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- Herausgeber: Geddes and Grosset
- Kategorie: Bildung
- Sprache: Englisch
- Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015
An invaluable reference companion that gives guidance on English language, with help on spelling, grammar and usage. Helpful for formal communication, email and letter writing, with practical guidance on usage, style, sentence construction, writing and composing letters.
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WEBSTER’S
ENGLISH
LANGUAGE
COMPANION
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
What is Good English?
GRAMMAR
The Sentence and the Paragraph
The Sentence
Minor sentences
Major sentences
Subject and predicate
Subject
Predicate
Object
Direct object
Indirect object
Complement
Punctuation of sentences
Types of sentences
Statements
Negative sentences
Questions
Yes-no questions
Tag questions
Wh-questions
Alternative questions
Exclamatory questions
Rhetorical questions
Question by tone of voice
Directives
Exclamations
Simple sentences
Multiple sentences
Compound sentences
Complex sentences
The paragraph
Clauses, Phrases and Phrasal Verbs
Clauses
Main clauses
Punctuation and main clauses
Subordinate clauses
Subordinate adverbial clauses
Adverbial clause of time
Adverbial clause of place
Adverbial clause of purpose
Adverbial clause of reason
Adverbial clause of result
Adverbial clause of condition
Adverbial clause of manner
Adverbial clause of concession
Comparative clauses
Relative clauses
Types of relative clause
Defining relative clause
Non-defining relative clause
Punctuation in relative clauses
Prepositions in relative clauses
Noun or nominal clauses
Comment clauses
Phrases
Noun or nominal phrases
Adjective phrases
Adverb phrases
Preposition phrases
Participial phrases
Phrasal Verbs
Position of object in phrasal verbs
Nouns and Pronouns
Nouns
Common and proper nouns
Common nouns
Proper nouns
Concrete and abstract nouns
Concrete nouns
Abstract nouns
Countable and uncountable nouns
Countable nouns
Uncountable nouns
Verbal nouns
Collective nouns
Singular and plural forms of nouns
Regular singular forms of nouns
Regular plural forms of nouns
Irregular plural forms of nouns
Foreign plural forms of nouns
Unchanging plural form
Nouns used only in the plural form
Gender of nouns
Dual gender
Feminine forms
Person in compound nouns
Compound nouns
Plural forms of compound nouns
Nouns and noun phrases in apposition
Pronouns
Personal pronouns
I and we: the first person personal pronoun
You: the second person personal pronoun
He, she, it and they: the third person personal pronouns
Possessive pronouns
Reflexive pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns
Demonstrative pronouns
Indefinite pronouns
Distributive pronouns
Interrogative pronouns
Relative pronouns
Adjectives and Determiners
Adjectives
Gradable and non-gradable adjectives
Position of adjectives
Attributive adjectives
Predicative adjectives
Post-modifiers
Qualitative adjectives
Classifying adjectives
Color adjectives
Number adjectives
Emphatic adjectives
Interrogative adjectives
Demonstrative adjectives
Possessive adjectives
Compound adjectives
Order of adjectives
Adjectives used as nouns
Adjective or adverb?
Comparative forms of adjectives
Comparative and number of syllables
Irregular comparatives
No comparative form
Superlative forms
Irregular superlatives
No superlative form
Determiners
Definite and indefinite articles
Definite article
Indefinite article
Demonstrative determiners
Possessive determiners
Indefinite determiners
Number determiner
Verbs
Regular verbs
Irregular verbs
Categories of irregular verbs
Tense
Present tense
Simple present tense
Continuous present tense
Past tense
Simple past tense
Continuous past tense
Perfect tense
Present perfect tense
Continuous present perfect tense
Past perfect tense
Continuous past perfect tense
Future tense
Traditional grammar
Modern usage
Other ways of referring to the future
Be about to, or be going to, do something
Continuous future tense
Future perfect tense
Future perfect continuous tense
Mood
Indicative mood
Imperative mood
Subjunctive mood
Voice
Active voice
Passive voice
Transitive and intransitive verbs
Linking verbs
Primary auxiliary verbs
Modal auxiliary verbs
Concord
Parts of the verb
The infinitive
Participles
Present participle
Past participle
Adverbs, Prepositions and Conjunctions
Adverbs
Adverbs of time
Adverbs of frequency
Adverbs of duration
Adverbs of place
Adverbs of manner
Adverbs of degree
Adverbs of emphasis
Interrogative adverbs
Prepositions
Simple prepositions
Complex prepositions
Conjunctions
Coordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions
Subordinating conjunctions introducing adverbial clauses
PUNCTUATION
Punctuation Marks
Full stop
The full stop and abbreviations
The full stop in email and website addresses
Question mark
Exclamation mark
Capital letters
Lower-case letters
Comma
The comma as separating device in lists
The comma as a separating device in a list of adjectives
Commas and relative clauses
Commas and subordinate clauses
The comma as a separating device in clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions
The comma as separating device with initial phrases
The comma with terms of address
The comma with question tags
The comma with interjections
The comma used in pairs as a means of separation or parenthesis
The comma with nouns or phrases in apposition
The comma and numbers
Brackets
Dash
Semicolon
The semicolon as a link
The semicolon as a separation device in lists
The semicolon as separation device in lists of word groups already containing commas
The semicolon as a separation device before certain adverbs
Colon
The colon as a separating device in a two-part sentence
The colon as a linking device or introduction
Hyphen
The hyphen used to join words or elements of words
The hyphen in word-breaks
Quotation marks
Quotation marks and direct speech
Quotation marks and paragraphs
Quotation marks and dialogue
Other uses of quotation marks
Quotation marks and titles
Quotation marks and a direct quotation
Apostrophe
Asterisk
Three-dot ellipsis
Oblique
USAGE
STYLE AND VOCABULARY
Sentence Style
Sentence length
Sentence structure
Compound sentences
Complex sentences
Vocabulary
Active and passive vocabulary
Increasing your word power
Dictionaries and thesauruses
Choosing the right words
Keep it simple
Register
Words liable to be confused
Adding Variety
Similes
Idioms
Clichés
WRITTEN ENGLISH
Now and Into the Future
Fax
Word processing
Text messaging
SMS
EMS
MMS
Texting hints
Smileys
Letter-writing
Getting organized
Whether or not to write a letter
Social letters
Business and personal business letters
Handwritten or typed/wordprocessed?
Handwriting
Writing tools
Writing paper
Envelopes
Presentation and layout
Blocked, indented and semi-blocked styles
Fully blocked style
Fully indented style
Semi-blocked style
Pre-printed stationery
Designing your stationery
Continuation sheets
Formatting continuation sheets
Overall appearance
A good start
Spacing and line length
Alignment
Which typeface?
Paragraphs
Highlighting and structure
The individual elements of a formal or business letter
Return address
Sender’s contact information
Reference line
Date
Special instructions
Attention line
Inside address
Courtesy titles
Salutation
Complimentary close
Signature
Personal contact information
Enclosures
Copies
Postscripts
Envelopes and addresses
Writing addresses
Automated mail sorting
Addressing guidance for different countries
United Kingdom
United States
Philippines
Canada
Australia
France
Italy
Spain
Germany
Faxes and their cover sheets
Letter content and style
Sample letters
SPOKEN ENGLISH
Everyday Language
Colloquialisms
Slang words
Contracted forms
Get, do, etc
Clichés in spoken English
Words liable to be mispronounced
BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH
The Same but Different
Spelling differences
Different words same meaning
Grammar and usage
Verbs
Prepositions
INTRODUCTION
What is Good English?
Never has there been a greater need for students to make sure that they write and speak good English.
This is true of people in countries where English is the native language, and of people in countries where English is a second or foreign language. In countries where English is the language of business, a marked emphasis is now being placed on the need for competent communicative skills in the workplace. Many employers complain that a significant number of the new graduates whom they recruit for jobs are sadly lacking in these skills. This is true even of young people who have just graduated from some of the top universities.
You might think that grammar and spelling are trivial matters. You might think it’s just not that important to your line of work or study. You might think that as long as the facts are correct, what does it matter if the grammar is bad? However, poor grammar reflects badly on you—you might miss out on a job opportunity, your essay or exam marks might suffer, you might not be taken seriously when making a complaint, you could even put off a potential Internet date—all because of terrible grammar and sloppy spelling! Any public display of poor language skills can give a very bad impression of even the most intelligent person.
Although life in the modern world is generally less formal than it was and people, both in a personal, academic and business context, write considerably fewer letters than formerly, people frequently have to demonstrate their powers of communication in the classroom and the workplace. For example, they might have to write a report for presentation to a whole class, give an oral presentation in a tutorial setting.
When it comes to correspondence, emails may have taken over from formal letters to a large extent. However, it reflects badly on a person if the emails are sloppily written and full of errors. The computer spellchecker can only help you out to some extent.
At the same time, the importance of English as a world language continues to grow. It gained supremacy when Britain was a major colonial power and it has gradually extended its influence since then. English is the language of business, marketing and other important areas of life. There are many versions of Standard English spoken around the world: British, American, Canadian, Australian, Indian, South African, New Zealand and more. All have rich variations in vocabulary, syntax, semantics and grammar. Already, more and more people in other countries are anxious to learn English and there is an ever-increasing demand both for teachers of English as a second or foreign language and for effective teaching materials in these areas.
But what is good English, or even correct, English? Don’t those of us who learn it as a native tongue at our mother’s knee automatically speak and write it correctly? Alas, the answer to that is no. Native speakers obviously have much less of a struggle learning to speak good English than learners of English as a foreign or second language do, but the process is not effort-free.
Good or correct English is often regarded as grammatical English. Grammar has been variously described as the framework on which ideas are hung, and the cement that binds words together. Basically, grammar refers to the rules that govern the way a language works. Society cannot operate without rules and neither can language.
The prospect of learning grammar, or brushing it up, is more likely to depress those whose native tongue is English. Learners of English as a second or foreign language are used to having to come to grips with the grammar of their own languages and will not protest so much. English is not alone in having grammar!
Often, the first time that native English speakers come into contact with written rules of grammar is when they come to learn a foreign language. The language is broken up into vocabulary, parts of speech, regular and irregular verbs, tenses, agreements and structures etc. The rules of this foreign language seem more explicit, more “grammatical” than that of our own, but, of course, our own language has such rules, it’s just that we don’t notice them.
It might be surprising to hear that, if your first language is English, you do already know some English grammar. You can speak the language, you understand others, you can respond and make yourself understood. For example, we automatically know the difference in structure between a question (Can I have that?) and a command (Give me that!). You started to learn English grammar as an infant without consciously knowing you were doing so. You learned what were the correct structures and combinations of words through hearing others speak and—once you learned how to read—through the written word. Perhaps what you don’t know about are the prescriptive rules that have been devised to describe English grammar. They used to be taught by rote in schools but emphasis on this side of teaching English has long since died out.
Spoken and written English are enormously different in structure and formality. Spoken discourse is often disjointed, with sentence fragments used in preference to complete sentences that would perhaps sound uncomfortably formal, yet it is easily understood. Even the world’s most articulate and witty people do not always speak using perfect, prescriptively ordered, “grammatically correct” English. Speech also employs stress, rhythm and intonation as an important part of conveying meaning. However, our written words need this structure and formality to convey meaning as accurately and unambiguously as possible; and our spoken words can still sound “wrong” and give a bad impression if the formal rules are not followed.
Grammar has, over the years, got rather a bad press. Although it is now often seen as something valuable that should be brought back into prominence, it is also often seen as something essentially difficult and boring. This is not the case. It is logical and can be of great interest. Furthermore, you really have to get to grips with it if you want to improve your English.
In order to speak and write effectively and confidently in English, you must know something about its structure. This book gives a clear explanation of the nuts and bolts of this structure.
GRAMMAR
The Sentence and the Paragraph
THE SENTENCE
The most important unit of structure is the sentence. Most of the other grammatical units are parts that go together to form a sentence. However, that leaves us with the question “What is a sentence?” and there has been some dispute about the definition. The traditional view of the sentence seems as good a jumping-off point as any from which to look at the sentence: a unit of language that can stand alone and make sense.
The following are all complete in themselves, make sense and are, therefore, all sentences:
We ran.
The boy kicked the ball.
They played hard and they won.
Look over there!
Minor sentences
The following examples are also all complete in themselves and make sense and are, therefore, sentences. They are known as minor sentences or irregular sentences.
They are called minor sentences because they lack some of the other usual grammatical features of a sentence. For example, a minor sentence often lacks a subject and a predicate (seehere). Minor sentences are most common in spoken English and in conversation in literary fiction. They are also common in certain kinds of written English such as notices, labels and adverts. The following are examples of minor sentences:
No!
Nonsense!
How terrible!
What a view!
Good try!
Taxi!
No entry.
Well done!
Once bitten, twice shy.
Major sentences
Other sentences are known as major sentences or regular sentences. A major sentence usually has a subject and predicate (see below). The following are examples of major sentences:
We ran.
The boy kicked the ball.
Mother baked a cake.
She leaves tomorrow.
They are coming to town.
She studied hard, but she failed the exam.
I called him when I arrived.
Subject and predicate
Basically, a sentence is a combination of two grammatical units—the subject and the predicate.
Subject
The subject of a sentence refers to what the sentence is about, often the person or thing that carries out the action of the verb. The subject usually gives a clear idea about what the sentence is about. The subject can be:
a noun—either a common noun or a proper noun (seehere)
verbal noun (seehere)
a noun phrase (seehere, here and here)
a pronoun (seehere)
a subordinate clause (seehere)
an infinitive (seehere).
NB: Dummy subject
A dummy subject sometimes has no intrinsic meaning but is inserted to maintain a balanced grammatical structure.
In the sentences
It has started to rain.
and
It is nearly midnight.
the word It is a dummy subject.
In the sentences
There is nothing else to say.
and
There is no reason for his behavior.
the word There is a dummy subject.
In the following sentences the underlined words form the subject of the sentence and the subjects are nouns:
Dogs need a lot of exercise.
Children play in the park.
Money is extremely important to him.
Marriage is not for him.
Accommodation is expensive in that area.
People are beginning to leave.
Jane is giving a party.
Jim has resigned.
Paris is the capital of France.
Mountaineering can be dangerous.
Painting can be a form of relaxation.
In the following sentences the underlined words form the subject of the sentence and the subjects are noun phrases:
A heatwave has been forecast.
Several unhappy employees have complained to management.
The large black dog bit the child.
Those terrible floods killed many people.
Representatives from the firm have apologized for the grave error.
James, my brother-in-law and dear friend, has just died.
Hotel accommodation is expensive in that area.
In the following sentences the underlined words form the subject of the sentence and the subjects are pronouns:
They were found guilty.
We lost the battle.
You have passed the exam.
He denied the charge.
She lost her wedding ring.
It has broken down again.
She is giving a party.
In the following sentences the underlined words form the subject of the sentence and the subjects are subordinate clauses:
Who she was remained a mystery.
Why he left has not yet been revealed.
What he says is not true.
When he will go has not yet been decided.
In the following sentences the underlined words form the subject of the sentence and the subjects are infinitives:
To do that would be unforgivable.
To get there is going to be very difficult.
To marry young is her main aim.
To care for the children should be your principal concern.
To take up mountaineering can be dangerous.
NB: Directives
In sentences which are directives (seehere), the subject often does not appear but is implied.
In the sentences
Get this out of here.
and
Lend me that pen for a minute.
the implied subject is you.
Predicate
The predicate refers to the part of a sentence or clause that gives information about the subject. It is basically all the parts of a clause or sentence that are not contained in the subject. It can either be a single verb or a number of elements.
Thus in the sentence
The little girl fell.
the word fell is the predicate of the sentence.
Similarly, in the sentence
The tired old man slept soundly.
the words slept soundly form the predicate of the sentence.
Similarly, in the sentence
The tired old man slept like a top.
the words slept like a top form the predicate of the sentence.
In the following sentences the underlined words form the predicate of the sentence:
Jane fainted.
Peter was rich and powerful.
Children screamed loudly.
The lights went out all of a sudden.
Workers protested long and loudly at the factory gates.
They are leaving at the end of next week.
We took the stray kittens home.
The child threw the red ball to the dog in the park.
Object
Very often the predicate contains an object. The object of a sentence is the part of a sentence that is acted upon or is affected by the verb. It usually follows the verb to which it relates. There are two possible forms of object in a sentence or clause—a direct object or an indirect object.
NB: Direct and indirect objects
If there is a direct object and an indirect object in a sentence or clause, the indirect object is almost always placed before the direct object.
In the sentence
I gave the boy the sweets.
the boy is the indirect object and the sweets the direct object.
However, if both the direct and the indirect objects are pronouns, the direct object is sometimes placed first, especially in informal speech, as in the sentence
That is my book. Give it to me, please.
Direct object
A direct object refers to the person or thing that is directly affected by the action described by the verb.
The direct object can be a noun.
In the sentence
The girl hit the ball.
the word ball is a noun and the direct object.
A direct object can also be a pronoun.
In the sentence
She hit him.
the word him is a pronoun and the direct object.
A direct object can also be a noun phrase.
In the sentence
He has bought a large Victorian house.
the phrase a large Victorian house is a noun phrase and the direct object.
A direct object can be a noun clause.
In the sentence
I know what he means.
the clause what he means is a noun clause and the direct object.
In the following sentences the underlined words form a direct object:
The dog bit the child.
He dislikes cats.
We loved them.
People admire her.
He wanted a comfortable city-center apartment.
She lost her diamond engagement ring.
I don’t know what you mean.
Indirect object
An indirect object usually refers to the person who benefits from the action described by the verb, often by receiving something.
In the sentence
Her father gave the boy food.
theboy is the indirect object and the word food is the direct object.
An indirect object can be preceded by the words to or for.
The sentence could be rephrased as
Her father gave food to the boy.
NB: Verbs and indirect objects
Some verbs commonly take an indirect object as well as a direct object. These include bring, buy, give, send, show, tell. In the following sentences the underlined words form an indirect object:
I sent you the book.
She showed her mother the letter.
We had to tell her the bad news.
They gave the children some sweets.
Mary bought them some magazines for the journey.
Pass me the salt, please.
Complement
In a sentence where the verb is a linking verb (seehere) such as be, become, seem, etc, what follows the verb in a predicate is called not an object, but a complement.
In the sentence
Mark is a policeman.
the words a policeman form the complement of the sentence.
Similarly, in the sentence
Jane became a heart surgeon.
the words a heart surgeon form the complement of the sentence.
In the following sentences the underlined words form a complement:
He seems an honest man.
She became an embittered old woman.
They are nice enough people.
It appears a good bargain.
Punctuation of sentences
A sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a full stop, or equivalent punctuation mark (seehere), such as a question mark or exclamation mark. Thus, the following are all sentences:
They did not like the house.
He lives in the country.
He designed and built the house.
We will leave when he gets here.
Where did he go?
Why did she leave?
Get out of here!
Help me!
Also seehere–here.
Types of sentence
Traditionally four types of sentence are recognized. These are statements, questions, directives or commands and exclamations.
Statements
Statements are sentences that state something or give information. They are sometimes called declarative sentences because they declare something. In most statements the subject comes before the verb. The following sentences are all declarative sentences:
The boy hit his sister.
The man attacked the old woman.
We serve evening meals.
The weather was dreadful.
Negative sentences
A negative sentence is one that makes a negative, rather than a positive, statement. This is usually created by the inclusion of a word such as not, nothing or never. The word not is sometimes contracted to n’t. When not or n’t is used it is accompanied by an auxiliary verb (seehere). The following sentences are negative sentences:
We did not invite her.
I didn’t see him.
I don’t like it.
I don’t know the man.
I heard nothing unusual last night.
They did nothing about it.
She has never been here.
We have never denied that.
NB: The double negative
The occurrence of two negative words in a sentence or clause is known as a double negative. If taken literally, this actually conveys the opposite sense to that which is intended.
Thus,
He didn’t say nothing.
literally conveys the idea that he did say something.
However, this is rarely what is intended by the speaker or writer and the double negative should be avoided in Standard English, although it is a feature of some regional dialects. Words, such as hardly and scarcely, which can be regarded as semi-negative forms, are incorrectly used with a negative. When this happens it creates a double negative.
Thus, a sentence such as
We didn’t hardly have time to catch the train.
is an example of incorrect usage.
You should say
We hardly had time to catch the train.
Questions
Questions are sentences that seek information of some kind. They are followed by a question mark (?) and they often involve the inversion of the subject and an auxiliary or modal verb (seehere and here) such as:
Do you play the piano?
Did you pass the exam?
Have you written to him?
Was she not once a famous singer?
Didn’t you like it?
The different kinds of questions are discussed below.
Yes-no questions
Yes-no questions are designed to seek a reply in the affirmative or negative, whether the reply is just Yes or No or whether this is amplified in some way, as in the following sentences:
Is the house occupied just now?
No.
Has the doctor arrived yet?
Yes. He’s just arrived.
Are we ready to begin?
Let’s get started. Yes.
Tag questions
Some yes-no questions are tag questions in which the questioning part is in the tag at the end of the sentence. The following are examples of tag questions, with the tags underlined:
She’s a lawyer, isn’t she?
He’s not here yet, is he?
You won’t tell her, will you?
Wh-questions
Wh-questions begin, with a word beginning with wh-, such as why, where, when, who and what, as in the following sentences:
What do you want?
Where did he go?
When did you last see her?
Who gave you that?
Alternative questions
Alternative questions require a reply that refers to the options given in the sentence. They contain the conjunction or. The following are examples of alternative questions:
Did you come by bus or train?
By train.
Is the party on Friday or Saturday?
It’s on Saturday.
Is she dark or fair?
She’s very dark.
Exclamatory questions
Exclamatory questions are sentences which have the structure of questions but which are actually used as exclamations and end with an exclamation mark. They are really seeking the listener’s agreement rather than seeking an answer. The following are examples of exclamatory questions:
Wasn’t that a wonderful meal!
Hasn’t she changed!
Isn’t it a dreadful day!
Rhetorical questions
Rhetorical questions are also sentences that have the structure of questions and they end in a question mark. However, the speaker does not require an answer to these questions. The following are examples of rhetorical questions:
Why should I care?
Who does she think she is?
How should I know?
Question by tone of voice
A yes-no question can have the structure of a statement, rather than a question, uttered in a questioning tone of voice and ending with a question mark. The following are examples of this:
Anne told you I was going?
Yes, she did.
Tom has actually left her?
He went today. Yes.
The house is no longer for sale?
No. It’s been sold.
Directives
Directives, which are also called commands (although they are not all actually commands), are sentences that instruct someone to do something. In some directives an actual command is being given and this is followed by an exclamation mark, as in:
Keep quiet!
There is usually no subject in a directive and the verb is in its basic or infinitive form. In this kind of structure the verb is said to be in the imperative mood (seehere).
The following are examples of directives:
Stand up!
Help me, please!
Have a piece of cake.
Take two of these pills after meals.
Turn left here.
Some directives begin with the word let or the word do. The following are examples of this kind of directive:
Let me help.
Let’s go.
Do come in.
Don’t worry.
Exclamations
Exclamations are sentences expressed by someone who is impressed, excited or roused by something. Exclamations sometimes take the form of a single word or a minor sentence (seehere), but exclamations can also be major sentences, often beginning with What or How. Exclamations end with an exclamation mark. The following are examples of exclamations:
Ouch!
What a day!
How pretty you look!
What a change there is in Anne!
NB: Sentence length
As we have seen above, sentences, particularly minor sentences, can be extremely short. They can even be one word. On the other hand, sentences can be extremely long.
There is no restriction on the length of sentences, except, of course, that they should not be so long as to be confusing or unintelligible. Usually, relatively short sentences make for greater clarity. However, a series of sentences should not all be so short that the effect is too abrupt or jerky.
Apart from clarity, there is the question of style when it comes to sentence length. From the point of view of good style, it is important to vary the length of your sentences. A mixture of sentence lengths makes a piece of prose seem more interesting.
Simple sentences
Short sentences often contain one main clause (seehere) and a sentence with just one main clause is called a simple sentence. The following are examples of simple sentences:
The boy laughed.
He enjoyed the trip.
We liked the play very much.
Her son is ill.
Her daughter became a doctor.
They gave me a present yesterday.
Multiple sentences
Sentences which contain more than one clause are known as multiple sentences, sometimes abbreviated to multi-sentences. These can either be compound sentences or complex sentences.
Compound sentences
Longer sentences usually contain more than one clause. Sometimes they consist of just two main clauses (seehere), sometimes more than two. These clauses are linked by a coordinating conjunction (seehere) such as and, but or or and the sentences formed in this way are known as compound sentences. The following are examples of compound sentences:
She loved the children and she looked after them well.
He left on time, but the bus was late.
She will mend the dress or buy a new one.
I was sorry for him, but I could not help him and I felt bad about that.
She played well, but her opponent played even better and she lost the match.
Complex sentences
Longer sentences are often complex sentences. In complex sentences at least one of the clauses is a main clause, but one or more of the clauses is a subordinate clause (seehere).
A subordinate clauses is connected to the main clause by a subordinating conjunction such as although, because, before, since, unless, when, while and why. Often the main clause comes before the subordinate, but sometimes the subordinate clause is put first.
The following are examples of complex sentences:
She danced while he played.
I left when they arrived.
The book was still where we had left it.
She cannot go unless her mother gives her permission.
Because his car broke down he arrived late at the wedding.
Wherever he goes, she goes.
Since you left he has been sad.
THE PARAGRAPH
The paragraph is usually a considerably larger unit of structure than a sentence. Indeed, it usually consists of several sentences. Pieces of prose are usually divided into paragraphs to make the information conveyed by the prose more comprehensible and easier to access.
Unlike the construction of sentences, there are no set grammatical rules for the construction of paragraphs and many people find it difficult to divide their work into paragraphs. However, this improves with practice and soon becomes instinctive. Here are some guidelines:
1. There is no set length that a paragraph should be. A paragraph should deal with one particular theme or point of the writer’s writing or argument. When that has been dealt with satisfactorily, a new paragraph should be started. If a paragraph is very long it can be difficult for readers to make their way through it and it can also be rather off-putting visually. In such cases it is best to consider subdividing the theme of the long paragraph to make shorter paragraphs.
2. On the other hand, it is best not to make all one’s paragraphs too short as this can create a disjointed effect. Try to aim for a mixture of lengths to create some variety. Traditionally, it was frowned upon to have a one-sentence paragraph but there are no hard and fast rules about this. Usually, however, it takes more than one sentence to develop the theme of the paragraph, unless one is a tabloid journalist or copywriter for an advertising firm.
3. The opening paragraph of a piece of writing should introduce the topic about which you are writing. The closing paragraph should sum up what you have been writing about.
4. New paragraphs begin on new lines and they are usually indented from the margin. In the case of dialogue in a work of fiction, each speaker’s speech usually begins on a new line to make things clearer for the reader.
Clauses, Phrases and Phrasal Verbs
CLAUSES
A clause, like a major sentence, is a meaningful group of words containing a subject and predicate (seehere). However, unlike sentences, not all clauses can stand alone and make sense.
Main clauses
A clause that can stand alone and make sense is known as a main clause. Every major sentence must have at least one main clause (seehere). In each of the following sentences the underlined words form a main clause:
He was at the office when I arrived.
I knew why he left.
We took the train because the car broke down.
Some sentences consist of more than one main clause connected by a coordinating conjunction (seehere) such as and, but or or. Such sentences are known as compound sentences (seehere). The following sentences consist of two mainclauses:
I was very angry and he knew it.
You can either apologise or you can leave immediately.
It was a sunny day but it was very cold.
The following sentences consist of more than two main clauses:
She was intelligent and she was very efficient but she had no luck in finding a job.
We can get a flight today or we can get one next week, but we cannot get one at the weekend.
Punctuation and main clauses
A comma may be used to separate main clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction (seehere), but this is not usual, especially if the clauses have the same subject and the coordinating conjunction is and. When the coordinating conjunction is but, the use of a comma to mark off the main clause is more a matter of choice, especially when both clauses are quite long.
Subordinate clauses
A clause that cannot stand alone and make sense, but is dependent on the main clause to make sense, is called a subordinate clause. A subordinate clause can come before or after a main clause. In each of the following sentences the underlined words form a subordinate clause:
He arrived after we had started the meal.
We won’t be able to put in an offer for the house until we sell our own.
He failed the exam although he worked hard.
If you buy that car you will regret it.
When he saw her he smiled.
There are several types of subordinate clause. A subordinate clause can substitute for most elements of a sentence, such as the adverb, adjective or noun, with the exception of the verb.
Subordinate adverbial clauses
A subordinate adverbial clause performs a similar function to an adverb in a sentence.
For example in the sentence
She left for the airport early.
the word early is an adverb.
This adverb can be replaced by an adverbial clause, as
She left for the airport when it became light.
or
She left for the airport before the city traffic got too heavy.
In both these sentences the underlined words form an adverbial clause.
In some cases an adverbial clause can come before the main clause, as in the sentence:
Before he left he gave her a letter.
If the adverbial clause comes before the main clause it is sometimes separated from the main clause by a comma, especially when the adverbial clause is quite a long one. When the adverbial clause follows the main clause there is usually no comma. (SeeCommas and subordinate clauses on here.)
There are various types of adverb (seehere) and, correspondingly there are various types of adverbial clause. These types of adverbial clauses are examined below.
Adverbial clause of time
This indicates the time something happens and is introduced by a conjunction relating to time, such as after, before, when, whenever, while, until, as soon as (seealsohere). The words underlined in each of the following sentences form an adverbial clause of time:
We need to leave before the traffic gets bad.
He got there as I was leaving.
It had snowed heavily while we slept.
Whenever they meet they quarrel.
While we slept someone broke into the house.
Adverbial clause of place
This indicates the place that something happens and is introduced by a conjunction relating to place, such as where, wherever, everywhere (see alsohere). The words underlined in each of the following sentences form an adverbial clause of place:
We left the books where we had found them.
Wherever we went we saw signs of terrible poverty.
Everywhere she goes she upsets people.
NB: Conjunctions and relative clauses
If the conjunctions where or when follow a noun, the subordinate clause so formed is not an adverbial clause of place or time but a relative clause (seeRelative clauses on here). For where you can substitute in which and for when you can substitute at which. In each of the following sentences the underlined words form a relative clause not an adverbial clause:
This is the place where (in which) we last saw him.
This is the time when (at which) the pain gets worse.
Adverbial clause of purpose
This indicates the intention someone has when doing something and is introduced by a conjunction relating to purpose, such as in order (to), to, soas to, so that. The words underlined in each of the following sentences form an adverbial clause of purpose:
We started on our journey very early so that we could avoid the city rush hour.
In order to pass the exam, you are going to have to work a lot harder.
He reduced the number of staff in order that he might avoid bankruptcy.
We are saving hard so that we can buy a new house.
Adverbial clause of reason
This indicates why something happens or is done and is introduced by a conjunction relating to reason, such as because, since, as, in case. The words underlined in the following sentences form adverbial clauses of reason:
I couldn’t go to the wedding because I had to work that day.
As it was raining, we had the party indoors instead of in the garden.
Since your child broke the window, you should pay for the repair.
I’m taking some sandwiches in case there is no buffet on the train.
Adverbial clause of result
This indicates the result of an event or situation and is introduced by a conjunction relating to result, so that. The words so and that can be separated, so coming before an adjective or adverb in the main clause and that being the first word in the subordinate clause. The words underlined in each of the following sentences form an adverbial clause of result:
She spoke very quickly so that we could scarcely understand her instructions.
He fell awkwardly so that he broke his leg.
She was so ill that she had to be taken to hospital immediately.
We were so bored that we left the lecture early.
An adverbial clause of result always comes after the main clause, unlike some other adverbial clauses which can also come before it.
Adverbial clause of condition
This indicates a possible situation and its consequences and is introduced by a conjunction relating to condition, such as unless, if, as if, provided (that),providing, as long as. The words underlined in each of the following sentences form an adverbial clause of condition:
I’ll come to the party provided I don’t have to work.
If you finish your project, you can leave early.
I could have told you that if you had bothered to ask me.
We will miss the plane unless we leave for the airport now.
As long as you work late this evening, you can have tomorrow morning off.
If you study hard and do well in your exams, you will easily get into university.
Adverbial clause of manner
This indicates the way someone behaves or the way in which something is done, and is introduced by a conjunction relating to manner, such as as though, as if, as, like (see alsohere). The words underlined in each of the following sentences form an adverbial clause of manner:
He talks as if he knows a lot about the subject.
She looked at him as though she hated him.
Why does he behave as he does?
An adverbial clause of manner always follows the main clause, unlike some other adverbial clauses which can also come before it.
Adverbial clause of concession
This contains a fact that contrasts in some way with the main clause or makes it seem surprising and is introduced by a conjunction, such as although, though, even though, whereas, while, whilst. The words underlined in each of the following sentences form an adverbial clause of concession:
I admire his work although I don’t really like him.
Even though she loves him, she doesn’t trust him.
Whilst he works very hard, he doesn’t really achieve anything.
My friend loves to lie on the beach all day, whereas I like to explore the surrounding villages.
Although he had all the right qualifications and experience for that particular post, he was not appointed.
Comparative clauses
A comparative clause is a subordinate clause that modifies comparative adjectives and adverbs and is introduced by than. The words underlined in each of the following sentences form a comparative clause:
The task was much more difficult than any of us had anticipated.
He worked harder than we could ever have imagined.
She somehow looked less attractive today than she did last night.
Relative clauses
A relative clause performs a similar function to an adjective in a sentence. It comes immediately after a noun in the main clause, which is called the antecedent, and gives more information about this noun. A relative clause is introduced by a relative pronoun (seehere), such as who, whose, which, that, and this comes immediately after the antecedent. Who and whom are used when the noun refers to a person, which is used when it refers to a thing and that can be used of either a person or thing. Whom is used when the relative pronoun is the object of the verb in the relative clause. Whose is used when you want to refer to something relating to the person or thing you are talking about. The words underlined in each of the sentences that follow form a relative clause:
That’s the boy who stole the bike.
I know the man whose wife was killed.
These are the men whose wages have been cut.
It is a country whose population is in decline.
He is the neighbor whom we like best.
Here is the book that I borrowed.
I lost the ring which he gave me.
He hit the driver that damaged his car.
NB: Of which
In formal English, especially written English, of which is sometimes used instead of whose, as in the underlined clauses below:
It is one of those cities of which the center has become a slum.
The ruined castle is one of those buildings of which the history is inadequately documented.
Sometimes the relative clause divides the parts of a main clause rather than coming after it. The words underlined in each of the sentences below form a relative clause:
The house that we liked most was much too expensive for us.
The woman whose daughter is ill is very upset.
The dream which I had last night was very vivid.
Types of relative clause
There are two types of relative clause: a defining relative clause and a non-defining relative clause.
Defining relative clause
A defining relative clause identifies which person or thing you are talking about.The words underlined in each of the following sentences form a defining relative clause:
I recognized the woman who stole my purse.
There is the man whom she adores.
He bought the necklace which she had admired.
These are the chocolates that Mum likes best.
Non-defining relative clause
A non-defining relative clause is not needed to identify the person or thing that you are talking about, but it gives further information about that person or thing. The words underlined in each of the following sentences form a non-defining relative clause:
They walked down the town’s main street which was called George Street.
He fell in love with the girl next door who became his wife.
He got his promotion which was long overdue.
Punctuation in relative clauses
Where a non-defining relative clause divides the parts of a main clause it is placed within a pair of commas.
His two sisters, who were very close to him, never got over his death.
The old man, who was nearly 90, did not survive the operation.
Commas are not used in this way in the case of defining relative clauses.
The book that he took was very valuable.
The car that we bought proved to be unreliable.
Prepositions in relative clauses
When there is a preposition in a relative clause this is often placed at the end of the clause, which is often also the end of the sentence. Previously it was considered a grammatical error to end a sentence with a preposition, but this attitude has changed. However, the preposition can be put in front of the relative pronoun as long as the sentence so formed sounds natural. This is most often done in formal English, particularly written English, as in the following sentences:
This is what has happened to the society which we live in.
or
This is what has happened to the society in which we live.
Unbelievably, he has given up the job which he trained so hard for.
or
Unbelievably, he has given up the job for which he trained so hard.
This is the kind of behavior that I refuse to put up with.
But you would never say:
This is the kind of behavior up with which I refuse to put.
Noun or nominal clauses
A noun or nominal clause performs a similar function to a noun or noun phrase in a sentence. Like a noun it can act as the subject, object or complement (seehere–here) of the main clause. The words underlined in each of the following sentences are noun clauses that act as the subject of the sentence:
Where you go is of very little interest to me.
What you know should be told to the police.
What he does now is up to him.
The words underlined in each of the following sentences are noun clauses that act as the object of the sentence:
I’m not asking why you’re going.
We didn’t know who had done it.
He refused to say where he was going.
The words underlined in each of the following sentences are noun clauses that act as the complement of the sentence:
The theory is that there will be enough money for everyone.
My point is that we simply can’t afford to move house.
NB: Nouns and prepositions
Sometimes noun clauses come after a preposition. The underlined words in each of the following sentences are noun clauses:
It depends on how much money is available.
They all commented on what a lot of weight he had lost.
Comment clauses
A comment clause is a short clause inserted into a sentence sometimes used to show the speaker’s attitude to what he or she is saying and sometimes used as a filler without much meaning. Comment clauses are particularly common in informal speech. The words underlined in each of the following sentences form a comment clause:
To put it bluntly, he is a liar.
The patient will most likely survive, I’m glad to say.
She’s only a few years older than me, you know.
He’s been married twice before, it seems.
NB: Use of a comma
A comment clause is often separated from the main clause by a comma.
PHRASES
A phrase usually refers to a group of words that work together to form a grammatical unit, although, in fact, a phrase may consist of just one word. A clause or sentence can usually be broken down into phrases. There are five kinds of phrase and each phrase takes its name from the word class which plays the main part in its structure. Thus, in a noun phrase a noun is the main part of the structure of the phrase and in an adjective phrase an adjective is the main part of the structure of the phrase.
Noun or nominal phrases
A noun phrase, also called a nominal phrase, is a group of related words in which the main word is a noun and which functions like a noun in a sentence or clause. Thus, a very long black car is a noun phrase in which the main word is the noun car. A noun phrase can either act as the subject, object or complement of the sentence or clause. The words underlined in each of the following sentences are noun phrases. In the first two sentences the noun phrases act as the subject, in the middle two sentences the noun phrases act as the object, and in the last two sentences the noun phrases act as the complement.
The most dreadful road accident has happened. (subject)
A terrible storm is forecast. (subject)
We have some interesting new neighbors. (object)
I met a very charming woman at the party. (object)
His father is a fairly talented artist. (complement)
My great-aunt later became a famous opera singer. (complement)
