Veterinary Medical Education E-Book
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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Veterinary Medical Education: A Practical Guide offers a complete resource to fundamental information on key areas of veterinary education. * Provides a practical guide to the key principles of veterinary medical education * Takes a real-world approach, with concrete guidance for teaching veterinary skills and knowledge * Covers all aspects of designing and implementing a veterinary curriculum * Emphasizes key points and helpful tips * Offers a veterinary-specific resource for any veterinary educator worldwide
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Seitenzahl: 1536
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
List of Contributors
Preface
Icons
Part I: The Curriculum
Chapter 1: Curricular Design, Review, and Reform
Introduction
What Is a Curriculum? Definition and Standards
Factors Influencing Curricular Design
Steps in Curricular Design and Development
Curricular Review and Reform
Conclusion
References
Chapter 2: Competency-Based Education
Introduction
Competency-Based Education
The Rationale for Competency-Based Education
From Theory to Practice
Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Curriculum Mapping
Introduction
Getting Started
Conclusion
References
Part II: Learning and Teaching Strategies
Chapter 4: Learning Concepts and Theories, and Their Application to Educational Practice
Introduction
What Is Knowledge; What Is Learning?
The Big Three Theories of Learning
Learning Theories and Their Relationships
Emotion and Learning
Implications of Learning Theories for Teaching
Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Integrated Learning
Introduction
Definitions
Why Integrated Learning?
Integration and the Learner
Integration and the Curriculum
Integration as an Educational Strategy
Implementing Integration
Integrated Learning and Assessment
Advantages of Integration
Challenges Associated with Integration
Integration and Veterinary Medicine
Specific Examples of Integration in Veterinary Medicine
References
Chapter 6: Collaborative Learning
Introduction
Collaborative Learning: Why Do It?
How Can Collaborative Learning Be Integrated into Veterinary Curricula?
Collaborative Learning May Take a Range of Different Forms
Implementing Integrated Case-Based Collaborative Learning at the University of Melbourne
How Should Collaborative Learning Activities Be Assessed?
Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Teaching Interprofessionalism
Introduction: Why it is Time for Interprofessional Practice and Education in Veterinary Education
History of Interprofessional Practice and Education in Human Health
Interprofessional Competencies and Curriculum Development
Curriculum Development and Implementation
Specific Teaching Methods in Interprofessional Education
Assessment
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 8: Peer-Assisted Learning
Introduction
Framework for Planning and Implementation of Peer-Assisted Learning
Conclusion
References
Part III: Learning Opportunities
Chapter 9: Learning Opportunities
Introduction
Core Principles Guiding Effective Teaching
Applying the Principles
References
Chapter 10: Learning and Teaching in Clinical Skills Laboratories
Introduction
Developing Clinical Competencies: From Basic Skills to Complex Procedures
Designing a Clinical Skills Laboratory
Equipping the Clinical Skills Laboratory
Teaching and Learning in the Clinical Skills Laboratory
Using a Clinical Skills Laboratory for Assessments
What are the Limitations of Simulation and Clinical Skills Laboratories?
What is Next for Clinical Skills Laboratories?
References
Further Reading
Chapter 11: Learning in the Electronic Age
Introduction
Can Technology Enhance Teaching?
Common Reasons Why Technology-Enhanced Teaching Fails
The TPACK Framework
Case Studies in Technology-Enhanced Teaching
Future Trends in Technology-Enhanced Teaching
Putting It All Together
Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Learning in the Veterinary Teaching Hospital
Characteristics of a Good Clinical Educator
Creation of a Good Learning Environment
Developing Learning Outcomes
Using the Microskill Approach to Help Students Develop Task Mastery
Using the Microskill Approach to Ensure a Focus on Learning
Clinical/Critical Thinking Development
Surgical Teaching
Psychomotor Skills Development
Communication Skills Development
Teamwork Skills Development
Professional Identity Development
Provision of Practice Opportunities
Rounds
Medical Records
Web-Based Practice
Simulations
Actual Clients and Patients
Assessment on the Clinic Floor
An Example: The Multiplier versus the Diminisher
References
Chapter 13: Learning in Real-World Settings
Introduction: Real-World Settings as the New Norm of Veterinary Education
Formal Rotations in the Real World
Animal Handling and Husbandry
Real-World Placements as a Key Link from the Preclinical to the Clinical Phases of the Program
Real-World Placements in Clinical Practice
Management of Real-World Placements
Conclusion
References
Part IV: Assessing the Student
Chapter 14: Concepts in Assessment
Introduction
Why: Purposes of Assessment
Describing What to Measure
How to Measure (Principles)
Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Written Assessment
Introduction
Creating Written Assessment Items
Selected-Response versus Constructed-Response Formats
Selected-Response Items
Constructed-Response Formats
Test Specifications
Evaluating the Test
Conclusion
References
Chapter 16: Performance and Workplace-Based Assessment
Introduction
Performance-Based and Workplace-Based Assessment Methods
Provision of Feedback
Practicalities of an Authentic, Complex Learning Environment
Assessment of Professional Skills
Challenges of Workplace-Based Veterinary Assessment
Future of Veterinary Workplace-Based Assessment
References
Chapter 17: Feedback
Introduction
Defining Feedback
Impact of Feedback
Timing of Feedback
The Role of the Feedback Recipient
Learners' Perception of Feedback
The Role of the Feedback Provider
Targeting Feedback at a Specific Level
The Process of Feedback
Conclusion
References
Chapter 18: Academic Standards and Progression
Introduction
Defining Academic Standards and Progression
Who Determines the Standards for Each Program?
What Areas Should Have Standards Assessed?
Options for Assessing Academic Standards
How Are Academic Standards Used?
Informing Students about Academic Standards
Consequences of Failing to Meet Standards
Thoughts on Remediation
A Few Best Practices for Maintaining Academic Standards
References
Part V: Assessing the Program
Chapter 19: Assessing Teaching Effectiveness
Defining Teaching Effectiveness
Why Assess Teaching Effectiveness?
What to Assess?
How to Assess Teaching Effectiveness
Who Does the Evaluation?
Evaluation: Target Audience Perspective
Toward an Overall Portfolio of Evidence
Conclusion
References
Chapter 20: Assessing the Assessment Process
Introduction
Definitions of Assessment
Accountability in Assessment Practices
Evaluation of Assessment Practices
Sources of Evidence to Support Decisions and Actions
Evaluation Frameworks
Conclusions
References
Chapter 21: Institutional Benchmarking
Introduction and Definitions
How Has Benchmarking Been Used in Higher Education?
Why Not Benchmark?
What About Veterinary Education Benchmarking?
How Is the Curriculum Benchmarked?
How Do Accreditation and Benchmarking Differ?
Support and Tools Available for Benchmarking
Developing a Benchmark
How to Undertake a Benchmarking Review
Using Benchmarks
Conclusion
References
Chapter 22: Accreditation
Introduction
Background
History of Accreditation
Integration with University-Level Systems of Accreditation
Goals of Accreditation
Current Mechanism of COE Accreditation
Alternate Mechanisms of Accreditation
Future of COE Accreditation
Conclusion
References
Part VI: Teaching and Assessing Professional Competencies
Chapter 23: Communication
Introduction
A Practical Guide for Teaching and Learning Clinical Communication
Advocating for Clinical Communication Programs: Moving Beyond the Course
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 24: Clinical Reasoning Skills
Introduction
Clinical Reasoning Education
Diagnostic Errors
Clinical Reasoning Models
The Minimum Database
Problem-Based Inductive Clinical Reasoning
Teaching Clinical Reasoning
References
Chapter 25: Professionalism
Introduction
Professionalism in the Curriculum
Conclusion
References
Chapter 26: Working in Professional Teams
Introduction
Rationale for Teaching Students How to Work in Professional Teams
Teaching the Professional Competency of Working in Teams
Assessing the Professional Competency of Working in Teams
Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 27: Lifelong Learning and Reflective Practice
Introduction
Individual Learning
Learning in Social Interaction: Learning Communities
How to Support the Development of Lifelong Learning Competencies
Assessment of Lifelong Learning Competencies
How to Enhance and Maintain Lifelong Learning in Veterinary Practice
Challenges in Facilitating the Development of Lifelong Learning Competencies
Conclusion
References
Chapter 28: Ethics and Animal Welfare
Introduction
Veterinarians' Responsibilities for Animal Welfare
Why Veterinarians Must Study Animal Welfare and Ethics
What Is Happening in Animal Welfare and Ethics Teaching in Veterinary Science?
Key Animal Welfare Concepts and Measures
Learning Methods
Taking Animal Welfare and Ethics Assessment Seriously
Conclusion
References
Chapter 29: Cultural Competence
Introduction
Definitions
Anchoring Skills to Patient Care
Limitations to Cultural Competence
Cultural Competence and Humility Learning Models
Teaching Cultural Competence and Humility
Assessment
Conclusion
References
Chapter 30: Business and Practice Management Skills
Introduction
What Business Skills Should Be Taught, Who Should Teach Them, and Why?
Personal Finance and Budgeting
Legal and Ethical Decision-Making
Communication and Interpersonal Interactions, Team Building, and Leadership Development
Goal Setting/Strategy
Basic Accounting and Marketing
Assessment of Learning
Conclusion
References
Part VII: The Educational Environment
chapter 31: Student Selection
Introduction
Global Perspective on Veterinary Admissions
Models of Veterinary Student Selection
Consideration of Diversity in Student Selection
Selection Methods, Tools, and Assessments
A Guide to Reviewing the Admission/Selection Process
Future Considerations
Conclusion
References
Chapter 32: Student Learning Environment
Introduction and Definition of Learning Environments
Social Organizations and Learning Communities
Assessment of the Learning Environment
Developing Educational Environment Measures for Veterinary Medical Education
Conclusion
References
Chapter 33: The Hidden Curriculum
Introduction
What Is the Hidden Curriculum?
Development of Ideas about the Hidden Curriculum in Clinical Education
Situated Learning
The Hidden Curriculum in Workplace Learning
Elements of the Hidden Curriculum
Analyzing the Hidden Curriculum
Developing and Utilizing the Hidden Curriculum
Conclusion
References
Chapter 34: Student Support and Wellness
Introduction
Common Stressors for Veterinary Medical Students
Conducting Research on Veterinary Student Wellbeing: Requirements and Challenges
What We Know about Veterinary Student Stress
Beyond Stress
Depression and Anxiety
Alcohol and Substance Use
Suicide
Physical Health
Interpersonal Relationships
Interventions
Career Development
Conclusion
References
Chapter 35: Students with Disabilities in Veterinary Education
Introduction
Legal Aspects of Working with Students with Disabilities
Disabilities in Higher Education
Roles and Responsibilities
Student Identification
Faculty Education
Infrastructure Considerations
Technical Standards Documents
Accommodations for the North American Veterinary Licensing Examination
Conclusion
References
Chapter 36: Teaching the Teacher
Introduction: Brave Beginnings
The Professional Identity of a Teacher
Factors That Affect the Teacher
A Curriculum for Teaching the (Veterinary) Teacher
Challenges in Teaching the Teacher
Conclusion
References
Chapter 37: Scholarship in Veterinary Education
Introduction
Research in Veterinary Education
Considerations for Conducting Veterinary Educational Research
Teaching Scholarship in Veterinary Education
Development and Sustainability of Scholarship in Veterinary Education
Conclusion
References
Part VIII: Future Directions
Chapter 38: Veterinary Medical Education: Envisioning the Future
Introduction
The History of Change in Health Sciences Education
A Framework for Strategic Planning
Cross-Cutting Themes
Envisioning the Future of Veterinary Medical Education
Conclusion
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
Part I: The Curriculum
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: Curricular Design, Review, and Reform
Figure 1.1 Curricular elements.
Figure 1.2 The Change Curve.
Figure 1.3 Curricular evaluation leading to curricular improvement.
Chapter 4: Learning Concepts and Theories, and Their Application to Educational Practice
Figure 4.1 For novice learners, the teacher has a major role in setting standards, identifying and creating learning resources, and matching these to learner stage and ability. As learners become more self-directed, the teacher can increasingly signpost where standards descriptions and learning materials can be found, while still helping the learner in identifying their learning needs. As learners become more independent, they grow increasingly capable of assessing their own learning needs, and of completing the cycle for themselves.
Chapter 5: Integrated Learning
Figure 5.1 Educational strategy.
Chapter 6: Collaborative Learning
Figure 6.1 Experiential learning model.
Figure 6.2 The Johari window.
Figure 6.3 University of Melbourne student learning domains: clinical skills; scientific basis of clinical practice; personal and professional development; ethics and animal welfare; and population health and biosecurity.
Figure 6.4 Hybridization of learning spaces.
Figure 6.5 Small-group work with a whiteboard and shared flat-screen monitor for group wiki work in case studies at the University of Melbourne (left); a technologically advanced classroom for small-group work in the Department of Chemistry at the University of Melbourne (right).
Figure 6.6 Students use a hybridized classroom (digital delivery of content of a virtual case with physical tools such as the whiteboard) to reinterpret what they have viewed on the radiograph.
Chapter 7: Teaching Interprofessionalism
Figure 7.1 The relationships between interprofessional practice and education (IPE) and One Health.
Chapter 11: Learning in the Electronic Age
Figure 11.1 TPACK framework. Reproduced by permission of the publisher, © 2012 by tpack.org.
Figure 11.2 Backwards Design Cycle.
Chapter 13: Learning in Real-World Settings
Figure 13.1 Veterinary medicine in primary and referral practices.
Figure 13.2 Pyramid of clinical competence.
Chapter 15: Written Assessment
Figure 15.1 The anatomy of a multiple-choice item.
Figure 15.2 Continuum of “rightness” to “wrongness” of multiple-choice options.
Figure 15.3 Continuum of “rightness” to “wrongness” with an illustrative example.
Chapter 16: Performance and Workplace-Based Assessment
Figure 16.1 Miller's pyramid establishes a hierarchy of skills capped by a student demonstrating competence in the workplace. When considering the design of learning and assessment, it may be useful to think of this hierarchy encompassed in the shape of a top, with the emphasis more on workplace-based assessments than on simple knowledge recall.
Figure 16.2 A typical OSCE assessment form.
Figure 16.3 A typical DOPS assessment form.
Chapter 17: Feedback
Figure 17.1 Feedback may be provided at four different levels.
Figure 17.2 The CBIN model for providing feedback. Source: Institute for Healthcare Communication. Reproduced with permission.
Figure 17.3 The complex process of feedback that when done well results in improved performance and increased reflective knowledge building. Source: Adapted from Boud and Malloy, 2013.
Chapter 19: Assessing Teaching Effectiveness
Figure 19.1 Principles of effective teaching mapped to O'Neill's three categories.
Figure 19.2 Recommended direction of planning a teaching effectiveness assessment exercise using “outcomes-based” principles.
Figure 19.3 The categories of evidence that may be gathered to contribute to an overall portfolio of evidence. Solid lines represent measures that can directly relate to teaching effectiveness, a dotted line indicates no proven direct relationship.
Chapter 22: Accreditation
Figure 22.1 Accreditation decision tree.
Chapter 23: Communication
Figure 23.1 Expanded framework for the Calgary–Cambridge Process Guide.
Figure 23.2 Small animal historical investigation.
Figure 23.3 The clinical method map.
Figure 23.4 Structure of a clinical communication program.
Chapter 25: Professionalism
Figure 25.1 The elements that contribute to professional identity formation in veterinary students.
Figure 25.2 Example mini-evaluation of a patient or client encounter. (a) Booklet developed for evaluators. (b) Evaluation page that is immediately provided to learner. Source: Courtesy of the American Board of Internal Medicine and McGill University.
chapter 31: Student Selection
Figure 31.1 Design and evaluation of selection systems. Note: MMIs = multiple mini interviews; SJTs = situational judgment tests.
Chapter 33: The Hidden Curriculum
Figure 33.1 Four aspects of the curriculum shown diagrammatically to demonstrate the influence of the hidden curriculum (Thistlethwaite and Spenser, 2008; Harden, 2009).
Figure 33.2 The cultural web, a useful way of considering different influential aspects of the educational environment. Source: Johnson, 1987.
Chapter 36: Teaching the Teacher
Figure 36.1 The internal and external drivers that influence a teacher. Source: Adapted from Sweet, Huttly, and Taylor, 2003.
Figure 36.2 A framework for teaching the teachers.
Chapter 37: Scholarship in Veterinary Education
Figure 37.1 Scopus search results of research publications in veterinary education, 1945–2014.
Figure 37.2 Scopus search results of research publications in veterinary education by affiliation, 1945–2014.
Chapter 38: Veterinary Medical Education: Envisioning the Future
Figure 38.1 Cognitive framework for analysis of veterinary medical educational programs.
List of Tables
Chapter 1: Curricular Design, Review, and Reform
Table 1.1 Factors influencing curricular design and their effects
Table 1.2 The SPICES model for educational strategies
Chapter 2: Competency-Based Education
Table 2.1 Competency domain – EPA matrix
Table 2.2 Example of required supervision levels for a three-year clinical curriculum
Chapter 3: Curriculum Mapping
Table 3.1 Software utilized for curriculum mapping in medical education
Table 3.2 Key words for curriculum mapping
Chapter 6: Collaborative Learning
Table 6.1 Key features of commonly described small-group learning formats
Table 6.2 Clinical integrative puzzle grid
Chapter 7: Teaching Interprofessionalism
Table 7.1 Core competencies for interprofessional practice
Chapter 9: Learning Opportunities
Table 9.1 Criteria for reflective practice when designing and evaluating teaching practices – a system for utilizing the core principles in reflective practice to improve your teaching
Chapter 10: Learning and Teaching in Clinical Skills Laboratories
Table 10.1 Examples of skills that can be taught, learned, and assessed in a clinical skills laboratory
Chapter 11: Learning in the Electronic Age
Table 11.1 Learner-centered teaching
Chapter 14: Concepts in Assessment
Table 14.1 Smith and Ragan's adaptation of Gagné's learned capabilities
Table 14.2 Potential assessment items with corresponding objective statements for the excessively general objective “understand hemostasis”
Chapter 15: Written Assessment
Table 15.1 Rubric fragment: Assessing the case correlation assignment (report)
Table 15.2 A simple “response characteristics” table
Table 15.3 Example test blueprint: Anatomy section exam, number of items by content level/format
Chapter 18: Academic Standards and Progression
Table 18.1 Proficiency scoring rubric for clinical skills
Chapter 19: Assessing Teaching Effectiveness
Table 19.1 An adaptation of Kirkpatrick's hierarchy to the context of assessing teaching effectiveness
Table 19.2 Checklist for student evaluations
Table 19.3 Examples of published tools/instruments for assessing teaching effectiveness, plus their key features in terms of discipline and evaluator perspective
Chapter 20: Assessing the Assessment Process
Table 20.1 Template for evaluation questions, sources of data, and proposed analyses
Table 20.2 Types of validity evidence
Chapter 21: Institutional Benchmarking
Table 21.1 Comparison of quality assurance and quality enhancement
Chapter 22: Accreditation
Table 22.1 Site team meetings
Chapter 23: Communication
Table 23.1 Calgary–Cambridge Content Guide – Veterinary Medicine
Chapter 24: Clinical Reasoning Skills
Table 24.1 Diagnostic biases in clinical medicine
Table 24.2 Characteristics of useful cases for teaching problem-based reasoning
Chapter 25: Professionalism
Table 25.1 Suggested content for professionalism curricula
Table 25.2 Key components of situated learning
Table 25.3 Curricular activities for professionalism education
Table 25.4 Methods for assessing professionalism
Table 25.5 Sample rubric descriptors for professionalism in a clinical environment
Chapter 28: Ethics and Animal Welfare
Table 28.1 Research on the components of moral behavior
Table 28.2 Moral judgment and ethical decision-making workshop (3 hours)
Table 28.3 Ethic of Response Template (ERT) based on Preston's Ethic of Response ethical decision-making model Sample scenario: Breeding modification for blind hens √ = Benefits; X = Harms
Chapter 30: Business and Practice Management Skills
Table 30.1 Example of a business and ethics curriculum
chapter 31: Student Selection
Table 31.1 Addressing biases in admissions
Chapter 33: The Hidden Curriculum
Table 33.1 A comparison of the formal, informal, and hidden curricula. Note that overlap occurs between these categories, and the terms are often used interchangeably
Table 33.2 Conceptualization of different aspects of the curriculum
Chapter 35: Students with Disabilities in Veterinary Education
Table 35.1 Examples of reasonable accommodations by disability type
Chapter 36: Teaching the Teacher
Table 36.1 Literature on the changes, impact, and evaluation of teaching the teachers in higher education
Table 36.2 Examples of the organization of formal veterinary teacher training in four different countries
Chapter 37: Scholarship in Veterinary Education
Table 37.1 How to approach education research?
Veterinary Medical Education: A Practical Guide
Edited by
Jennifer L. Hodgson
Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, VA, USA
Jacquelyn M. Pelzer
Virginia Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, VA, USA
This edition first published 2017 © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
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This book is dedicated
To Dave and Noelle for their patience.
To the authors, for their outstanding contributions to the book and their continued dedication to improving veterinary medical education.
Finally, to veterinary students worldwide, who encourage us every day to become better educators.
List of Contributors
Cindy L. Adams, MSW, PhD
Professor of Veterinary Clinical & Diagnostic Sciences
Department of Veterinary Clinical & Diagnostic Sciences
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
University of Calgary
CSB 101D, 11877 – 85th Street NW
Calgary
Alberta, T3R 1J3
Canada
Sarah Baillie, BVSc, MSc(IT), PhD, PFHEA, MRCVS
Professor of Veterinary Education
School of Veterinary Sciences
University of Bristol
Langford
North Somerset, BS40 5DU
UK
Catriona E. Bell, BVetMed, PhD, PGCAP, PFHEA, MRCVS
Senior Lecturer in Veterinary Education
Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies University of Edinburgh
Easter Bush Campus
Roslin
Midlothian, EH25 9RG
Scotland
UK
Harold G.J. Bok, DVM, PhD
Assistant Professor, Quality Improvement in Veterinary Education
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Utrecht University
Yalelaan 1
3584 CL, Utrecht
The Netherlands
Elise Boller, DVM, DACVECC
Senior Lecturer in Emergency and Critical Care
Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences
University of Melbourne
250 Princes Highway
Werribee, VIC 3030
Australia
Karen Martens Brandt, DVM
Director, Education and Research Division
American Veterinary Medical Association
1931 North Meacham Rd, Suite 100
Schaumburg, IL 60173
USA
Gary J. (Joey) Burt, DVM, MPH(HSA)
Associate Clinical Professor
Director, Animal Health Center
College of Veterinary Medicine
Mississippi State University
Mississippi State, MS 39762
Kristin P. Chaney, DVM, DACVIM (LAIM), DACVECC
Clinical Assistant Professor, Curricular Development & Outcomes Assessment
Office of the Dean
College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843
USA
Kimathi Choma, DVM, MPH
Assistant Dean for Diversity, Recruitment and Retention
College of Arts and Sciences
Kansas State University
College of Arts and Sciences
114 Eisenhower Hall
1013 Mid-Campus Drive North
Manhattan, KS 66506
USA
Kauline Cipriani, PhD
Director of Diversity and Inclusion
College of Veterinary Medicine
Purdue University
625 Harrison Street
West Lafayette, IN 47907
USA
Cyril R. Clarke, BVSc, MS, PhD, DACVCP
Dean
Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine
Virginia Tech
205 Duck Pond Drive
Blacksburg, VA 24061
USA
Karen K. Cornell, DVM, PhD, DACVS
Associate Dean for Professional Programs
College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences
Texas A&M University
402 Raymond Stotzer Pkwy
College Station, TX 77845
USA
Jared Danielson, MS, PhD
Associate Professor and Director of Curricular and Student Assessment
College of Veterinary Medicine
Iowa State University
2256 Vet Med
1800 Christensen Drive
Ames, IA 50011
USA
Esther de Groot, PhD
Assistant Professor, Education and EBM in General Practice
Julius Center for Health Sciences and Primary Care
University Medical Center Utrecht
Universiteitsweg 100
3584 CG Utrecht
The Netherlands
Marc Dilly, DVM, PhD, MHEd
Continuing Education Co-ordinator
scil Animal Care Company GmbH
Dina-Weissmann-Allee 6
Viernheim, 68519
Germany
Laura Dooley, BVSc (Hons), PhD, MRCVS
Lecturer in Veterinary Pre-Clinical Sciences
Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences
University of Melbourne
Parkville, VIC 3010
Australia
Virginia Fajt, DVM, PhD, DACVCP
Clinical Associate Professor
Department of Veterinary Physiology & Pharmacology
College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843
USA
William Gilles, DVM
Director
WisCARES
School of Veterinary Medicine
University of Wisconsin
2015 Linden Drive,
Madison, WI 53706
USA
Lisa M. Greenhill, MPA, EdD
Senior Director for Institutional Research and Diversity
Association of American Veterinary Medical Colleges
655 K Street, NW, Suite 725
Washington, DC 20001
USA
David Guile, BA Sociology (Hons), MA, PhD
Professor of Education and Work
Head of Department of Education, Practice and Society
Co-Director Center for Engineering Education
Institute of Education
University College London
20 Bedford Way
London, WC1H 0AL
UK
McArthur Hafen, Jr., PhD, LCMFT
Director of Counseling Services
College of Veterinary Medicine
Kansas State University
001 Trotter Hall
Manhattan, KS 66505
USA
Elizabeth M. Hardie, DVM, PhD, DACVS
Department Chair, Clinical Sciences
College of Veterinary Medicine
North Carolina State University
1060 William Moore Drive
Raleigh, NC 27607
USA
Kent Hecker, PhD, MSc
Associate Professor of Veterinary Medical Education
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Cumming School of Medicine
University of Calgary
3280 Hospital Drive NW
Calgary
Alberta, T2N 4Z6
Canada
Jennifer L. Hodgson, BVSc (Hons), DipVetPath, PhD, GradCertEdStud (Higher Ed)
Associate Dean for Professional Programs
Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine
Virginia Tech
245 Duckpond Drive
Blacksburg, VA 24061-0442
USA
Jan E. Ilkiw, BVSc, PhD
Professor and Associate Dean – Academic Programs
Department of Surgical & Radiological Sciences
School of Veterinary Medicine
University of California, Davis
CA 95616
USA
Karen Dyer Inzana, DVM, PhD, DACVIM (Neurology)
Professor and Director of Assessment
Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine
Virginia Tech
245 Duckpond Drive, Blacksburg, VA 24061
USA
A. Debbie C. Jaarsma, DVM, PhD
Professor, Research and Innovation in Medical Education
Faculty of Medical Sciences
University of Groningen
Antonius Deusinglaan 1
9713 AV, Groningen
The Netherlands
Eloise K.P. Jillings, BVSc, MVS
Associate Dean – Admission and Student Affairs
Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences
Massey University
Private Bag 11-222
Palmerston North, 4442
New Zealand
Stephanie Johnson, MSW, LCSW
Counselor and Assistant Professor
School of Veterinary Medicine
Louisiana State University
Skip Bertman Drive
Baton Rouge, LA 70803
USA
Lisa M. Keefe, MS, PhD
Instructional Assistant Professor
Center for Educational Technologies
College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences
Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843
USA
Tierney Kinnison, BSc, MSc, PhD, PGCertVetED, FHEA
Institute of Education
University College London
UK
and
Postdoctoral Researcher in Veterinary Education
LIVE Center
Royal Veterinary College
Hawkshead Lane
North Mymms, Hatfield
Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA
UK
Jodi A. Korich, DVM
Associate Dean for Education
College of Veterinary Medicine
Cornell University
Ithaca, NY 14853
USA
Mark B. Krockenberger, BSc(Vet), BVSc, PhD, FANZCVS (Anatomical Pathology), GradCertEdStud(Higher Ed)
Associate Professor and Specialist in Veterinary Pathology
Director of Veterinary Pathology Diagnostic Services
Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science
University of Sydney
NSW 2006
Australia
Suzanne M. Kurtz, PhD
Professor Emeritus, University of Calgary, AB
Clinical Professor, Founding Director, Clinical Communication Program
College of Veterinary Medicine
Washington State University
PO Box 647010
Pullman, WA 99164-7010
USA
Margaret V. Root Kustritz, DVM, PhD, DACT, MMedEd
Professor and Assistant Dean of Education
College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Minnesota
1365 Gortner Ave
St Paul, MN 55108
USA
India Lane, DVM, MS, EdD, DACVIM (SAIM)
Professor of Medicine
College of Veterinary Medicine
Associate Vice President for Academic Affairs and Student Success
University of Tennessee
800 Andy Holt Tower
Knoxville, TN 37996-0149
USA
Jill Maddison, BVSc, DipVetClinStud, PhD, FACVSc, SFHEA, MRCVS
Professor of General Practice
Royal Veterinary College
Hawkshead Lane
North Mymms, Hatfield
Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA
UK
Kirsty Magnier, BSc(Hons), MSc
Senior Developer in Veterinary Education
Royal Veterinary College
Hawkshead Lane
North Mymms, Hatfield
Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA
UK
Nicole J.J.M. Mastenbroek
Assistant Professor
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Utrecht University
Yalelaan 1
3584CL, Utrecht
The Netherlands
Susan M. Matthew, PhD, BVSc(Hons), BSc(Vet)(Hons), GradCertEdStud(Higher Ed)
Associate Professor and Associate Chair of Veterinary Medical Education
Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences
College of Veterinary Medicine
Washington State University
PO Box 646610
Pullman, WA 99164-6610
USA
Stephen A. May, MA, VetMB, PhD, DVR, DEO, FRCVS, DipECVS, FHEA
Deputy Principal
Royal Veterinary College
Hawkshead Lane
North Mymms, Hatfield
Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA
UK
Sean McAleer, BSc, DPhil
Program Director
Center for Medical Education
University of Dundee
The Mackenzie Building
Kirsty Semply Way
Dundee, DD2 4BF
Scotland
UK
Paul C. Mills, BVSc, PhD, MACVSc, GCEd, MPhil (Vet Ed)
Professor of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics
School of Veterinary Science
University of Queensland
Level 1, Veterinary Science Building (#8114)
Gatton Campus QLD 4343
Australia
Laura K. Molgaard, DVM
Associate Dean for Academic and Student Affairs
Associate Professor
College of Veterinary Medicine
University of Minnesota
108 Pomeroy
1064 Fitch Avenue
St. Paul, MN 55108
USA
Liz Mossop, BVM&S, MMedSci(Clin Ed), PhD, MAcadMEd, MRCVS
Associate Professor of Veterinary Education Sub Dean for Teaching, Learning and Assessment
School of Veterinary Medicine and Science
University of Nottingham
College Road
Sutton Bonington, LE12 5RD
UK
Jacqueline M. Norris, BVSc(Hons), MVS, PhD, GradCertEdStud(Higher Ed)
Associate Professor in Veterinary Microbiology
Subdean for Doctor of Veterinary Medicine
Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science
University of Sydney
NSW 2006
Australia
Tim J. Parkinson, BVSc, DBR, MEd, PhD, DipECAR, FRCVS
Professor of Farm Animal Reproduction and Health
Institute of Veterinary, Animal & Biomedical Sciences
Massey University
Private Bag 11-222 Palmerston North 4422
New Zealand
Matthew Pead, BVetMed, PhD, CertSAO, FHEA, MRCVS
Academic Director of Assessment
Director of Clinical Skills Center
Royal Veterinary College
Hawkshead Lane
North Mymms, Hatfield
Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA
UK
Jacquelyn M. Pelzer, DVM, PGCVE
Director of Admissions and Student Services
Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine
Virginia Tech
245 Duck Pond Drive
Blacksburg, VA 24061
USA
Clive J.C. Phillips, BSc, MA, PhD
Foundation Chair in Animal Welfare
Director of the Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics
School of Veterinary Science
University of Queensland, Gatton Campus
Gatton, QLD 4343
Australia
Malathi Raghavan, DVM, MS, PhD
Clinical Associate Professor
Director, Outcomes Assessment and Data Management
College of Veterinary Medicine
Purdue University
625 Harrison Street
West Layfayett, IN 47907
USA
Emma K. Read, DVM, MVSc, DACVS
Associate Dean, Academic
Teaching Professor, Equine Surgery
DVM Program Office
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
University of Calgary
TRW 2E10
3280 Hospital Drive NW
Calgary
Alberta, T2N 4Z6
Canada
Susan M. Rhind, BVMS, PhD, FRCPath, PFHEA, MRCVS
Professor, Veterinary Medical Education
Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh
Easter Bush Campus
Roslin
Midlothian, EH25 9RG
Scotland
UK
Sue Roff, MA
Part-time Tutor
Center for Medical Education
Dundee University Medical School
The Mackenzie Building
Kirsty Semple Way
Dundee, DD2 4BF
Scotland
UK
Kenita S. Rogers, DVM, MS, DACVIM (Oncology)
Professor and Executive Associate Dean
Office of the Dean
College of Veterinary Medicine & Biomedical Sciences, Texas A&M University
College Station, TX 77843
USA
Bonnie R. Rush, DVM, MS, DACVIM
Executive Associate Dean
College of Veterinary Medicine
Kansas State University
101B Trotter Hall
Manhattan, KS 66506
USA
Ayona Silva-Fletcher, BVSc, PhD, MA (Med Ed), FHEA, FSLCVS, NTF
Associate Professor and Course Director in Veterinary Education
LIVE Centre,
Royal Veterinary College
Hawkshead Lane
North Mymms, Hatfield
Hertfordshire, AL9 7TA
UK
Adryanna Siqueira-Drake, PhD, LMFT
Counselor
College of Veterinary Medicine
Kansas State University
001 Trotter Hall
Manhattan, KS 66505
USA
Joseph Taboada, DVM, DACVIM
Professor and Associate Dean
Office of Student and Academic Affairs
School of Veterinary Medicine
Louisiana State University
Skip Bertman Drive
Baton Rouge, LA 70803
USA
Rosanne M. Taylor, BVSc(Hons I), DipVetClinicalStudies, GradCertEdStud(Higher Ed), PhD
Dean and Professor of Veterinary Physiology and Neuroscience
Sydney School of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Science
University of Sydney
NSW 2006
Australia
John H. Tegzes MA, VMD, DABVT
Director of Interprofessional Practice & Education
Professor of Toxicology
College of Veterinary Medicine
Western University of Health Sciences
309 East Second Street
Pomona, CA 91766-1854
USA
Elizabeth Tudor, BVSC (Hons), PhD
Associate Dean, Curriculum Strategy
Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences
University of Melbourne
Parkville, VIC 3010
Australia
Peter van Beukelen, DVM, PhD
Emeritus Professor, Quality Improvement in Veterinary Education
Faculty of Veterinary Medicine
Utrecht University
Yalelaan 1
3584 CL, Utrecht
The Netherlands
Joy M. Verrinder, BA, DipT, MBA, MA, PhD
Centre for Animal Welfare and Ethics
School of Veterinary Science
University of Queensland,
Gatton, QLD 4343
Australia
Preface
Veterinary medicine is unique among the health sciences due to the breadth of veterinary practice and the expertise required of Day One graduates. These expectations underlie the challenges faced by veterinary medical educators within a changing world that has included significant advancements in veterinary knowledge and the technology with which this may be delivered. Similar to medical education, veterinary medical education has been undergoing a transformation to develop educational methods that best prepare our graduates for these challenges in twenty-first-century veterinary practice. In this textbook we have tried to capture these initiatives, share new ideas, engage educators, and encourage further development so that veterinary medical education continues to advance.
Another goal of this book was to provide practical guidance for teachers, both inexperienced and experienced, in veterinary medical education. Most importantly, Veterinary Medical Education: A Practical Guide aims to be accessible and useful to the reader, so that they can assimilate the information and tips into their preclinical and clinical teaching as well as other academic activities.
We have attempted to organize the book into the major themes that encompass veterinary medical education, with individual chapters on specific topics. We chose the chapter authors based on their areas of expertise, with something fresh to say, and from all walks of veterinary medical education across the world. We hope that readers will regard the authors and their backgrounds as a very integral part of the value of the book.
Finally, we gratefully acknowledge Erica Judisch, Susan Engelken, Thaatcher Missier Glen, Mary Aswinee Anton, and Eswari Marutha of Wiley Blackwell for all their help, and particularly Sally Osborn and M.R. Shobana for their superb assistance with editing and proof reading all the chapters.
Icons
To help guide readers to some of the fundamental messages in each chapter, authors have created boxes, together with their corresponding icons, which represent different themes. The boxes and themes are centered around: main points (“Key Messages”); application of a tool or process (“How To”); information supporting the chapter's theme (“Where's the Evidence”); highlighting a specific topic (“Focus On”); contemplation of themes within the chapter (“Reflections”), familiarizing the reader with educational terminology or concepts (“What's the Meaning”); alerting the reader to handy recommendations (“Quick Tips”); and describing characteristics or illustrations of concepts and theories (“Example Of”).
Key messages
How to…
Where's the evidence?
Focus on…
Reflection
What's the meaning?
Quick tips
Example of…
Part IThe Curriculum
Chapter 1Curricular Design, Review, and Reform
Jennifer L. Hodgson1 and Jan E. Ilkiw2
1Virginia-Maryland College of Veterinary Medicine, Virginia Tech, USA
2School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, USA
Box 1.1: Key messages
Modern veterinary curricula should focus on the fundamental skills required of all graduates and incorporate the principles of learning that will achieve these.
A curriculum should be designed to be the best fit for the purpose and context of its place and time.
A curriculum is the totality of student experiences that occur in an educational process, including not only what is taught, but how it is taught, learned, and assessed, how the learning is managed and communicated, and the overall learning environment.
Curriculum design, review, and reform are complex processes that should involve well-defined steps and input from a wide variety of stakeholders.
Communication, leadership, a cooperative climate, participation by organizational members, evaluation, human resource development, and politics are all key components in the success of curricular development and reform.
Curricular evaluation, as an ongoing process for program improvement, should be a component of curricular design and development.
Introduction
Curricular planning, design, and development have always played an important role in veterinary education, but never more so than today. The veterinary degree, perhaps more than any of the other health science degrees, poses a challenge to curricular designers due to the breadth of material that must be covered and the variety of career options available to veterinarians. Modern veterinary curricula also must adapt to a world where information is available at our fingertips, but expanding at a prodigious rate. Therefore, rather than dwelling on past models of learning and teaching, contemporary veterinary curricula must refocus on the fundamental knowledge, skills, and behaviors required of all graduates and utilize modern methods, grounded in educational theory, to best achieve this.
Curricular design can be an arena in which many battles are fought, with differing views about what veterinary students should learn, how they should learn, what additional qualities we want them to develop, when and how the basic and clinical sciences should contribute to the curriculum, how long the program should take, and ultimately who owns the curriculum. Interestingly, there is no body of evidence demonstrating that there is one best choice for framing a curriculum as a whole, or any of its parts, in either medical education (Grant, 2013) or veterinary education. Instead, a curriculum should be designed to be the best fit for the purpose and context of its place and time. Further, a curriculum should be dynamic; it should be continually developing in response to curricular evaluation as well as changes in professional and societal needs.
In this chapter we have defined what a curriculum is, the factors that may influence its design, and the steps that may be undertaken in order to develop, implement, review, and reform a modern veterinary curriculum.
What Is a Curriculum? Definition and Standards
Definition
There are widely varying views regarding the term “curriculum,” with the word meaning different things to different people. Some people take a narrow view of the term, as frequently found in dictionary definitions: “the courses offered by an educational institution or a set of courses constituting an area of specialization” (Merriam-Webster, 2016). From this perspective, the curriculum may be perceived as largely equivalent to content.
Other people take a wider view, where a curriculum may be broadly defined as the totality of student experiences that occur in the educational process (Wiles, 2009). In this sense, the curriculum is seen as covering not only what is taught, but also how it is taught, learned, and assessed, how the learning is managed and communicated, and the overall learning environment (Harden, 2001). This extended view of a curriculum is illustrated in Figure 1.1 and will be used in this chapter.
Figure 1.1 Curricular elements.
Standards for the Curriculum
An alternate way to define a curriculum is through the standards that accrediting agencies require. One example of these standards is that developed in the United States by the American Veterinary Medical Association's (AVMA) Council on Education (COE). Standard 9, which addresses the curriculum, is one of 11 standards outlining the requirements that colleges or schools of veterinary medicine must meet in order to become accredited (AVMA, 2014).
Standard 9 states that the curriculum in veterinary medical education is the purview of the faculty of each college, but must be managed centrally based on the mission and resources of the college. Additional points in this standard include the requirement that the curriculum extends over a period equivalent to a minimum of four academic years, with a minimum of one academic year of hands-on clinical education; the subject areas that must be covered in the curriculum are defined, but it is not prescribed as to when or how these subjects should be taught or assessed; and the curriculum as a whole must be reviewed at least every seven years. More information about this standard, and those of other agencies that accredit veterinary colleges and schools around the world, can be found in Part Five, Chapter 22: Accreditation.
Factors Influencing Curricular Design
Curricular design is a complex process and may be influenced by a variety of factors internal and external to a college or school of veterinary medicine. These factors may include academic, professional, societal, and political influences (see Table 1.1).
Table 1.1 Factors influencing curricular design and their effects
Factor
Specific Influence
Effect
Academic
Theories of learning
Learner-centered design (e.g., problem-based learning); integrated curricula
Expansion of knowledge
Core and elective curricula
Decreasing resources
Distributed clinical teaching
Professional
Veterinary practitioners
Inclusion or expansion in the curriculum for communication and business skills; emphasis on teamwork and professionalism
Accreditation and licensure
Outcomes-based curricula; focus on competencies; changes to curricula due to changes in licensing exams, e.g., North American Veterinary Licensing Examination (NAVLE)
Societal
One Health
Multiprofessional elements
Social values
Widening-participation curricula to address underserved areas or communities; fewer animal use courses and introduction of clinical skills laboratories
Political
Length of curriculum
Shorter curricula, or earlier entrance to Doctor of Veterinary Medicine programs, to address cost of veterinary education
Source: Adapted from Grant (2013). Reproduced with permission of Wiley Blackwell.
Some of these factors affect the content of the curriculum and others affect curricular design. For example, emerging theories on adult learning can result in different curricular models, and changing expectations of the veterinary profession may cause alterations in the content of the curriculum. As Grant observed, “At any one point, a curriculum is a child of its time” (Grant, 2013, p. 36).
Steps in Curricular Design and Development
Veterinary medical educators now appreciate that curricular design encompasses much more than a statement of the content to be covered in the course or program. Instead, curricular design is a rational, open, and accountable process that may cover all aspects of a curriculum, or may focus on a specific area where curricular revision and renewal are desired. Development of a curriculum can be a lengthy process and usually involves a team of individuals who bring to the table different expertise, such as content specialists; basic, paraclinical, and clinical faculty; students, educationalists, administrators, or managers; and external stakeholders such as veterinary practitioners.
Recently, Harden outlined a comprehensive, 10-step process used for curricular design in medical education (Harden, 2013). These steps have been employed as a framework for this chapter, as all the steps are equally relevant to veterinary education, with some modification for the different educational contexts. Further, these principles of curricular design are fundamental, yet flexible enough to yield different types of curricula in different hands, depending on the local environment in which veterinary curricula are developed or reviewed. This last point is very important, as it is not the intent of this chapter to describe a “cookie-cutter” curriculum that is suitable for all veterinary programs regardless of their location or available resources. Rather, we have included the essential guiding principles that should be applied to achieve optimal student learning outcomes and to result in veterinary graduates who are prepared for the future challenges of our profession.
Although these steps are discussed serially, in real life many of the decisions occur in parallel, or in a different order. This rearrangement is acceptable, as the steps are ultimately interdependent and the timing of their development may be a function of the college or school's needs or resources. It should also be noted that many of the items mentioned in these steps are discussed in greater detail in the chapters that follow.
Step 1: Identify the Overall Purpose of the Educational Program
The first step in curricular design should involve the preparation of a document that includes an ideological mission statement, expressing values, beliefs, and aspirations for a program. These values and aspirations should be derived from the professional, social, political, and cultural contexts of the institution (Grant, 2013). In this way, emerging local needs can be specifically identified and addressed in the curriculum, and may help counterbalance a sole focus on the requirements of national and international standards. Examples of mission statements applicable to veterinary programs can be found on the web sites of many veterinary colleges.
When approaching curricular planning, there is a temptation to assume that there is a shared understanding of the overall purpose or aim of the program. However, unless the terms that are employed are defined and are specific, misunderstandings will arise (Leinster, 2013). For example, it is unhelpful to have the stated aim of a program to be to “produce a good veterinarian,” as this is too vague and begs the question of how a good veterinarian is defined!
Step 2: Determine the Specific Student Learning Outcomes or Competencies
One of the major emerging themes in medical education has been the recognition that curricular design should begin at the end (backwards design). In other words, the outcomes of the educational process should be specifically determined, then the curriculum designed to achieve these outcomes. This is in contrast to earlier approaches, where the content that faculty believed should be taught was arranged without regard for the end product. Implicit in this forward-thinking, input approach is that the focus is on the educational process regardless of the outcome.
This method utilizing backwards design began in the late 1980s, but has become more popular in the 2010s. However, there has been considerable debate regarding the definition of the end product, the most common terms being objectives, attributes, outcomes, and competencies. Specifically, people have argued about what the terms mean, how they differ, what they imply, and how they should be used. Of these terms, competencies have predominated in medical education and competency-based medical education (CBME) is now a primary driver for curricular planning (Harden, 2014). A similar movement has begun in veterinary education, and a number of competency frameworks relevant to veterinary practice have been developed in recent years (Bok et al., 2011; Shung and Osburn, 2011; AVMA, 2014; RCVS, 2014).
In common curriculum parlance, a competency is a specific area of performance that can be described and measured (Sklar, 2015). Thus, the emphasis has shifted from “what the student knows” and “what the teacher does” to “what the student does” (Corbett and Whitcomb, 2004). This system has the added advantage of allowing student achievement to determine advancement, so that progression is defined by the demonstration of required competencies, rather than by time spent in a program (Prideaux, 2016).
However, CBME is not without its critics, who argue that this is a reductionist approach with a focus on the parts rather than the whole (Brooks, 2009). As a result, this educational model may have difficulty capturing the complex requirements of medical practice or the central skills of professional judgment, decision making, and clinical reasoning (Grant, 2013). Further, some critics believe that competency frameworks are too theoretical to be useful for teaching and assessment in daily practice. In response to these concerns, entrustable professional activities (EPAs) have recently been developed to work in tandem with competencies to produce a more ‘holistic’ basis for curricular design (Prideaux, 2016). Further information about CBME, especially how it relates to veterinary education, can be found in Part One, Chapter 2: Competency-Based Education.
Step 3: Determine the Content to Be Included
Historically, the starting point for curricular design and development was often content; that is, what faculty believed should be taught. However, there are two fundamental fallacies with this approach: teaching is not synonymous with learning, and the possession of knowledge of an area does not guarantee the ability to perform in that area (May and Silva-Fletcher, 2015). A shift to competency-based educational models helps address this problem, as these models are based on clearly defined and measurable competencies, together with student demonstration that these have been achieved. In this way, the required competencies, rather than individual faculty expectations, drive curricular content.
This focus on competencies is particularly important in the age of the Internet and the expanding information available for learners. It is clear that curricular content can no longer include all the knowledge available in veterinary education. Furthermore, the length of time available for Doctor of Veterinary Medicine (DVM) programs (usually four years post degree, or five to six years post high school) is unlikely to lengthen given the concerns surrounding student educational debt. Therefore, the underpinning knowledge needed for students to develop the required competencies has to be identified, thus creating logical priorities for the content to be included in a curriculum.
There are a number of specific issues in relation to this point that deserve greater discussion.
Core and Elective Curricula
One model that is gaining some traction in veterinary education, and that may help with the expansion of knowledge, is a core/elective or core/tracking/elective curriculum. These curricula identify the content that is deemed to be core and that all students must acquire, then allow students to choose additional courses to gain deeper knowledge based on their personal preferences and career goals. In a tracking curriculum, the additional courses are determined by the specific track on which a student wishes to focus, for example livestock, small animal, or public corporate. Alternatively, all additional courses may be optional.
In this model, the first requirement is to determine what is core, with optional material being determined by the resources available, for example faculty interest and expertise. As discussed earlier, the core content should focus on the required competencies, but the issue remains of how to determine the competencies that should be core for all students. A number of ways have been used in medical education to answer this questions, ranging from modified Delphi processes and other formal consultations to statistical and epidemiological methods, or more informal consultation with various stakeholders (Grant, 2013). One approach that is gaining traction in medical schools is the identification of index cases or presentations that are based on the different ways in which the population comes into contact with healthcare professionals (critical incident technique; Pavlish, Brown-Saltzman, and So, 2015). The core knowledge and skills that students need within each discipline are determined by what they need to know and do in order to understand and manage these core clinical problems.
