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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
WAVE AND CURRENT POWER GENERATION Written by two well-known and respected engineers, this exciting new volume is the most up-to-date and comprehensive text on power generation from waves and water currents available today to engineers, scientists, and students, also covering the latest advances in wind power generation. As the world turns further and further away from fossil fuel energy sources, unconventional and renewable sources of energy, such as power generation from water sources and wind energy, are becoming more and more important. Hydropower has been around for decades, but this book suggests new methods that are more cost-effective and less intrusive to the environment for creating power sources from rivers, the tides, and other sources of water. Written by two experts in the field, it also covers wind energy and how it can be more efficiently harnessed. This groundbreaking new volume deals with modern problems of using wind energy, namely, jet currents in the atmosphere and the energy of water flows of rivers, ocean and sea currents, including those caused by tides. Wind and water-based energy sources form an essential part of the renewable energy solution. The engineering measures discussed in this book prove, for example, that by reducing the rate of dissipation of atmospheric surface low-level currents by only one percent, it is possible to provide all of humanity with energy at rates twice the per capita consumption of the wealthiest countries. Whether for the veteran engineer or the engineering student, this book is a must-have for any library. Wave, Wind and Current Power Generation: * Is one of the first books available on wave and current power generation containing information for engineers to use for solving day-to-day problems * Assists engineers in rapidly analyzing problems and finding effective design methods and select mechanical specifications * Provides methods and proven fundamentals of process design for practical application * Helps achieve optimum operations and process conditions and shows how to translate design fundamentals into mechanical equipment specifications * Covers not just wave and current power generation, but also has a section on wind power generation and a comprehensive overview of renewable energy in the world today
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
1 Renewable Energy of the World
2 Conversion of the Energy of Currents
3 Collinear Units and Their Modifications
4 Orthogonal Power Units
4.1 High Speed Orthogonal Turbines in the Infinite Flow
4.2 Efficiency Turbine with Different Parameters
4.3 One and Two Blades Turbines
4.4 Double-Acting Turbine
4.5 Many Blades Turbines with Large Diameter and Control Position of Blades
4.6 General
5 Turbines with Transverse Turbulent Energy Transfer
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Efficiency of Ordinal VAWT – Brake of Flow Within the Aggregate
5.3 New Design with Turbulent Vertical Mixing of Streams
5.4 Conclusion
6 Damless Hydropower and Tidal Power Plants
7 Tidal Power as Basis for Hydrogen Energetic
8 High Jet Power Plant
9 Power Unit with a Controlled Thrust Vector – The Base for a Vehicle of Absolute Cross-Country Capability
10 High Altitude Turbine (HAT): The Future of Wind Energy
Application 1: Development and Adaptation of a Mathematical Model for a Two-Dimensional Calculation of the Flow Around an NACA0021 Airfoil Moving Along a Circular Track*
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Countries where the installed capacity of the wind farm exceeds 1,000 ...
Table 1.2
Table 1.3
Table 1.4 Maximum power (kW)/optimal speed (rpm) six-tier a single blade turbine...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 The values of the integral J characterizing the relative unit drag.
Table 3.2
Table 3.3 Maximum values of power factors.
Table 3.4
Table 3.5
Table 3.6
Table 3.7
Table 3.8
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Test results of a single-blade wind turbine in the TsAGI wind tunnel.
Chapter 5
Table 5.1
Chapter 6
Table 6.1
Table 6.2
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Preface
Begin Reading
Application 1
Index
Also of Interest
End User License Agreement
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Scrivener Publishing
100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J
Beverly, MA 01915-6106
Publishers at Scrivener
Martin Scrivener ([email protected])
Phillip Carmical ([email protected])
Wave, Wind and Current Power Generation
Victor M. Lyatkher
and
Ziaur Rahman
This edition first published 2022 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA © 2022 Scrivener Publishing LLC
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
ISBN 9781119829300
Cover image: Green Turbine Background Image: Korn Vitthayanukarun | Dreamstime.com Wave: Leigh Prather | Dreamstime.com
Cover design by Kris Hackerott
Set in size of 11pt and Minion Pro by Manila Typesetting Company, Makati, Philippines
Printed in the USA
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Preface
The book deals with modern problems of using wind energy – low-level and high-level (jet) currents in the atmosphere and the energy of water flows of rivers (without dams), ocean and sea currents, including those caused by tides. These areas (air and water flow energy) taken together do not solve the problem of using renewable, environmentally friendly energy sources, but they form an essential part of it. The energy of these flows in elemental, natural conditions passes from one form to another and dissipates into heat. The engineering measures discussed in this book aim to convert some of the energy of flows into electricity, thereby reducing the natural rate of energy dissipation of these flows. It turns out that by reducing the rate of dissipation of atmospheric surface low-level currents by only 1%, it is possible to provide all of humanity with energy at rates twice the per capita consumption of the wealthiest countries.
The physical laws underlying the considered flow energy conversion schemes are equally implemented to water and air flows. Therefore, it is natural to combine the issues of calculations and modeling of wind and hydroelectric units into a single section. There is a lot in common in the schematic diagrams of power plants. In contrast, specific design solutions due to the considerable differentiation in densities and flow rates are different. In addition to general approaches, the book describes real projects in the field of wind and tidal energy. Lastly, this book discusses the future of wind energy: high altitude turbines (HATs). Unlike the jet stream turbine it can harness wind energy from a wider wind band. HATs have been on trial for the last few years with limited commercial success. We describe HAT technology in detail with two case studies. It has proven added benefits over conventional wind turbines and all other renewable sources of energy.
1Renewable Energy of the World
“All over the hill... there were wind turbines of gigantic dimensions... the wheels of wind turbines rotated noisily in the gusty wind...”
Herbert D. Wells, When the Sleeper Wakes, 1899
“Wind power promises a clean and free source of electricity... The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) aims to see 5% of our electricity produced by wind turbines in 2010...A little research, however, reveals that wind power does not, in fact, live up to the claims made by its advocates..., that its impact on the environment and people’s lives is far from benign, and that with such a poor record and prospect, the money spent on it could be much more effectively directed.”
A Problem with Wind Power
by Eric Rosenbloom
http://www.aweo.org/ProblemWithWind.html
Renewable energy sources known to modern mankind are associated with solar radiation reaching the Earth, and with the mutual asymmetry of the arrangement of the orbits of the planets, primarily of the Moon relative to the Earth and the Earth relative to the Sun. Solar radiation can be directly converted into thermal or electrical energy, but, in addition, it forms all biological energy sources, as well as atmospheric and oceanic thermal flows and the cycle of river and ground waters. The asymmetry of the planetary orbits provides a harmonic change in gravitational forces, causing deformations in the earth’s crust, long waves in the atmosphere, seas and oceans, manifested in the regular rise and fall of the water level, especially noticeable in bays and straits. These changes in the water level are naturally accompanied by flows filling the respective bay in one phase of the tide, and emptying it in the other phase.
Wind energy and water energy directly related to solar radiation and the presence of the earth’s atmosphere are the most ancient energy sources mastered by human society. If Noah’s Ark really existed, then it probably moved under sails and oars. The mill driven by the force of the wind or the flow of water has been grinding grain in Persia as early as 200 years before the Common Era. Even earlier, wind turbines and water wheels were used in China. In Europe, wind turbines appeared in the 8th century. The practical development of wind energy as a source of electrical energy began only at the end of the 19th century. The first 12-kW wind turbine (Fig. 1.1) was built by Charles Brush in 1888 in the Cleveland area (Ohio, USA). It worked without any problems for almost 20 years.
This unit echoed the ideas of using active wind pressure, incorporated into the design of old windmills. They worked almost independently on the shape of the blades (wings) moving slower than the wind, and the efficiency of using wind energy was very low.
Fig. 1.1 Charles Brush’s Wind Turbine. Cleveland City, USA, 1888.
The rapid development of aerodynamics at the beginning of the 20th century, associated primarily with aircraft construction, affected the theory and practice of using the energy of free water and air flows. The simple, but very important results of German scientist A. Betz and Russian professor N. E. Zhukovsky determined the efficiency limits of wind turbines and indicated the ways of their optimization—the blades should have well-streamlined profiles and move faster than the flow. A 100-kW first large wind turbine having a special aerodynamic design was built in Crimea near Balaclava City in 1931 (Fig. 1.2).
By 1936, a new project, a 5000-kW wind turbine, was designed in Russia, which, however, was not implemented, and the wind energy line in Russia itself was assigned to the section of agricultural production, where it stalled. The situation was not much better in the United States after the failure with the Putnam-Smith project; the said project led to the construction of a 1250 kW wind turbine in 1941, which collapsed on 23 March, 1945, because of having produced wind lower than what was estimated. Consequently, the interest in wind energy was lost for almost 40 years.
Fig. 1.2 High-speed wind power unit. 100 kW. Balaclava City, Crimea, USSR, 1931.
The energy of tides compares favorably with the energy of wind and that of oceanic or sea flows of other origin, by its high predictability. Although the height of the tides and the shape of the smoothed seagram at each fixed point do not remain constant, these changes are well predicted by modern methods. Attempts to harness the energy of tides in a variety of forms have been made since ancient times. Engineering initiatives in the last 100 years have been aimed at creating and using the static pressure occurring on the barrier blocking the mouth of the sea bay with high tides. Relevant projects based on the experience of river hydropower were put forward in Canada, the USA, England, France, and Russia. Finally, in 1936, the construction of a tidal power plant (TPP) of Kwodi (USA) began with a traditional dam, a hydroelectric power station, spillways and all the rest of the set of structures and equipment typical for a river hydroelectric power station. This attempt, dubbed “economic madness,” was soon abandoned. In the next 50 years, four more TPPs with a traditional set of hydraulic structures were nevertheless built. These were TPPs Rance (France, 1967), Kislogubskaya (USSR, 1968), Annapolis (Canada, 1984), Jiangxian (China, 1985), which, despite various new technological methods of construction, turned out to be not as effective as estimated and very expensive. As a result, practical interest in this field remained stifled for a long time.
A noticeable revival in the field of tidal energy has been observed in recent years, when the Russian technology for the use of floating power units almost completely equipped in the factory and transported to the installation site has been generally accepted; experience has been accumulated in the study of orthogonal turbines, the operation of which does not depend on the direction of flow and, most importantly, there were ideas to move away from the traditions of pressure river hydropower and directly use the energy of tidal flows.
It is important that, with the new technology of using tides, a system of several TPPs can provide a guaranteed basic power even without external storage devices, although storage elements are needed to fully utilize the energy of the tides.
According to this principle, with free-flow collinear turbines resembling traditional wind turbines, the first TPPs of a new generation have already been built in Devon Coast (England, 2003, Fig. 1.3) and in Hammerfest strom (Norway, 2004) with 300 kW turbines each.
Fig. 1.3 Hydraulic unit MCT in repair and maintenance position. Devon Coast, 2003. 300 kW.
The costs of these pioneering facilities turned out to be so high (in Norway, for example, about 11 million US dollars per vehicle) that plans to expand work in this area and create a large TPP (Fig. 1.4) have not yet been set into motion.
We hope that the situation will change with new, orthogonal turbines in combination with a new technology of using tidal energy and floating block technology for the construction of TPPs.
The large-scale use of any renewable sources was constrained by a number of general technical and economic reasons:
— high degree of dependence on natural factors;
— lack of confidence in the perfection of available technologies;
— large initial capital investments;
— low level of world prices for fossil fuels;
— relatively low share of these sources in the balance of energy resources consumption.
The development of alternative energy sources was understood by many people as a kind of additional source for a niche market, such as for the agriculture industry. In addition to that, progress in this sector was also hampered by the insufficient purchasing power of the population and the lack of funds of local authorities for investing in facilities, which was most typical, for example, for Russia during almost the entire 20th century.
Fig. 1.4 Tidal power plant project based on the unit at Hammerfest strom.
However, the undeniable advantages such as lack of fuel costs, and environmental safety which the inexhaustible resources have, are a favorable basis for the recognition of alternative energy and assure investors a quick return on promising projects.
The search for an environmentally friendly alternative to the traditional energy industry prevailing today in the context of special public attention to the problem of environmental protection is of great importance also because energy facilities operating on natural fuel negatively affect the environment by polluting the air and water basins, causing acid rains, etc.; this leads to their making a significant adverse contribution to worsening the greenhouse effect.
The use of renewable energy from water currents on a large scale has taken place since the mid-19th century in the form of the construction of dams and diversion hydroelectric power plants, and since the mid-20th century in the form of the construction of tidal power plants with a traditional pressure front cutting off the bay from the sea. In the USA, Italy, South Korea, Russia, and Canada, a number of projects have been implemented to use tidal flows, without creating a pressure front. The authors also have proposals for Bangladesh. We usually considered layouts with collinear turbines, similar to traditional high-speed wind turbines with a horizontal axis, as well as layouts with orthogonal units of the Darrieus type. A comparison of economic efficiency, which was carried out for turbines of the same diameter and at a tidal flow velocity of up to 2 m/s, turned out to be in favor of the traditional solution with a pressure front. Blocks of tidal power plants with orthogonal turbines were proposed by V. Lyatkher in 1981; independently and in a slightly different form, similar layouts were proposed by Barry Davis and promoted by Blue Energy Canada Inc. Their detailed studies were carried out in Russia and small, full-scale samples were built. Orthogonal turbines in floating blocks can qualitatively change the situation with the development of tidal energy, but an even greater effect is expected from the use of multiblade, multistage orthogonal turbines installed in oceanic or river flows without creating a pressure front. These turbines can have linear generators with opposite motion of inductors and a squirrel cage rotor. For water turbines, this is especially important, since the flow rates and, accordingly, the speeds of the turbine blades are small here, and the doubling of the speed of crossing the magnetic fields in the generator, achieved by the counter rotation of adjacent turbine tiers, significantly increases the efficiency of the machines.
The material consumption of modern conventional hydropower construction is, on average, 82 kg/kW of metal (mainly steel) and 1.5 m3/kW of concrete. The material consumption of promising power plants using the energy of air or water flows is not expected to exceed the indicated values. With the development of ways to improve the quality of the energy generated, attention to these sources and the scale of their use in new technological forms should steadily increase.
Over the past 25 years, wind energy has been the fastest-growing energy sector. For example, in the USA, it was the case that the wind power industry has developed at the fastest pace since 1990—the output of wind power plants has increased, on average, by 22.6% per year. From July 1998 to June 1999, wind power plants with a total capacity of 1,075 MW were commissioned in the United States, including 895 MW at new ones, and 180 MW at those under reconstruction. This required a capital investment of about one billion dollars—at the time about $1000/kW. In 2006, 2,454 MW was commissioned (an increase of 27%) with an investment volume of about $4 billion ($1,630/kW). The total installed capacity of US wind farms at the end of 2006 was 11,603 MW. The average annual output of these wind farms was expected to be about 31 billion kWh which corresponds to an average capacity of 30% of the installed capacity. The actual average capacity of actually operating wind farms in California, which started the mass construction of wind farms earlier than others, is only 24%. The observed rapid development of systemic, large-scale energy, had a real economic basis—the cost of energy on the bus bars of wind farms in areas with moderate wind is now in the United States from 3 to 6 cents per kWh. This is almost the same as the cost of energy at gas stations (3.9 to 4.4 cents/kWh) which is slightly lower than coal-fired power plants (4.8 to 5.5 cents/kWh) and significantly lower than all other types of modern power plants. According to the forecasts of the American Wind Energy Association (AWEA), the cost of energy at wind farms could drop to 2.5 cents/kWh. Globally, the growth rate of the wind power park in the first years of the new century turned out to be even higher than in the United States; in 2005, wind turbines with a total capacity of 11,769 MW were installed, which was 43.4% greater than in 2004. The total capacity of wind farms by the end of 2005 reached 59,322 MW which was 25% greater than the total capacity as at the end of 2004. The year 2006 was a record year for the world wind power industry. The growth of installed capacity reached 32%, and the total wind power plant capacity at the end of 2006, according to GWEC, was 74,233 MW. Sales of equipment for wind power plants in 2005 reached $14 billion, so the average cost of wind turbines (excluding transportation, installation, and commissioning costs) was about $1,200 per kW of installed capacity. There are GWEC forecasts, according to which after 2020 12 to 16% of the world’s energy needs will be covered by wind energy using those design solutions that are already widespread at the present time. These wind farms are expected to have a total installed capacity of over 1,254 GW with an average annual capacity of 27.8% of the installed capacity.
Wind power continues to develop rapidly worldwide. About 6,500 MW new wind turbines were installed around the world in 2001, with their annual sales of about $7 billion. This was a large international increase in wind energy facilities, well above the results in 2000 (3,800 MW) and 1999 (3,900 MW). At the end of 2001, the global wind power capacity was about 24,000 MW. Germany alone has set an international and national record by introducing new wind power capacities exceeding 2,600 MW during 2001. In 2005, this figure was the second highest in the world (after the USA), but the commissioned capacity amounted to only 1,808 MW (it was 2,431 MW in the USA). By the end of 2003, the installed capacities of wind power plants in Germany exceeded 12,000 MW; by the end of 2005, 18,428 MW and, by 2020, energy generation from wind turbines should cover up to 20 to 30% of the country’s total energy demand. The experience of Germany, Denmark, and Spain clearly shows that wind energy can reliably provide from 10% to 25% (or more) of the energy supply of a particular region or country.
In the United States, 2001 was a breakthrough year for wind power with previous national records left far behind; nearly 1,700 MW of new capacity was commissioned at a cost of $1.7 billion. New installations introduced in the United States at that time accounted for nearly a third of the world’s wind power capacity commissioned in 2001.
Increase in power capacity in 2001 (in MW)
70% of the world’s wind energy now comes from Europe. European countries accounted for 2/3 of the 2001 growth.
In a couple of years, the commissioning of capacities in the USA significantly exceeded the indicators of other countries; however, by 2006, the total capacity of US wind turbines was half of that in Germany. This important difference was due to the temporary withdrawal of the US administration from some of the benefits provided to wind turbine manufacturers and wind farm owners. After the restoration of the “tax umbrella,” the rapid growth of wind farms in the United States continued. The same happened in Denmark. The government’s refusal to subsidize wind energy has virtually halted its development. The global wind energy market is still dominated by the “big five” countries, each of which has a capacity of over 1,000 MW: Germany, USA, Spain, Denmark, and India. In 2006, there were ten such countries.
The number of countries with wind power capacities of several hundred megawatts was increasing, and by 2006 it had already approached two dozen. Table 1.2 shows the increments and cumulative capacity in the five largest wind user countries mentioned in 2000 and 2001, and at the end of 2005.
The data provided below show that the fantastic triumph of wind energy in the world is still, to a large extent, based (alas!) on the political decisions of the leadership of the countries mentioned. The state of matters in small countries like Denmark simulates a possible situation in the world — the termination (or absence) of political and financial state support immediately stops the development of wind energy.
Table 1.1 Countries where the installed capacity of the wind farm exceeds 1,000 MW.
Name of the country Installed capacity of WPP, MW (% of the amount worldwide)
Germany 18,428 31
Spain 10,027 16.9
USA 9,149 15.4
India 4,430 7.5
Denmark 3,122 5.3
Italy 1,717 16.9
United Kingdom 1,353 2.3
China 1,260 2.1
Japan 1,231 16.9
Netherlands 1,219 2.3
Total for 10 countries 51,936 87.5
Worldwide 59,304 100
Table 1.2
Main wind energy markets (by capacity commissioned, MW)
2000
End of 2020
2001
End of
2020
2005
Growth
Grand total
Growth
Grand total
Germany
1.669
6113
2.659
8.750
18428
USA
53
2566
1.695
4.261
9149
Spain
713
2502
835
3337
10028
Denmark
552
2300
117
2417
3122
India
90
1167
240
1407
4430
The average increase in capacity (MW/year) over 5 years (from 2001 to 2005) and the increase in 2005 for the indicated countries are as follows:
Country Average growth over 5 years Growth in 2005
Germany
1,935
1,808
USA
977.6
2,431
Spain
1,338
1,764
Denmark
141
4
India
604.6
1,430
Let’s take a closer look at the situation with wind energy in developed countries.
Germany. As reported by German Bundesverband Windenergie (BWE) (http://www.wind-energie.de/informationen/informationen.htm), in 2001 Germany set a record of 2,659 MW. This country retains its world leadership in wind energy, having 11,500 wind turbines by 2003, with a total capacity of 8,750 MW, and by 2006, 18,428 MW. Wind power employs 35,000 people. In 2003, Germany received just under 3.5% of its total electricity from wind power, but the adverse effects of pulsating wind power were not noticeable. The largest number of wind power plants was located in the northern state of Lower Saxony. In 2003, there were 2,426 MW plants operating there. Schleswig-Holstein (1,555 MW) remains the leading region in terms of the proportion of electricity generated by wind energy (28%), followed by Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania (21%), Saxony-Anhalt (11%), North Saxony (10%), and Brandenburg (9%). Among the new wind farms introduced in Germany, the 105 MW Sintfeld wind farm near Paderborn ranks first as the largest onshore facility. It consists of 65 1.6 MW turbines and will generate electricity for 70,000 typical European homes. Germany is also taking steps to harness its offshore wind energy potential. Turbine manufacturer Nordex has finalized an agreement with Winkra-Energie GmbH for the supply of seventy 5MW turbines for the 350MW offshore facility Nordliche Pommersche Bucht located east of the Rugen Island. The first phase of construction was completed in 2006. Two more development stages of the same size are planned, as a result of which the capacity of the entire project will reach almost 1,000 MW with a capacity of 3.6 billion kilowatt-hours of electricity annually. The total investment will be approximately EUR 1.53 billion including all costs (EUR 1,530/kW). The rotor diameter of each turbine is 112 m. Eight such turbines have been manufactured and tested.
Spain. With a wind power capacity of 3,337 MW, Spain ranks second in Europe after Germany in terms of new capacity. According to the Spanish Association of Renewable Energy Companies (APPA), in 2001 it commissioned 835 MW of wind power, i.e., there was a 33% increase. Spain had planned to receive 12% of its electricity from renewable sources by 2010. By 2006, wind turbines with a total capacity of 10,027 MW were already in operation (1,764 MW was commissioned in 2005). As wind energy grows rapidly, its development is starting to struggle with power transmission bottlenecks and grid connection regulations. The issue of the accumulation and redistribution of energy is becoming increasingly more urgent. The first practical steps have been taken to create the “WPP + hydrogen” complexes.
Denmark. The total number of new wind turbines commissioned in Denmark in 2001 was estimated to be at 117 MW, i.e., three times less than that in the previous year. By 2006, the problem had become even more acute. In contrast, in 2003, Denmark was the country with the largest share of electricity generated using wind power; in 2001, the share was more than 15%; in 2002, 27% of electricity consumed was provided by renewable sources, which significantly exceeded the country’s targets, constituting 20% by 2003.
Long a leader in this field, Denmark had been facing the challenge of its wind power by the new conservative government. The country’s leadership announced that it would cut subsidy programs for the development of renewable energy sources, including programs for wind energy. This side of the national budget was made public in January 2002. The cut put an end to 20 years of funding for international standardization, certification, and selection of optimal wind turbine types. Further announced steps include ending government support for offshore wind turbines and reducing environmental incentives for energy from existing wind turbines. This turn of government policy had hurt the Danish wind power industry, in particular calling into question its leadership in basic research and production of relatively cheap large wind turbines flooding the global market. Wind farm growth in Denmark stopped!
Great Britain. The increase in wind power capacity in the UK in 2001 was 64.6 MW, and in 2005 it was 446 MW. According to the British Wind Energy Association (BWEA), the total UK wind capacity in 2002 was 473.6 MW, generating 1.24 billion kilowatt-hours annually, which met 0.37% of the country’s electricity needs. By the end of 2005, the total capacity of wind turbines had reached 1,353 MW, e.g., it approached 1% of the total capacity of the country’s energy system. In the UK, the country with the largest wind energy potential in Europe, investment in wind energy remained modest. In 2002, about 200 MW was commissioned, and in 2005, that number rose to 446 MW, which was a record for the UK wind power industry.
Larger proposals are slated for longer periods. The Crown Estate, an owner of the seabed in UK territorial waters, approved the placement of 13 offshore wind turbines in September 2001. The total capacity of these 13 wind parks was expected to be between 1,000 and 1,500 MW. Engineering firm AMEC and atomic energy company British Energy, in December 2001, revealed their intention to build what was expected to be the world’s largest wind farm. This was a project on the Isle of Lewis in the Hebrides. According to the London Times, the project had a total capacity of about 2,000 MW. British utility firm Powergen had announced that it was looking forward to building a wind farm which could have a capacity of about 500 MW, at the Thames estuary near London.
