examples

A related strategy that we applied throughout this text was the selection of relevant and contemporary examples of behavioral and social science research within health-related fields. Our goal in selecting these examples was to illustrate important topics covered in the chapter and to show how health science professionals can use the research methods and analytical tools we present in this text to address complex and important questions.

Integration of Research Methods and Statistical Concepts

Those familiar with basic parametric statistics know that they come with many mathematical strings attached. If the researcher cannot ensure that the data and the design of the data collection methods meet these basic assumptions, then the inferences derived from eventual statistical analyses may be suspect. In some cases, a statistic is extremely robust to violations of its assumptions; other statistics fail to withstand even minor deviations from assumptions.

An assumption we made while writing this book is that that our readers have completed at least a general introduction to statistics course. Consequently, a certain level of statistical knowledge is assumed, especially regarding more basic concepts such as measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion, or standard scores. Nonetheless, many students have a tendency to forget or temporarily misplace much of their statistical knowledge following completion of their required statistics course. To address this, we review critical statistical concepts as they relate to specific methodological techniques. Additionally, we include a focused appendix that can serve as an initial statistics review.

Therefore, in writing this book, we wanted to ensure that students receive a comprehensive and detailed review of the best techniques for studying behavior and social phenomena within the health sciences. Consequently, where appropriate, our chapters provide a comprehensive review of research methods and the statistical concepts that support them. The review of the statistical principles is comprehensive yet conceptual and nontechnical. Students who have completed a course in statistics will find these sections to be a useful review of important topics. Students who have not studied statistics will find these sections a suitable and readable introduction to these topics.

For example, the review of sampling procedures examines the different methods researchers use to create representative samples and demonstrates how the central limit theorem allows one to make valid inferences using sample statistics. An additional recurring topic throughout the book is the issue of statistical power. Because of the importance of this concept, reviews of statistical power occur in many parts of the book. The goal is to show students that they can control the power of their research by adjusting several design parameters beyond sample size which is often limited in health science research.

Order of Chapters

We arranged the sequence of chapters to both match the steps in conducting research and aid readers in learning how to design and implement a research project. Consequently, the first few chapters present background information, ethics, and an overview of various research methods. The second section is focused on core research topics including bibliographic research and the writing of research reports, sampling, and identification/developments and data collection strategies. We present this information relatively early in the text as we have found that it is counterproductive to wait until the end of a research methods course to discuss these nuts and bolts elements (especially writing style requirements and proper reporting techniques). A concrete understanding of core research elements and what the finished project should look like aids student researchers in learning about and planning a research project.

The third and fourth sections of the present text discuss a variety of specific research designs, highlighting their utility, strengths, and limitations. The methods presented in this section include single-factor and multifactor designs, as well as single-subject and nonexperimental methods.

While writing this text, we worked to provide readers and instructors the flexibility to rearrange the order of the chapters without a loss of continuity. Ultimately, the goal of a structured research methods course is to produce informed consumers of existing research and informed producers of new or refined knowledge. We believe that covering the chapters in the order we have arranged them will aid in the achievement of this goal, but some may find that a different order of chapters better fits their style or current needs.

A text should challenge its readers beyond their current ability. Thus, while we labored to write as clearly as we could, we also labored to ensure that we challenge readers to extend beyond the bounds of their comfort and existing knowledge regarding research. It is not necessary that every chapter or topic must be covered in sequence or in total; this is a fairly dense book and we hope that both student and instructor will recognize that the book is a resource from which to draw information.

Pedagogy

Each chapter uses multiple methods to present the material, including clearly written text, familiar and interesting examples, and visual illustrations to help the reader understand complex and abstract concepts. Specific pedagogical features include

Integration of Research: Each chapter includes example research studies and critical thinking exercises. The goal of these exercises is to help the reader apply critical concepts to a research scenario.Knowledge Checks: Each chapter contains several knowledge check questions, which consist of a series of questions that require the reader to apply the material to objective problems. These questions require more than rote memorization because they ask the reader to apply the material.Multiple Presentations of Concepts: Throughout the book, the reader will find a combination of text, pictures, and examples to illustrate various concepts.Glossary: Each chapter contains definitions of important terms.Statistical Review and Integration: The first appendix is a statistics review designed to help students remember and understand basic statistical concepts. Additionally, many chapters have a section that deals with the statistics underlying the topics covered in that chapter.Statistical Tables: An appendix contains a comprehensive list of commonly used statistical tables.

Acknowledgments

Although we are the authors of the book, the present work was touched and improved by the involvement of others at various stages throughout the writing process. We sincerely appreciate the feedback we received from each other, external reviewers, and the editorial team at Wiley. The book you are about to read has been very much improved because of this revision process; any remaining errors, of course, are our own. We are especially grateful to the editorial staff at Wiley. In particular, we thank Tisha Rossi and Jackie Palmieri for helping us initiate this project. Countless other professionals working at John Wiley & Sons, Inc. also deserve our sincere thanks for helping us to transform our idea for this text into a reality.

Christopher J. L. Cunningham

Bart L. Weathington

David J. Pittenger

Part One

Overview of the Research Process

Chapter 1

Behavioral and Social Research in the Health Sciences

INTRODUCTION

WHY IS UNDERSTANDING RESEARCH METHODS SO IMPORTANT?

THE ROLE OF BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE

THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

BRIEF HISTORY OF SCIENTIFIC REASONING

BACON'S LEGACY

OTHER IMPORTANT HISTORICAL FIGURES

ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE

REQUIREMENTS FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

All the world is a laboratory to the inquiring mind.

—Martin H. Fischer

Introduction

The best potential solutions to health-related challenges are frequently changing, as promising new techniques, therapies, and medications are continually developed and tested. This never-ending process relies on science and also carries with it the requirement that professionals within the health sciences are able to understand basic research and its potential applications within their daily health-related work. Despite the fact that so much of the widely touted and shared health sciences or medical research is focused on relatively impersonal methods of treatment or aspects of the process of treatment (e.g., medication errors or the impact of new technologies), so much of what impacts the quality of life of individual patients, their families, and entire communities is directly linked to behavioral and social factors operating within the person and the environment in which that person functions.

Understanding complex human behaviors and cognitions associated with health is no easy task. Without an empirical, scientific approach to gaining such insight about those who work in the health sciences and those who are served by the health sciences, it is likely that either or both sides of this relationship will be operating with potentially dangerous, incomplete information. Having a solid understanding and appreciation of basic behavioral and social research methods will help you to make higher-quality and better-informed decisions. This text is designed to provide a rich introduction to the basic behavioral and social science research methods that will help you generate new health-related knowledge and translate existing health science knowledge into practice.

Why Is Understanding Research Methods So Important?

There are three core types of information that anyone seeking to understand human behavior must know: (1) how to conduct and interpret high-quality research, (2) how to develop and evaluate measures of human thought and behavior, and (3) how to use basic statistics to make sense of available and relevant data.

Why are the three core topics just highlighted so important? Think about it—researching, analyzing, and reporting are three of the most generalizable and valuable skills learned during higher education that can help you find a job, keep a job, and more generally, make a meaningful contribution to society. You can think big thoughts and theorize all day long, but without these three research-related skills, your great ideas will never translate into credible actions. We do not want your good ideas to be restricted by the boundaries of your mind. This is why we all sincerely hope that you are not dreading learning about research methodology or fearing something nonspecific about the process of research. There is nothing scary here, just a systematic approach to learning, understanding, and questioning that will benefit you, no matter what path you take over the course of your career.

The most efficient, credible, and ultimately useful techniques for studying and understanding human behavior apply the scientific method in some way, shape, or form. Proper test development and utilization help to ensure the best possible data are collected. Appropriate statistical techniques facilitate interpretation of these data. We firmly believe that the only way to become a legitimate consumer and producer of knowledge is to first learn how to work with the tools of the trade: the scientific method, tests and assessments, and statistics.

This book will help you learn how to conduct and understand research within the health sciences that addresses questions with behavioral and social science underpinnings. Such questions could involve interpersonal phenomena or person-environment linkages, among many other possibilities. We will cover how to develop and evaluate tests, surveys, and other measures of behavior. Throughout the chapters of this book we will also remind you of how basic statistics can help as you work to address specific research questions. If you feel you need a refresher in the most basic statistics, a review is included in .