Water-Energy-Food Nexus E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Geophysical Monograph Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 774

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Beschreibung

Water, energy and food are key resources to sustain life, and are the fundamental to national, regional and global economies. These three resources are interlinked in multiple ways, and the term "nexus" captures the interconnections. The nexus has been discussed, debated, researched, and advocated widely but the focus is often on the pairings of "water-energy" or "water-food" or "energy-food". To really benefit from the nexus approach in terms of resource use efficiency it is essential to understand, operationalize and practice the nexus of all three resources. As demand for these resources increases worldwide, using them sustainability is a critical concern for scientists and citizens, governments and policy makers. Volume highlights include: * Contributions to the global debate on water-energy-food nexus * Examples of the nexus approach in practice from different regions of the world * Perspectives on the future of the nexus agenda Water-Energy-Food Nexus: Theories and Practices is a valuable resource for students, research scholars and professionals in academic institutions with strong interests in interdisciplinary research involving geography, earth science, environmental science, environmental management, sustainability science, international development, and ecological economics. The volume will also be useful for professionals, practitioners and consultants in /NGOs, government, and international agencies. Read an interview with the editors to find out more: https://eos.org/editors-vox/working-towards-a-sustainable-future

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Title Page

CONTRIBUTORS

PREFACE

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

Section I: Understanding the Nexus

1 The Need for the Nexus Approach

1.1. INTRODUCTION

1.2. AVAILABILITY AND CONSUMPTION TRENDS OF THE NEXUS COMPONENTS

1.3. SECTORAL INTERACTIONS

1.4. THE NEED FOR THE WATER‐ENERGY‐FOOD (WEF) NEXUS

1.5. STRUCTURE OF THIS BOOK

REFERENCES

2 Evolution of the Nexus as a Policy and Development Discourse

2.1. INTRODUCTION

2.2. EMERGENCE OF THE NEXUS

2.3. SPREAD OF THE NEXUS

2.4. ACTORS IN THE WEF NEXUS ADVOCACY

2.5. SUMMARY

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

3 The Nexus Contribution to Better Water Management and Its Limitations

3.1. INTRODUCTION: CAN THE NEXUS BE USEFUL?

3.2. IS THE NEXUS NEW?

3.3. HAS THE WEF NEXUS BEEN ADDRESSED BEFORE AS A MATTER OF POLICY?

3.4. IS THE WEF NEXUS SPECIAL? WHAT ABOUT OTHER USES?

3.5. THE NEXUS IN A CONTESTED CONTEXT: IWRM

3.6. POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND INSTITUTIONS: IWRM, VIRTUAL WATER, AND THE NEXUS

3.7. CONCLUSION: THE NEXUS AS A RETURN TO BETTER WATER MANAGEMENT

REFERENCES

4 Dynamic, Cross‐Sectoral Analysis of the Water‐Energy‐Food Nexus: Investigating an Emerging Paradigm

4.1. INTRODUCTION

4.2. FROM A WATER‐CENTRIC TO A TRULY INTEGRATED CONCEPTUALIZATION OF THE NEXUS

4.3. ANALYZING THE NEXUS IN THE MRB

4.4. DISCUSSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

5 Urban Nexus: An Integrated Approach for the Implementation of the Sustainable Development Goals

5.1. INTRODUCTION

5.2. CONCEPT OF THE URBAN NEXUS

5.3. MANAGING OUR URBAN FUTURE: THE SDGS AND URBAN NEXUS

5.4. IMPLEMENTING THE URBAN NEXUS IN PRACTICE

5.5. CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

Section II: Operationalizing the Nexus

6 Modeling the Water‐Energy‐Food Nexus: A 7‐Question Guideline

6.1. INTRODUCTION

6.2. HOW DO WE “MODEL THE NEXUS”? NO COOKBOOK METHOD: A 7Q GUIDELINE

6.3. MODELING THE WEF NEXUS

6.4. CASE STUDIES: ANALYZING WEF NEXUS TRADE‐OFFS

6.5. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND FUTURE POTENTIAL OF THE NEXUS MODELING

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

7 Water‐Energy‐Food Nexus: Selected Tools and Models in Practice

7.1. INTRODUCTION

7.2. WATER‐ENERGY‐FOOD (WEF) NEXUS MANAGEMENT TOOLS

7.3. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE WEF NEXUS TOOLS

7.4. THE WAY FORWARD

REFERENCES

8 Governing for the Nexus: Empirical, Theoretical, and Normative Dimensions

8.1. INTRODUCTION

8.2. GOVERNING IN PRACTICE: A POLICY INSTRUMENTS PERSPECTIVE

8.3. THEORIZING NEXUS GOVERNANCE

8.4. FRAMING FUTURE GOVERNANCE

8.5. SUMMARY

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

9 The Role of International Cooperation in Operationalizing the Nexus in Developing Countries: Emerging Lessons of the Nexus Observatory

9.1. INTRODUCTION

9.2. INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COOPERATION AND THE NEXUS APPROACH

9.3. CASE STUDY: INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION IN THE NILE BASIN AND THE NEXUS APPROACH

9.4. EMERGING LESSONS OF THE NEXUS OBSERVATORY

9.5. CONCLUSION

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

10 Water‐Energy‐Food Security Nexus in the Eastern Nile Basin: Assessing the Potential of Transboundary Regional Cooperation

10.1. INTRODUCTION

10.2. PROFILE OF THE NEXUS COMPONENTS IN EASTERN NILE BASIN COUNTRIES

10.3. WEF SECURITY CHALLENGES

10.4. BENEFIT‐SHARING POTENTIAL FOR TRANSBOUNDARY COOPERATION

10.5. CONCLUSIONS

REFERENCES

11 Energy‐Centric Operationalizing of the Nexus in Rural Areas: Cases from South Asia

11.1. INTRODUCTION

11.2. SOLAR ENERGY FOR WATER AND LIVELIHOOD: A CASE OF BAUNSADIHA VILLAGE, ODISHA, INDIA

11.3. SOLAR WATER PUMP FOR IRRIGATION: A CASE OF RAJASTHAN STATE, INDIA

11.4. MICRO HYDRO SYSTEM FOR RURAL ELECTRIFICATION AND LIVELIHOOD: A CASE OF THINGAN, MAKWANPUR, NEPAL

11.5. SUMMARY

REFERENCES

WEBSITES

Section III: Nexus in Practice

12 The Water‐Energy‐Food Nexus from a South African Perspective

12.1. INTRODUCTION

12.2. WEF NEXUS PERSPECTIVE IN EXISTING POLICY FRAMEWORKS

12.3. OVERVIEW OF WEF NEXUS COMPONENTS

12.4. WEF SECURITY IN SOUTH AFRICA

12.5. OPERATIONALIZING THE WEF NEXUS: A CASE STUDY OF THE KAROO REGION IN CENTRAL SOUTH AFRICA

12.6. IMPLICATIONS OF WEF SECURITY IN SOUTH AFRICA’S FUTURE

12.7. SUMMARY

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

13 Water‐Energy‐Food Nexus: Examples from the USA

13.1. INTRODUCTION

13.2. THE NEXUS IN FOCUS

13.3. KNOWING THE NEXUS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

14 WEF Nexus Cases from California with Climate Change Implication

14.1. INTRODUCTION

14.2. NEXUS COMPONENTS WITH CLIMATE CHANGE IMPLICATION

14.3. WATER‐ENERGY NEXUS IN CALIFORNIA

14.4. INFORMATION GAPS AND RESEARCH NEEDS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

15 Water, Energy, and Food Security Nexus in the West Asian Region

15.1. INTRODUCTION

15.2. PRESENT AND FUTURE SUPPLY AND DEMANDS: WATER, FOOD, AND ENERGY IN WEST ASIA

15.3. INTERACTION BETWEEN WATER, ENERGY, AND FOOD SECTORS

15.4. CHALLENGES FACING THE WATER, FOOD, AND ENERGY NEXUS

15.5. INVESTING IN A WATER‐FOOD‐ENERGY‐SECURE FUTURE IN WEST ASIA

15.6. SUMMARY

REFERENCES

16 Assessment of Water, Energy, and Carbon Footprints of Crop Production: A Case Study from Southeast Nepal

16.1. INTRODUCTION

16.2. STUDY AREA

16.3. METHODS AND DATA

16.4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

16.5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

REFERENCES

17 The Food‐Water‐Energy Nexus in Modern Rice Cultivation in Bangladesh and Competing Discourses of Rice Research Institutions

17.1. INTRODUCTION

17.2. APPROACH

17.3. FINDINGS

17.4. SUMMARY

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

18 Riverbank Filtration Technology at the Nexus of Water‐Energy‐Food

18.1. INTRODUCTION

18.2. ABOUT RIVERBANK FILTRATION (RBF) TECHNOLOGY

18.3. RBF AT THE WATER‐FOOD NEXUS

18.4. RBF AT THE WATER‐ENERGY NEXUS

18.5. RBF AT THE WATER‐ENERGY‐FOOD NEXUS

18.6. SUMMARY

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

REFERENCES

Section IV: Future of the Nexus Agenda

19 Water‐Energy‐Food (WEF) Nexus and Sustainable Development

19.1. INTRODUCTION

19.2. SUSTAINABILITY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

19.3. MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS (MDGs)

19.4. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS (SDGs)

19.5. NEXUS PERSPECTIVE ON SDGs

19.6. IMPLEMENTING THE NEXUS APPROACH: CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES

19.7. CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT: ADDRESSING NEXUS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

19.8. CONCLUDING REMARKS

REFERENCES

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 02

Table 2.1 Chronology of key nexus‐focused global events

Table 2.2 Nexus elements in key initiatives of international agencies

Chapter 04

Table 4.1 State of nexus core variable for Mekong region countries

Chapter 07

Table 7.1 Comparative analysis of selected WEF nexus tools/methodologies

Chapter 08

Table 8.1 Theoretical interpretations for nexus governance

Table 8.2 Features of nexus governance

Chapter 09

Table 9.1 Types of cooperation and opportunities for the operationalization of the nexus approach

Table 9.2 Nexus components shaping international cooperation

Table 9.3 Levels of engagement with key data sources [

Kurian and Meyer

, 2014]

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Sources of risk, cooperation opportunities, and constraints of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) for the downstream countries, Sudan and Egypt

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Energy and agriculture scenarios in Rajasthan before intervention of the solar‐powered water‐pumping program

Table 11.2 Impact of solar‐powered water‐pumping scheme

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Summary of key factors that affect current and future water, energy, and food security in South Africa

Chapter 13

Table 13.1 Energy used to deliver water to various users in California

Table 13.2 Water requirements for food commodities

Table 13.3 Food wasted in the United States

Chapter 14

Table 14.1 Electricity uses and related GHG emission in California water sector

Table 14.2 Summary of energy intensity range (kWh/MG) in California water cycle

Table 14.3 Water‐energy‐food nexus information gaps and research needs

Chapter 15

Table 15.1 Economic Statistics of West Asia (2015)

Table 15.2 Urban and rural population in West Asia (2012–2015)

Table 15.3 Food self‐sufficiency ratio in selected West Asian countries (2005, 2011, and 2015)

Table 15.4 Production trends of major crops in West Asia in million tons (1961, 1970, 1980, 1990, 2000, and 2007)

Table 15.5 Shared surface water basins in West Asia

Table 15.6 Shared groundwater aquifer systems in West Asia

Table 15.7 Climate changes impacts on water, food, and energy nexus

Chapter 16

Table 16.1 Cropping calendar of major crops in the study area

Table 16.2 Energy content of various farm inputs relevant to this study

Table 16.3 Established CO

2

emission factors of various farm inputs relevant to this study

Table 16.4 Energy resources used per hectare of cultivated land for different farm activities in Raniganj

Table 16.5 Indirect energy use (irrigation and fertilizer) for crop production in Raniganj

Table 16.6 Energy input per hectare of crop cultivation and associated carbon emission in Raniganj

Table 16.7 Water, energy and carbon footprints of crop production in Raniganj

Chapter 17

Table 17.1 Type of water‐terrains in Bangladesh and desired rice seed qualities

Table 17.2 Area planted (or harvested) under modern rice varieties (MV) and as percentage of area of all rice, 1965–2010

Table 17.3 Approximate data on total rice production in Bangladesh over time and by area, production, and yield for Aus, Aman, and Boro rice

Table 17.4 Irrigated land by type of rice

Table 17.5 Irrigated area by type of method (in millions of acres)

Table 17.6 Total Consumption (000 t) of fertilizers (N, P, K) from chemical sources, and fertilizer per acre of rice, 1961–2010

Table 17.7 Output per acre of Aman and Boro Rice and profit margins

Table 17.8 Input ratios and cost per acre of Aman and Boro rice in 2000–2003

Chapter 18

Table 18.1 Log removal of

Escherichia coli

, Enterococci, somatic coliphages, somatic salmonella phages, and F‐specific bacteriophages by riverbank filtration along the Zarqa River, Jordan

Table 18.2 Technical specifications for the photovoltaic panels installed at the RBF site along the Sal River field in Goa, India

Table 18.3 Estimation of drip irrigation water needs for common non‐tuber/root crops and vegetables grown in Goa

Chapter 19

Table 19.1 The eight millennium development goals (MDGs)

Table 19.2 Achievement of MDGs in selected targets

Table 19.3

Sustainable development goals [

UN

, 2015b]

Table 19.4 An integrated representation of links between the SDGs through targets

Table 19.5

Interlinkage of relevant goals and targets of WEF nexus in SDG framework of

UN

[2015b]

Table 19.6 Reciprocity among targets of selected goals

List of Illustrations

Chapter 01

Figure 1.1 Interactions of the water‐energy‐food nexus.

Figure 1.2 Projected growth in energy consumption. Toe is ton equivalent. * includes biofuels.

Figure 1.3 Per capita food consumption (kcal/person/day).

Figure 1.4 World production and use of major agricultural products (million tons).

Figure 1.5 Life cycle water consumption for selected electricity generation technologies (gal/MWh).

Figure 1.6 Water withdrawal and consumption for primary fuel extraction, processing, and transportation.

Chapter 02

Figure 2.1 Illustration of interlinkages within and between sectors and environmental systems. LEAP, long‐range energy alternatives planning system and WEAP, water and evaluation and planning model.

Figure 2.2 The complex links between nexus components, driving forces, solutions, and outcomes.

Chapter 03

Figure 3.1 Global water demand: Baseline scenario, 2000 and 2050. Note: this figure only measures blue water demand and does not consider rainfed agriculture.

Chapter 04

Figure 4.1 The water‐food‐energy nexus.

Figure 4.2 Systems diagram developed by connecting primary, secondary, and tertiary impacts of hydropower.

Chapter 05

Figure 5.1 Conceptual framework of urban nexus.

Figure 5.2 Change in land use and land cover.

Figure 5.3 Case study of Shenzhen city.

Figure 5.4 Case study of Nashik city.

Figure 5.5 Case study of Da Nang city.

Chapter 06

Figure 6.1 7‐Question guideline for modeling nexus issues.

Figure 6.2 Water‐energy‐food nexus platform – Analytics and stakeholder dialogue.

Figure 6.3 Overall generic modeling approach.

Figure 6.4 Diagram demonstrating the water‐energy‐food nexus framework.

Figure 6.5 Resource requirement for a 2010 scenario (input data from the Qatar National Food Security Programme, QNFSP) and percentage change in the resource requirements as a result of a 10% increment in self‐sufficiency.

Figure 6.6 Estimation of the water, land, emissions, and cost implications of the assessed energy policy [

IRENA

2015].

Figure 6.7 Water‐energy‐food nexus based on water management in various hot spots.

Chapter 07

Figure 7.1 Components of FAO’s WEF nexus assessment approach [

FAO

, 2014].

Figure 7.2 Water‐Energy‐Food Nexus Tool 2.0 structure and the calculating sustainability index.

Figure 7.3 Conceptual model of the Foreseer Tool.

Figure 7.4 Estimation of the water, land, emissions, and cost implications of the assessed energy policy.

Figure 7.5 Use of policy inputs to estimate the water, land, emissions, and cost implications of the analyzed energy policies and to aggregate them into a context‐specific overall index.

Chapter 09

Figure 9.1 Chronology of selected international development trends.

Figure 9.2 Levels of governance.

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Map of the Eastern Nile basin.

Figure 10.2 Electricity production in Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia.

Figure 10.3 Energy production sources in Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia.

Figure 10.4 Fuelwood production and forest area in Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia.

Figure 10.5 Key facts for WEF sectors in Sudan, Ethiopia, and Egypt.

Figure 10.6 Cooperation framework indicating the directions of resource trade as well as financial and technical cooperation on key issues among the Eastern Nile basin countries.

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Location of the Mayurbhanj district in Odisha, India.

Figure 11.2 Solar‐powered system installed in Baunsadiha village.

Figure 11.3 Solar‐powered grinder used for sattu making.

Figure 11.4 Solar‐powered pump.

Figure 11.5 Location of the state of Rajasthan on the map of India.

Figure 11.6 District Makwanpur on the map of Nepal.

Figure 11.7 20 kWe micro hydro power plant in Thingnan village.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Locations of South Africa’s population centers, agricultural areas, mining resources, and other land use patterns.

Figure 12.2 Overview of South African climate zones, areas of high groundwater use, and main rivers.

Figure 12.3 Comparison of South Africa’s major sources of electricity.

Figure 12.4 Overview of land use patterns in the central Karoo region, energy resource exploration zones, and astronomy protection areas.

Figure 12.5 Overview of water resources and climate patterns in the central Karoo region.

Chapter 13

Figure 13.1 The water‐energy‐food nexus in the context of sustainability challenges.

Figure 13.2 Primary sources of water in California in acre‐feet per year.

Figure 13.3 United States and Texas electricity consumption, in percent, by sector for 2013.

Figure 13.4 United States and Texas electricity generation, in percent, by source for 2013.

Figure 13.5 Water consumption for thermoelectric power generation in Texas.

Chapter 14

Figure 14.1 California water systems in each hydrological region.

Figure 14.2 California urban and agricultural water uses and related energy intensities.

Figure 14.3 Energy use related to water in California water system.

Figure 14.4 Estimated regional energy intensity range for hydrological regions in California.

Chapter 15

Figure 15.1 Location map for West Asia.

Figure 15.2 Total renewable water resources compared with renewable blue water resources.

Figure 15.3 Per capita share of renewable water resources in West Asia (1980–2050).

Figure 15.4 West Asia regional sectoral blue water withdrawals (2000 and 2012).

Figure 15.5 Global trend in food production (1960–2015).

Figure 15.6 Deficit between food import and export in West Asia (1961–2007).

Figure 15.7 Energy consumption in West Asian countries (2004–2014).

Figure 15.8 Features of current water, food, and energy nexus challenges in West Asia.

Chapter 16

Figure 16.1 Location of Raniganj VDC in Sarlahi district, Nepal.

Figure 16.2 Methodological framework for the assessment of water supply, energy, and carbon footprints of crop production under deep tubewell scheme of Raniganj.

Figure 16.3 Proportion of energy used for different agricultural operations of rice, wheat, and maize production in Raniganj.

Figure 16.4 Web diagram, showing the comparative use of irrigation water, energy, and associated carbon emission to produce 1 ton of rice, maize, and wheat in Raniganj.

Chapter 18

Figure 18.1 Schematic diagram of processes affecting water quality during bank filtration. The natural attenuation processes are strongly dependent on site‐specific hydrogeological and hydrogeochemical conditions.

Figure 18.2 (a) The Zarqa River study site in northern Jordan near the town of Jerash. (b) The layout of the RBF wellfield adjacent to the Zarqa River. “RBF” is the principal production well. Observation wells are numbered 2 through 5. Values below the well symbol mark the depth of the well in meters. .

Figure 18.3 The RBF study site is located along the Sal River near the town of Margao in southern Goa, India.

Figure 18.4 Fecal coliform bacteria concentration (MPN/100 ml) at four sampling points along the Sal River in Goa between April 2014 and March 2015. For reference, the monsoonal rains in this part of India typically occur from mid‐June through early September.

Figure 18.5 Daily amount of solar radiation (kWh/m

2

/day) at the field site along the Sal River, Goa (India).

Chapter 19

Figure 19.1 Participatory scenario planning process for WEF security nexus.

Figure 19.2 Capacity development: levels, activities, outputs, and goals. .

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Geophysical Monograph 229

Water‐Energy‐Food Nexus

Principles and Practices

P. Abdul SalamSangam ShresthaVishnu Prasad PandeyAnil Kumar Anal

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CONTRIBUTORS

Saroj AdhikariAsian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Thailand

Mohammad Al‐SaidiInstitute for Technology in the Tropics (ITT), TH Köln, University of Applied Sciences, Cologne, Germany

Anil Kumar AnalFood Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Thailand

Amjad AssiWEF Nexus Group, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

Sophia BarkatPolitical Science, Department of Politics and International Affairs, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA

David BensonEnvironment and Sustainability Institute and Department of Politics, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK

Thomas B. BovingDepartments of Geosciences and Civil, Environmental Engineering, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, USA

Bassel DaherWEF Nexus Group, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

Mohamed Abdel Hamyd DawoudEnvironment Agency, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates

Nadir Ahmed ElagibInstitute for Technology in the Tropics (ITT), TH Köln, University of Applied Sciences, Cologne, Germany

Surina EsterhuyseCentre for Environmental Management, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, Republic of South Africa

Animesh K. GainGFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Potsdam, Germany

Carlo GiupponiDepartment of Economics, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, Venice Centre for Climate Studies (VICCS), Venice, Italy

Ashim Das GuptaAsian Institute of Technology, Bangkok, Thailand

Mathew KurianCapacity Development and Governance Unit, United Nations University (UNU‐FLORES), Dresden, Germany

Sang‐Hyun LeeWEF Nexus Group, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

Audrey D. LevineUniversity of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA; US National Science Foundation, Arlington, VA, USA; and Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia

Qinqin LiuDepartment of Water Resources, Natural Resource Agency, Sacramento, CA, USA

Kristin MeyerCapacity Development and Governance Unit, United Nations University (UNU‐FLORES), Dresden, Germany

Parimita MohantyIndependent Research

Rabi H. MohtarWEF Nexus Group, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA; and Zachry Department of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA

Mike MullerSchool of Governance, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa

Deniz OezhanInstitute for Technology in the Tropics (ITT), TH Köln, University of Applied Sciences, Cologne, Germany

Olusola O. OloladeCentre for Environmental Management, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein, Republic of South Africa

Vishnu Prasad PandeyInternational Water Management Institute (IWMI), Nepal Office, Lalitpur, Nepal

Kavita PatilThe Energy and Resources Institute (TERI), Southern Regional Centre, Goa, India

Satwik PatnaikDepartment of Sociology, BJB Autonomous College, Bhubaneswar, India

Soni M. PradhanangDepartment of Geosciences, University of Rhode Island, Kingston, RI, USA

Lars RibbeIntegrated Water and Land Management, Institute for Technology in the Tropics (ITT), TH Köln, University of Applied Sciences, Cologne, Germany

Emma RoachInstitute for Technology in the Tropics (ITT), TH Köln, University of Applied Sciences, Cologne, Germany

Josselin RouillardEcologic Institute, Berlin, Germany

P. Abdul SalamEnergy Field of Study, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Thailand

Lorenzo SantucciUnited Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP), Bangkok, Thailand

Tatjana SchellenbergInstitute for Technology in the Tropics (ITT), TH Köln, University of Applied Sciences, Cologne, Germany

Victor R. ShindeWater Engineering and Management, School of Engineering and Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Thailand

Sangam ShresthaWater Engineering and Management, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Thailand

Banashri SinhaIndependent Researcher

Alex SmajglMekong Region Futures Institute (MERFI), Bangkok, Thailand

Zachary A. SmithDepartment of Politics and International Affairs, Northern Arizona University, Flagstaff, AZ, USA

Donovan StoreyGlobal Green Growth Institute

John WardMekong Region Futures Institute (MERFI), Vientiane, Lao PDR

PREFACE

Water, energy, and food are the vital resources that sustain life as well as global, regional, and national economies. The three resources share a lot in common, are interlinked in many ways, and actions in one sector could inadvertently affect the other sectors. Exacerbating demands of the three resources combined with concerns over environmental and climate change presents a set of scientific, policy, and management issues that are critical for achieving the 2030 agenda of “Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).” It was acknowledged in the Bonn 2011 Conference that the term “nexus,” which reemerged as the “new kid on the block” of development disclosures, can best describe the interconnections between the three resources. Since then, it has become a highly debated topic in most of the international fora. However, these fora are mostly focused on the “water‐energy” or “water‐food” or “energy‐food” domain. To get the real benefit of the nexus approach in terms of resource use efficiency, it is necessary to understand, operationalize, and practice the nexus of all the three resources, that is, water‐energy‐food (WEF). However, there is a limited knowledgebase and few publications in this arena. In this context, this book attempts to contribute to the global debate on the WEF nexus through knowledgebase generation.

This single‐volume peer‐reviewed book covers the theoretical and/or conceptual aspects of the WEF nexus, ways to overcome operational challenges of the nexus approach of the resources management, cases of the nexus in practice from different regions of the world, and opinions on the future of the nexus agenda. The book is divided into 4 sections and 19 chapters. They are contributed by notable authors from different parts of the world who are at the forefront of the nexus agenda.

Because the multidisciplinary nature of the book covers interconnections and management of the three key resources (water, energy, and food) it will be relevant to a broad audience in environment and earth sciences. In addition, it could be an excellent reference for students, scholars, and professionals in the field of sustainability science, international development, natural resources management, and ecological economics. The book can benefit a wide range of readers with a keen interest in interdisciplinary research on resources management. These could include, but are not limited to, students, research scholars, practitioners, I/NGOs, donor agencies, UN agencies, policy‐makers, and decision‐makers.

We would like to acknowledge that this book is one of the outputs of the SEA‐EU‐NET Project (Phase‐II), which was funded under the Seventh Framework Programme (FP7) of the European Union (EU). This publication was possible due to highly dedicated contributions from 41 contributing authors, 39 anonymous reviewers, representatives of the publisher, and direct/indirect helping hands of members at the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT).

P. Abdul SalamSangam ShresthaVishnu Prasad PandeyAnil Kumar Anal

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

ADB

Asian Development Bank

ADPJ

Agriculture Development Project Janakpur

AIT

Asian Institute of Technology

AMD

Acid Mine Drainage

APE

African Points of Excellence

BCM

Billion Cubic Meters

BINA

Bangladesh Institute of Nuclear Agriculture

BRRI

Bangladesh Rice Research Institute

BUREC

US Bureau of Reclamation

CA

California

CC

Climate Change

CVP

Central Valley Project

DoNRE

Department of Natural Resources and Environment

DPSIR

Drivers, Pressures, State, Impact, and Response

DTWs

Deep Tube Wells

DWR

Department of Water Resources

EC

Electric Conductivity

EPI

Environmental Policy Integration

EU

European Union

FAO

Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations

GCC

Gulf Cooperation Council

GCMs

Global Circulation Models

GDP

Gross Domestic Product

GERD

Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam

GHG

Greenhouse Gas

GIS

Geographic Information System

HP

Horsepower

HW

Healthy Waterways

ICIMOD

International Center for Integrated Mountain Development

ICSU

International Council for Science

IDA

International Development Aid

IEA

International Energy Agency

IFPRI

International Food Policy Research Institute

IGBP

International Geosphere‐Biosphere Programme

IHDP

International Human Dimensions Programme on Global Environmental Change

IISD

International Institute for Sustainable Development

ILO

International Labor Organization

IMF

International Monitory Fund

INATE

International Network for Advancing Transdisciplinary Education

INRM

Integrated Natural Resource Management

IPM

Integrated Pest Management

IR

International Relations

IRENA

International Renewable Energy Agency

IRRI

International Rice Research Institute

IUCN

International Union for the Conservation of Nature

IWA

International Water Association

IWRM

Integrated River Basin Management

kcal

Kilo Calorie

kWe

Kilowatt Equivalent

kWh

Kilowatt Hours

L

Liters

LEAP

Long‐range Energy Alternatives Planning System

m

3

Cubic Meters

MAR

Mean Annual Runoff

mbgl

Meters Below Ground Level

MBIs

Market‐Based Instruments

MCM

Million Cubic Meters

MDF

Mediterranean Development Forum

MDGs

Millennium Development Goals

MERFI

Mekong Region Futures Institute

MG

Million Gallons

MJ

Mega Joule

ML

Mega Liters

MLD

Million Liters a Day

MNC

Multi National Cooperation

MRB

Mekong River basin

MWh

Megawatt Hour

NBI

Nile Basin Initiative

NGO

Nongovernmental Organization

NSVC

Nepal Solar Volunteer Corps

ODA

Official Development Assistance

OECD

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development

OPEC

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries

OPT

Occupied Palestinian Territories

PES

Payment for Ecosystem Services

PIIP

Priority Infrastructure Investment Project

PJ

Peta Joule

PVC

Photo Voltaic Cells

RBF

Riverbank Filtration

RDP

Rural Development Programme

RMS

Resource Management Strategies

SALT

Southern African Large Telescope

SAP

Structural Adjustment Programmes

SAWS

San Antonio Water System

SDGs

Sustainable Development Goals

SE4ALL

Sustainable Energy for All

SEI

Stockholm Environment Institute

SG

Stakeholder Group

SHG

Self‐Help Group

SKA

Square Kilometer Array

STI

Science, Technology, and Innovations

STWs

Shallow Tube Wells

SWP

State Water Project

TDH

Total Dynamic Heads

TVA

Tennessee Valley Authority

TWh

Terawatt Hours

U.S.

United States

UAE

United Arab Emirates

UK

United Kingdom

UN

United Nations

UNCECAR

University Network for Climate and Ecosystem Change Adaptation Research

UNCLOS

United Nations Convention of the Law of the Seas

UNECE

United Nations Economic Commission for Europe

UNEP

United Nations Environment Programme

UNESCAP

United Nations Economic and Social Commission

UNFCCC

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

UNU‐FLORES

The United Nations University Institute for Integrated Management of Material Fluxes and or Resources

UNU‐ISP

United Nations University, Institute for Sustainability and Peace

UOG

Unconventional Oil and Gas

USAID

United States Agency for International Development

VDC

Village Development Committee

WB

World Bank

WCED

World Commission on Environment and Development

WCRP

World Climate Research Programme

WEAP

Water Evaluation and Planning Model

WEF

Water‐Energy‐Food

WWC

World Water Council

WWF

Worldwide Fund for Nature

WWTP

Wastewater Treatment Plant

Section IUnderstanding the Nexus

1The Need for the Nexus Approach

P. Abdul Salam1, Vishnu Prasad Pandey2, Sangam Shrestha3, and Anil Kumar Anal4

1Energy Field of Study, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Thailand

2International Water Management Institute (IWMI), Nepal Office, Lalitpur, Nepal

3Water Engineering and Management, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Thailand

4Food Engineering and Bioprocess Technology, Asian Institute of Technology, Klong Luang, Thailand

ABSTRACT

The water, energy, and food resources share a lot in common; they have strong interdependencies and are inadvertently affected by action in any one of them. Therefore, the nexus approach (integrated policies related to water, energy, and food) is required in the face of growing concerns over the future availability and sustainability of these resources. The nexus approach can help achieve at least some of the “Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)” (e.g., SDG 2, 6, 7, 12, 13, 15). This chapter discusses trends in availability and consumption of the three key resources (i.e., water, energy, and food) and interactions between them, and finally provides some reasons why the nexus approach can help achieve social and economic development goals.

1.1. INTRODUCTION

The water, energy, and food resources share a lot in common, including inaccessibility to billions of people, rapidly growing demand, strong interdependencies with climate change, different regional availability, and variations in supply and demand [Bazilian et al., 2011; Walsh et al., 2015]. Apart from the similarities, there is a growing sense of awareness of the linkages among water, energy, and food sectors (Figure 1.1) and that the actions in one sector would inadvertently affect one or both of the other sectors. The growing population, rapid economic growth, and changing consumption trends has increased the urgency to act through the utilization of integrated approaches that encompasses all three sectors. This ensures that there is a proper balance among the different user goals and interests while at the same time protecting the ecosystem.

Figure 1.1 Interactions of the water‐energy‐food nexus.

Source: IRENA [2015], “Renewable Energy in the Water, Energy & Food Nexus.”

It was acknowledged at the Bonn 2011 Nexus Conference that integrated policies related to water, energy, and food are required in the face of growing concerns over the future availability and sustainability of these resources. The continuation of isolated policies which are predominant in developing countries will unavoidably affect other sectors and eventually lead to the acceleration of ecosystem degradation. Hence, a better understanding of the strong linkages and trade‐offs with respect to the water‐energy‐food (WEF) nexus is important for sustainable long‐term development growth as well as for human well‐being. A nexus approach is based on three guiding principles [Bonn 2011 Conference, 2011]:

Placing people and their basic human rights as the basis of the nexus

Creating public awareness and the political will for successful implementation

Involving local communities in the planning and implementation processes in order to create a sense of participation and ownership

The practical implementation is proven as difficult mainly due to the vastness of the individual sectors, the multidimensional interlinkages among the sectors, and the fact that stakeholders in all disciplines and at all levels need to be involved. In addition, significant financial investment would also be required in the restructuring of existing infrastructure to suit the nexus approach. The development of robust analytical tools, conceptual models, and robust data sets which can be used to supply information on the future use of energy, water, and food is vital toward making the WEF nexus a reality [Bazilian et al., 2011].

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) have set targets for each of the nexus sectors explicitly under SDG 2 (zero hunger), SDG 6 (clean water and sanitation), and SDG 7 (affordable and clean energy). In order to satisfy the stipulated goals, a shift to more sustainable production and consumption patterns (SDG 12) will be required while tackling climate change (SDG 13) and ensuring a balance in ecosystem both on land and water (SDG 14 and SDG 15). The interconnection between the SDGs emphasizes the need for a nexus approach in achieving the individual goals.

1.2. AVAILABILITY AND CONSUMPTION TRENDS OF THE NEXUS COMPONENTS

The growing demand for water, energy, and food are driven by common factors: population growth and mobility, sustainable development, international trade, urbanization, changing lifestyles, cultural and technological changes, and climate change [FAO, 2014]. The exploitation of more resources will definitely be required to meet the growing demand. However, it is possible to slow down this growing demand by reducing wastage and loss incurred in the water, energy, and food stream, which would also help in saving embedded resources during production and reducing environmental impacts. Reduction of water and energy through conservation and efficient use will be crucial in the coming decade.

1.2.1. Water

The world has enough freshwater to supply the global demand but nonuniform distribution of these reserves and other reasons have led to shortages in certain locations. The United Nations (UN) estimates indicate that there are 1.2 billion people living in areas of physical water scarcity and another 1.6 billion people facing economic water shortage [Walsh et al., 2015]. In terms of water quality, there are 748 million people who lack access to an improved drinking water source [UNESCO, 2015]. The shortage in both quantity and quality may likely spread and become more acute due to growing demands, unsustainable withdrawal rates, degradation of source water quality, and changing climate patterns. Understandably, the main impact of water shortage is on direct human consumption but other indirect impacts include those on energy supply, food production, and ecosystem.

Traditionally, the expansion of water resources mainly depended on the need of the expanding population for food, clothing, and modern energy. More recently, the rising standards of the middle‐income group has led to sudden and sharp increases in the water consumption in both production and use. Economic growth coupled with higher living standards could be the reason that the growth of water demand is double that of population growth in the twentieth century.

The global water withdrawals in 2009 stood at 4500 billion m3 (BCM) of which 70% was used for agriculture, 17% for industry, and 13% for municipal and domestic purposes [2030 Water Resources Group, 2009]. According to the 2030 Water Resources Group [2009], the projected demand of 6900 BCM in 2030 under the business‐as‐usual scenario is 40% more than the currently assessed water supplies (ground and surface) that are accessible, reliable, and sustainable. In another report by UN Water, the water demand is projected to increase by around 55% in 2050, which will mainly be attributed to growing demands in the manufacturing sector, thermal power plants, and domestic use [UNESCO, 2015].

The gap between future availability and demand can be closed not through the discovery of more water supplies but through effective demand‐side management, which will definitely need effective policy interventions.

1.2.2. Energy

Energy demand is increasing primarily due to drivers like growth in population and gross domestic product (GDP). Though there are diverse sources of energy, fossil fuels are expected to continue as the dominant fuel source and would account for almost 80% of the total energy supplies in 2035 [BP, 2016]. Gas is expected to gain popularity along with renewable energy though the share of the latter would still be below 10% in 2035. On the other hand, coal will exhibit a decreasing trend while oil remains steady. The additional energy demand will come from growing and emerging economies while Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) countries will hardly show any growth. Apart from the need of energy to support the increased GDP in the developing countries, the push for global electrification will drive the steady growth for power generation. China will be a key player in the future energy demand as Figure 1.2 indicates that they will move toward a more sustainable rate compared to the past.

Figure 1.2 Projected growth in energy consumption. Toe is ton equivalent. * includes biofuels.

Source: Reproduced with permission of BP [2016].

Most energy projections by various organizations follow the trend as depicted in Figure 1.2. There are international initiatives which look at reducing the demand and dependency on fossil fuels. One such initiative is the Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL), which was launched by the UN Secretary‐General in 2011. The SE4ALL has set three main objectives to be achieved by 2030: ensure universal access to modern energy services, double the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency, and double the share of renewable energy in the global context.

1.2.3. Food

There are concerns on whether the world would be able to produce enough food for the growing population. The amount of arable land and water required for agriculture is declining and at the same time has to compete with urbanization and industrialization for the same resources. The most popularly used indicator for measuring and monitoring the world food status is food consumption in kcal/person/day. The world average per capita availability of food for direct human consumption was 2770 kcal/person/day in 2005/2007 (Figure 1.3). This world average is, however, misleading as there are areas where the value falls below 2500 kcal and other areas where it is way above 3000 kcal.

Figure 1.3 Per capita food consumption (kcal/person/day).

Source: Alexandratos and Bruinsma [2012]. Reproduced with permission of FAO.

By 2050, food production in the global context and for developing countries will need to be increased by 60 and 100% respectively from 2005/2007 figures [UNESCO, 2015]. This translates into a 1.1% annual growth rate increment of total world consumption [Alexandratos and Bruinsma, 2012]. The projected values in million tons for some of the major food groups with respect to 2005/2007 figures are illustrated in Figure 1.4. The drivers for increase will mainly result from increasing population and income as well as structural changes in diet (i.e., shifting to a meat‐based diet) and overnutrition.

Figure 1.4 World production and use of major agricultural products (million tons).

Source: Alexandratos and Bruinsma [2012]. Reproduced with permission of FAO.

1.3. SECTORAL INTERACTIONS

Water, energy, and food are interlinked in many ways. Water is required to produce energy and food. Energy is required to produce water and food. Food can be a source of energy (e.g., biofuel). Therefore, action in one sector will have implications on the others.

1.3.1. Water–Energy Interactions

The water intensity in the energy sector varies depending on the choice of technology, source of water, and type of fuel. Water is used for the production of fuels originating from fossils, growing of biomass‐related fuel stocks, and generation of energy (e.g., electricity from fossil fuels). Thermal power plants utilize large amounts of water for cooling, of which a fraction is lost to evaporation depending on the type of cooling system employed. On the other hand, hydropower plants utilize a large area, which in turn increases the surface area of the water body, further facilitating evaporation. In 2010, energy production accounted for 15% (580 BCM of water annually) of global freshwater withdrawals, of which 66 BCM was consumed [Walsh et al., 2015]. In the United States, power plants account for the largest share (41%) of freshwater withdrawal [Union of Concerned Scientists, 2010]. The global energy demand is projected to increase by 35% in 2035, which would increase water withdrawal in the energy sector by 20% and water consumption by 85% [IRENA, 2015]. The life cycle water consumption (gallons/MWh) for some selected electricity generation technologies is illustrated in Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5 Life cycle water consumption for selected electricity generation technologies (gal/MWh).

Source: IRENA [2015], “Renewable Energy in the Water, Energy & Food Nexus.”

Renewable energy is very slowly replacing fossil fuels, especially in the power sector, but it is still projected that 75% of the expected energy increase by 2030 will be from fossil fuels [ADB, 2013]. Renewable energy alternatives may be climate‐change‐friendly but may not be favorable when considering water and land requirements. As illustrated in Figure 1.6, the water requirement for biofuel production is much higher than that required for fossil‐fuel‐based products. The promotion of biofuels in the transport sector through subsidies has led to greater competition for land and water use [ADB, 2013].

Figure 1.6 Water withdrawal and consumption for primary fuel extraction, processing, and transportation.

Source: IRENA [2015], “Renewable Energy in the Water, Energy & Food Nexus.”

Energy is required for the extraction, transportation, and treatment of water. The energy intensity for water will vary depending mainly on the source of water, quality of water, and efficiency of the water system. For example, desalination of seawater would be more energy‐intensive than utilizing surface or groundwater. Surface water was traditionally used for agricultural irrigation but with advances in technologies and inaccessibility to surface water, the use of groundwater has increased steadily. This shift to groundwater use comes with increased energy demand and lowered groundwater levels.

Energy is a dominant cost factor in the provision of water and wastewater facilities with estimates of 55% of water utilities operating budget being attributed to the energy cost [IRENA, 2015]. Water purification for industrial processes and human consumption requires energy and the amount of energy required depends on the source of water. For example, the purification of lake, river, or groundwater consumes less than 1 kWh/m3 of potable water while purification of seawater can be as high as 8 kWh/m3 [IRENA, 2015].

1.3.2. Water–Food Interactions

The accessibility and availability of water determine the agricultural characteristics of a given locality and the world as a whole. Water is necessary for food production, preparation, and consumption while changes in food consumption patterns or agricultural practices can create a strain on water security. Agriculture can be considered as the largest consumer of freshwater supplies, accounting for approximately 70% of consumption [Ooska News, 2011]. Water is not only used for growing food crops (i.e., irrigation) but also for processing, distribution, retailing, and consumption [IRENA, 2015]. Agricultural practices also affect water resources via water pollution through fertilizers and pesticides, which in turn affects agriculture itself, thus forming a vicious cycle. Though agriculture accounts for a large share of freshwater withdrawal, most of the water is returned to the surface or groundwater along with pollutants [IRENA, 2015].

The generation of waste or polluted water is unavoidable whenever food is handled, processed, packed, distributed, or stored. It was estimated that the consumption of water in the food industry in England is around 250 million m3(MCM) for 2006 [Klemes et al., 2008]. The cost incurred during supply and disposal could be minimized by reducing the amount of wastewater, which can also lead to saving the loss of potential revenue.

1.3.3. Energy–Food Interactions

The energy–food interaction is more visible and easily felt in the modern context as the variations in food prices are strongly linked to oil price variations [Bazilian et al., 2011]. This is not surprising as the agri‐food supply chain accounts for 30% of the world’s energy consumption [IRENA, 2015]. The main share of the energy consumed in the food sector is required for activities related to processing, distribution, preparation, and cooking. Energy is also accounted for in energy‐intensive products such as pesticides and fertilizers. High‐yield agriculture is heavily dependent on synthetic nitrogen‐based fertilizers, which are almost entirely produced using natural gas [ADB, 2013].

The growing demand for food will be due to the growing population, improved lifestyle, and further mechanization of the food supply chain. The main challenge in the food sector with meeting the growing demand is not actually an increase in food production but rather a reduction in food wastages. The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) reported that approximately one‐third of edible food produced for human consumption is lost or wasted [IRENA, 2015]. This accounts for a loss in not only embedded energy but also embedded water and contributes to greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.

Food‐processing industries also consume a significant amount of energy for heating and cooling during processing and storage of food products. For example, 20% of energy in the dairy industry is used for cooling and 80% for heating purposes. Energy consumption of the food industry in the United Kingdom is estimated at 126 TWh/year, which is equivalent to 14% of energy consumption in the country [Klemes et al., 2008]. Similarly, the premium energy in the form of biogas can be produced from the effluent of food‐processing plants by running anaerobic digestors. The quality and quantity of gas production depends on the balance of organic materials and process management ranges from 150 to 600 L/kg of volatile solids [Burton and Turner, 2003]. Pure methane has a thermal energy of 53 MJ/kg. Studies show that fuel can be generated from the utilization of organic waste [Bianchi et al., 2006].

1.4. THE NEED FOR THE WATER‐ENERGY‐FOOD (WEF) NEXUS

There are still 1.2 billion people who lack access to electricity, 783 million people without access to potable water, and 842 million people who suffer from chronic hunger [IRENA, 2015]. Developing countries are expected to see a rise in population and consumption in both developing and developed countries is becoming more resource‐intensive. By 2050, it is expected that global energy demand will double, with water and food demand increasing by over 50% [IRENA, 2015]. Climate change impacts such as global temperature increase and extreme weather conditions further compound the challenge of meeting the growing demand.

As the planet approaches the sustainable limit of its resources, competition and scarcity of the resources will become more predominant. There is a likely possibility that economic growth will soon be constrained by shortages of one or more of these resources. Therefore, water security, energy security, and food security have already been on national and international agendas for quite some time.

The amalgamation of water, energy, and food in a “nexus” framework in order to increase resource efficiency can be considered as a necessary way forward in achieving the SDGs. It enables us to take into consideration the impacts of a decision for one sector on itself as well as on the other sectors.

The best case example of a complex interaction of the nexus is the emerging trend of biofuels as an energy source in the transport sector. Biofuel production raises the conflict of the use of limited water and land against growing food for human consumption.

1.5. STRUCTURE OF THIS BOOK

In the context of the need to better understand, operationalize, and practice the nexus approach for resource use efficiency vis‐à‐vis the lack of adequate knowledgebase and publications in the arena, this book aims to contribute to the global debate on WEF nexus through knowledgebase generation. A single volume of the book covers theoretical and/or conceptual aspects of the WEF nexus, ways to overcome operational challenges of the nexus approach to resources management, cases of the nexus approach in practice from different regions of the world, and opinions on the future of the nexus agenda. The book is divided into four sections and 19 chapters. The first section on “understanding the nexus” contains five chapters focusing on the need of a nexus approach; its evolution as a policy and development discourse; its contribution to better water management and limitation; the emergence of a new paradigm in the nexus approach; and the urban nexus. The second section “operationalizing the nexus” contains six chapters focusing on modeling techniques; available tools/models in practice; governing the nexus; the role of international cooperation in operationalizing the nexus; framing nexus cooperation issues in the transboundary context; and cases of energy‐centric operationalization of the nexus. The third section on the theme of “nexus in practice” covers seven chapters and focuses on various types of case studies of WEF nexus in various geographical regions of the world. Finally, the fourth section called “future of the nexus agenda” contains only one chapter focusing on how the nexus approach can help achieve the SDGs or the 2030 Agenda.

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