Understanding Business Research E-Book

Bart L. Weathington

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 943

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

Explore the essential steps for data collection, reporting, and analysis in business research Understanding Business Research offers a comprehensive introduction to the entire process of designing, conducting, interpreting, and reporting findings in the business environment. With an emphasis on the human factor, the book presents a complete set of tools for tackling complex behavioral and social processes that are a part of data collection in industry settings. Utilizing numerous real-world examples throughout, the authors begin by presenting an overview of the research process, outlining key ideas relating to the business environment, ethics, and empirical methods. Quantitative techniques and considerations that are specific to business research, including sampling and the use of assessments, surveys, and objective measures are also introduced. Subsequent chapters outline both common and specialized research designs for business data, including: * Correlational Research * Single Variable Between-Subjects Research * Correlated Groups Designs * Qualitative and Mixed-Method Research * Between-Subjects Designs * Between-Subjects Factorial Designs * Research with Categorical Data Each chapter is organized using an accessible, comprehensive pedagogy that ensures a fluid presentation. Case studies showcase the real-world applications of the discussed topics while critical thinking exercises and Knowledge Checks supply questions that allow readers to test their comprehension of the presented material. Numerous graphics illustrate the visual nature of the research, and chapter-end glossaries outline definitions of key terms. In addition, detailed appendices provide a review of basic concepts and the most commonly used statistical tables. Requiring only a basic understanding of statistics, Understanding Business Research is an excellent book for courses on business statistics as well as business and management science research methods at the graduate level. The book is also a valuable resource for practitioners in business, finance, and management science who utilize qualitative and quantitative research methods in their everyday work.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Copyright

Dedication

Title Page

Preface

Philosophy for Writing this Book

Style

Examples

Assumptions

Integration of Research Methods and Statistical Concepts

Order of Chapters

Pedagogy

Acknowledgments

Part I: Overview of the Research Process

Chapter 1: Research and Business

Introduction

Why Is Understanding Research Methods so Important?

The Role of Science in Business and Everyday Life

The Scientific Method

Brief History of the Science of Behavior in the Workplace

Bacon's Legacy

Other Important Historical Figures

Assumptions of Science

Requirements for Scientific Research

Chapter Summary

Knowledge Check

Chapter Glossary for Review

References

Chapter 2: Ethics and Research

Introduction

What Is Ethics?

Approaches to Ethical Analysis

Making Ethical Decisions

Ethical Business Research

Components of an Ethical Research Plan

Research in Action: Ethical Dilemmas

Knowledge Check

Knowledge Check

Knowledge Check

Knowledge Check

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary For Review

References

Chapter 3: The Foundations of Research

Introduction

The Hypothesis in Research

Types of Hypotheses

Knowledge Check

Measurement

Reliability of Measurement

Validity of Measurement

Populations and Samples

Research in Action: Credit or Cash?

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

References

Chapter 4: An Overview of Empirical Methods

Introduction

Internal, Statistical, and External Validity

Survey of Empirical Methods

Intact Groups Designs and Quasi-Experimental Studies

Surveys

Correlational Studies

Interviews and Case Studies

Meta-Analysis

Computers and Statistics

Research in Action: Price Matters

Knowledge Check

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

References

Part II: Nuts and Bolts of Research

Chapter 5: Writing the Research Report

Introduction

What Do Readers Appreciate in Good Writing?

Elements of Style

Special Grammatical Issues

Academic Integrity

Parts of the Research Report

Chapter Summary

References

Chapter 6: Reviewing the Literature and Forming Hypotheses

Introduction

Bibliographic Research

The Internet as a Source

Developing a Search Strategy

Searching the Literature: The Library

Research in Action: Does Listening to Mozart Make You Smarter?

Knowledge Check

Knowledge Check

Knowledge Check

Knowledge Check

Statistical Inference and Testing Hypotheses

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

References

Chapter 7: Sampling: The First Steps in Research

Introduction

The Nature of Samples

Probability Sampling

Sampling Methods

Nonprobability Sampling

Knowledge Check

Central Limit Theorem

Applications of the Central Limit Theorem

Sources of Bias and Error: A Reprise

Research in Action: Sampling Matters

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

References

Chapter 8: Creating and Using Assessments, Surveys, and Objective Measures

Introduction

Purpose of Measurement

Caveat Assessor

Creating a Measurement Scale and Developing a Data-Collection Strategy

Interviews, Questionnaires, and Attitude Surveys

Question Response Formats

Knowledge Check

Writing Good Survey Items

Determining the Sample Size for a Survey

Naturalistic Observation

Research in Action: Analysis of Assaults

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

References

Chapter 9: A Model for Research Design

Introduction

A Model for Research Design

What Is the Independent Variable?

What Is the Dependent Variable?

Are There Confounding Variables?

Knowledge Check

What Are the Research Hypotheses?

Mathematical Hypotheses

Evaluating Hypotheses

Evaluating Hypotheses: Practical Matters

Research in Action: Sex Differences and Shopping Behavior

Research in Action: Changing Attitudes by Writing Essays

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

References

Part III: Common Research Designs

Chapter 10: Correlational Research

Introduction

Conceptual Review of Correlation

Pearson's

Interpreting the Correlation Coefficient

Factors that Corrupt a Correlation Coefficient

Sample Size and the Correlation Coefficient

Knowledge Check

Applications of the Correlation Coefficient

Regression Analysis

Introduction to Mediation and Moderation

Regression to the Mean

Research in Action: Education and Income

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

References

Chapter 11: Between-Subjects Designs

Introduction

Student's t-Ratio for Independent Groups

Review of Hypothesis Testing

Testing Statistical Hypotheses

Knowledge Check

Common Errors in the Interpretation of p

The Power of a Test

Estimating the Sample Size

Knowledge Check

Statistics Behind The Research

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

References

Chapter 12: Single-Variable Between-Subjects Research

Introduction

Independent Variable

Cause and Effect

Gaining Control Over the Variables

The General Linear Model

Components of Variance

The F-Ratio

H0 and H1

-Ratio Sampling Distribution

Knowledge Check

Summarizing and Interpreting ANOVA Results

Effect Size and Power

Multiple Comparisons of the Means

Research in Action

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

References

Chapter 13: Between-Subjects Factorial Designs

Introduction

The Logic of the Two-Variable Design

Advantages of the Two-Variable Design

Factorial Designs: Variables, Levels, and Cells

Examples of Factorial Designs

Main Effects and Interaction

Knowledge Check

Designing a Factorial Study

Identifying Samples and Estimating Sample Size

Interpreting the Interaction: Advanced Considerations

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

References

Chapter 14: Correlated-Groups Designs

Introduction

Logic of the Correlated-Groups Research Design

Repeated-Measures Design

Knowledge Check

Longitudinal Designs

Matched-Groups Design

Knowledge Check

Mixed-Model Design

Research in Action

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

References

Part IV: Special Research Designs

Chapter 15: Research with Categorical Data

Introduction

Goodness-of-Fit Test

χ2 Test of Independence

χ2 Test of Homogeneity

Further Analysis of the χ2

McNemar Test

Knowledge Check

Research in Action: Gambling and Productivity

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

References

Chapter 16: Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Research

Introduction

Qualitative Versus Quantitative Research

Theory and Perspectives Guiding Qualitative Research

Mixing Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative Combined

Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Data Collection and Analysis

Benefits and Challenges of Mixed-Methods Research

Sources of Published Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Research

Research in Action: Gender- and Job-Based Differences in Work Stress

Knowledge Check

Chapter Summary

Chapter Glossary for Review

References

Appendix A: Statistics Behind The Research, Or, “What was I Supposed to Remember From My Statistics Class Anyway?”

Introduction

Variables X, Y, N, n

Subscripts (X1) and Superscripts (X2)

Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Variability

Standardized or z-Scores

Knowledge Check

Appendix B: Statistical Tables

Table B.1: Proportions of the Area Under the Normal Curve

Table B.2: 1200 Two-Digit Random Numbers

Table B.3: Critical Values for Student's -TEST

Table B.4: Power of Student's Single Sample -Ratio

Table B.5: Power of Student's Two Sample -Ratio, One-Tailed Tests

Table B.6: Power of Student's Two Sample -Ratio, Two-Tailed Tests

Table B.7: Critical Values for Pearson's Correlation Coefficient

Table B.8 Critical Values for Spearman's Rank Order Correlation Coefficient

Table B.9: to Transformation

Table B.10: Power Of Pearson's Correlation Coefficient

Table B.11: Critical Values for The F-Ratio

Table B.12: Critical Values For The Test

Table B.13: Critical Values For The Studentized Range Test

Table B.14: Power of Anova

Table B.15: Critical Values for Chi-Squared

Table B.16: Critical Values for Mann–Whitney -Test

Index

Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Weathington, Bart L.

Understanding business research / Bart L. Weathington, Christopher J.L. Cunningham, David J.

Pittenger.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-118-13426-9 (cloth)

1. Management–Research–Methodology. 2. Business–Research–Methodology. 3. Social sciences–Research–Methodology. I. Cunningham, Christopher J. L. II. Pittenger, David J.

III. Title.

HD30.4.W42 2012

650.072–dc23

2011053437

To Jeanie, Alex, Rebecca, Mom, and Dad for literally everything

—Bart L. Weathington

To my family, students, and colleagues—thank you for spending time with me on the journey

—Christopher J. L. Cunningham

To my wife, Denise, who has, by example, taught me to enjoy the moment and to worry less about the future, which I cannot control

—David J. Pittenger

Preface

Business done right is applied science.

Philosophy for Writing this Book

The importance of social and behavioral processes within the domain of business is often overlooked. While it is recognized that the creation, identification, and use of information is a necessary component of industry, the application of behavioral science principles and methods to this process is frequently neglected. The purpose of this book is to help rectify this deficiency. There are many good books on technical issues such as financial forecasting, and our purpose is not to replicate this information. Instead, we focus on the human side of the workplace. Business requires people to interact with other people at all levels, including employees, bosses, customers, and observers. Because of this, we offer this book to help teach core research concepts that can help business professionals better understand and work with complex behavioral and social processes.

For those of us who teach research methods, one of the most gratifying experiences is watching students develop a passion for conducting research and an understanding of the practical value of systematic information gathering and decision making. These students discover that they can convert their natural curiosity about behavior into testable hypotheses. Moreover, they learn that studying research methodology is not arcane and irrelevant. Indeed, they come to appreciate the fundamental value and importance of empirical research. Because the vitality of science depends on the passion to learn more about behavior, it is our belief that a course in research methods is one of the most important courses that any student can take. Therefore, we attempted to write a textbook that would be attractive to students and share with them our enthusiasm for research. To reach our goal, we strove to incorporate several features in our book. In addition to this primary goal, we also all strongly believe that the ability to systematically identify questions and develop strategies for answering those questions is an invaluable skill in any business setting.

Style

We wanted to write a textbook using an editorial style that is inviting and easily accessible for the reader. Therefore, we gladly adopted the role as the active narrator in order to make the textbook as engaging and interesting as possible. Although there is a clear conversational style to the book, there is no lack of rigor in the material that is presented. Throughout the book, we provide comprehensive accounts of scientists' best ideas and research methods.

Examples

A related strategy that we applied throughout this book was the selection of relevant and contemporary examples. We based many of our examples on well-known social phenomena and research that examines interesting topics. Our goal in selecting these examples was to illustrate important topics covered in the chapters and show how researchers use research tools to answer complex and important questions.

Assumptions

Those familiar with basic parametric statistics know that they come with many mathematical strings attached. If the researcher cannot ensure that the data and design of the data collection methods meet these basic assumptions, then the inferences derived from the statistical analysis may be suspect. In some cases, a statistic is extremely robust to violations of its assumptions. Other statistics fail to withstand even minor deviations from the requirements.

An assumption we made in writing this book is that the reader using this book would have completed at least a general introduction to statistics course. Consequently, a certain level of statistical knowledge is assumed, especially regarding more basic concepts such as measures of central tendency, measures of dispersion, or standard scores. Nonetheless, many students seem to forget or lose track of much of their statistical knowledge shortly following the final exam of their statistics course. Therefore, this book does review critical statistical concepts, as they relate to specific methodological techniques. In addition, we included an appendix that can act as a statistics review.

A book should challenge students beyond their current ability. If education is not to extend the grasp of our students, then what is the education for? Thus, while we labored to write as clearly as we could, we also labored to ensure that we challenged students to extend beyond the bounds of their comfort and present to them the tools needed to understand contemporary behavioral research. In doing so, we hope that the instructor recognizes that he or she is not bound to teach every chapter or every topic in each chapter. This is a fairly dense book, and we hope that both student and instructor will recognize that the book is a resource from which to draw information.

Integration of Research Methods and Statistical Concepts

It has been our common experience that many students begin a research methods course with only a vague notion of how the statistics they had studied in the prerequisite statistics course related to research design. Over time, we found ourselves teaching concepts related to statistical analysis along with traditional concepts related to research methods. Indeed, a careful review of statistical techniques requires discussion of research methodology. Similarly, discussions of research design require a review of statistical principles.

Therefore, in writing this book, we wanted to ensure that students receive a comprehensive and detailed review of the best techniques for studying behavior and social phenomena. Consequently, where appropriate, our chapters provide a comprehensive review of research methods and the statistical concepts that support them. The review of the statistical principles, while being comprehensive, is conceptual and nontechnical. Students who have completed a course in statistics will find these sections to be a useful review of important topics. Students who have not studied statistics will find these sections a suitable and readable introduction to these topics.

For example, the review of sampling procedures examines the different methods the researchers use to create representative samples and demonstrates how the central limit theorem allows one to make valid inferences using sample statistics. Other topics receive attention throughout the book. One of these recurring themes is statistical power. Because of the importance of this concept, reviews of statistical power occur in many parts of the book. The goal is to show students that they can control power by adjusting sample size and gaining control over specific types of variance-increasing variance due to independent variable and decreasing variance due to random or sampling error.

Order of Chapters

We arranged the sequence of chapters to both match the steps in conducting research and aid readers in learning how to design and implement a research project. Consequently, the first few chapters present background information, ethics, and an overview of various research methods. Subsequent chapters review such topics as bibliographic research and methods for generating samples. The next set of chapters reviews how to create reliable and valid measurement instruments. Thus, there are separate chapters on creating tests and using correlation statistics to evaluate the reliability and validity of any measurement. The lessons learned in these chapters set the stage for all types of psychological research.

The subsequent chapters examine the issues and steps common to all single-factor and multifactor studies, as well as single-subject and nonexperimental methods. Relatively early in the book is a chapter on how to prepare a paper that follows the widely used editorial guidelines of the American Psychological Association (although it is emphasized that different publication outlets may require slightly different editorial style features). In most books, it is common to reserve this chapter for the end of the book. However, it has been our experience that waiting until the end of a course to talk about the most common form of final outcome (i.e., a written report) is simply too late for this material to take root. A concrete understanding of what the finished project should look like aids student researchers in learning about and planning a research project.

In writing this book, one of our goals was to allow instructors the flexibility to rearrange the order of the chapters without a loss of continuity. Ultimately, the goal of a research methods course is to produce both informed consumers of existing research and informed producers of new or refined knowledge. We believe that the order of chapters aids in the completion of this goal, but some instructors may find that a different order of chapters better fits their style.

Pedagogy

Each chapter uses multiple methods to present the material, including clearly written book, familiar and interesting examples, and visual illustrations to help the reader understand complex and abstract concepts. The specific pedagogical features include the following:

Integration of Research

. Each chapter includes case studies and critical thinking exercises. The goal of these exercises is to help the reader apply critical concepts to a research scenario.

Knowledge Checks

. Each chapter contains several knowledge check questions, which consist of a series of questions that require the reader to apply the material to objective problems. These questions require more than rote memorization because they ask the reader to apply the material.

Multiple Presentations of Concepts

. Throughout the book, the reader will find a combination of text, pictures, and examples to illustrate various concepts.

Glossary

. Each chapter contains definitions of important terms.

Statistical Review and Integration

. The first appendix is a statistics review designed to help students remember and understand basic statistical concepts. In addition, many chapters have a section that deals with the statistics underlying the topics covered in that chapter.

Statistical Tables

. An appendix contains a comprehensive list of commonly used statistical tables.

Acknowledgments

Although we are the authors of the book, we cannot claim that what you will read is our work alone. Many people have had a hand in helping in the preparation of this book and in providing us with the training and resources that have allowed us to become researchers and professors. These people have earned our deepest admiration and continued thanks. Any errors, of course, are our own.

We are especially grateful to our editor at Wiley, Jackie Palmieri, who has provided guidance while still giving us the flexibility to produce a book we are proud to call our own. We would also like to thank Tisha Rossi at Wiley for her guidance over the past few years. Countless professionals working at Wiley also deserve our sincere thanks.

Many reviewers have read and commented on preliminary drafts of this book. The job of a reviewer is to scold the author for making mistakes and offer praise only when deserved. The reviewers did their job well. Their comments were often humbling because we had failed to describe something as clearly and accurately as possible. Similarly, their comments flattered us when they found parts of the book that they liked. Consequently, the book you are about to read very much reflects their supportive criticism.

Bart L. Weathington

Christopher J. L. Cunningham

David J. Pittenger

Part I

OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Chapter 1: Research and Business

The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement of everyday thinking.

—Albert Einstein

Introduction

Good business depends on good research and on those who know how to interpret empirical evidence. Understanding something as complex as social interaction or human behavior, especially in an organizational context, is not easy. Without an empirical, scientific approach to the development of a body of knowledge, our understanding of people in the workplace will be incomplete and rife with error. Having a solid understanding and appreciation of research methods will help you to make quality, informed decisions. The goal of this chapter is to prepare you to be both a producer and consumer of scientific knowledge about human behavior in the workplace.

Why Is Understanding Research Methods so Important?

Although there are differences across specialty fields, there are three core types of information that anyone seeking to understand human behavior must know. First is the knowledge of basic statistics. Second is knowing how to develop and evaluate measures of human thought and behavior. Third is knowing how to conduct and interpret high quality research, the purpose of this book.

This book helps you learn how to conduct and understand business research that is focused on social and behavioral questions. Throughout the chapters of this book we will also remind you of how statistics can help you answer specific questions. We will cover how to develop and evaluate tests, surveys, and other measures of behavior. If you feel you need a refresher in basic statistics, a review is included in Appendix A.

Why are these three core topics so important? Think about it—researching, analyzing, and reporting are the skills from your education that will help you find a job, keep a job, and make a contribution to both society and, more specifically, your workplace. You can think big thoughts and theorize all day long, but without these three skills, these great ideas will never translate to credible and applicable action. We do not want your good ideas to be restricted by the boundaries of your mind. This is why we all sincerely hope that you are not dreading learning about research methodology or fearing something nonspecific about science or research. There is nothing scary here; just a systematic approach to learning, understanding, and questioning that will benefit you, no matter what you decide to do across the course of your career.

There are many ways to study human behaviors and thought, but all of these methods, if done right, use the scientific method in some way, shape, or form. Statistical description and analysis techniques provide structure to these methods, and good test development and utilization provide the conduit through which good research is conducted. In other words, to become a proficient consumer or producer of knowledge you must learn to work with the tools of the trade: the scientific method, statistics, and tests and assessments.

The Role of Science in Business and Everyday Life

Thought Starters

What are some examples of science in your life?

Have you “researched” anything today?

What are some big decisions or questions you are currently considering?

H. G. Wells, the nineteenth-century author, predicted that “statistical thinking will one day be as necessary for effective citizenship as the ability to read and write” (as cited by Campbell, 1974). We strongly believe that this prediction has come true. Although you may not plan to become a researcher, working in any field of business (and in many areas of life in general) will force you to confront issues that can be addressed only with the aid of scientific research. Consider the following example issues: