Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide, Work and Wellbeing E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 861

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

Part of the six-volume reference set Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide, this volume is a comprehensive look at wellbeing in the workplace at organizational, managerial, and individual levels.

• Discusses the implications of theory and practice in the field of workplace wellbeing
• Incorporates not only coverage of workplace stress in relation to wellbeing, but also aspects of positive psychology
• Explores the role of governments in promoting work place well being
• Part of the six-volume set Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide, which brings together leading research on wellbeing from across the social sciences

• Topics include work-life balance; coping strategies and characters of individuals; characteristics of workplaces and organizational strategies that are conducive to wellbeing; and many more

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Title Page

Copyright

About the Editors

Contributors

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

The Volumes in the Series

References

Part 1: Introduction

Chapter 1: Introduction

References

Chapter 2: Conceptualizing and Measuring Wellbeing at Work

Wellbeing in Life

Wellbeing at Work

Conclusion

References

Part 2: Resources, Coping, and Control

Chapter 3: Job Demands–Resources Theory

Introduction

Early Models

Job Demands–Resources Theory

JD-R Interventions

Conclusion

References

Chapter 4: Positive Psychology and Coping

Introduction

A Brief Interlude on Coping Research

From Stress to Emotions

The Role of Positive Emotions

Coping Strategies

Coping Effectiveness

Other Developments

Conclusions

References

Chapter 5: The Role of Workplace Control in Positive Health and Wellbeing

Introduction

The Nature of Control

Lack of Control and Stress

Control and Positive Outcomes at Work

Perceived Control and Objective Control

Evidence for Control–Positive Outcome Relationships

Control-Related Personality Variables

Conclusions and Future Directions

References

Part 3: Happy Workers and Happy Organizations

Chapter 6: The Happy Worker

Introduction

How are Happy Workers Conceptualized?

The Happy–Productive Worker Thesis

Job Satisfaction and Worker Performance

Significance of the Happy–Productive Worker Thesis

Positive Organizational Scholarship

What Factors Would Facilitate and Inhibit in the Course of Being Happy Workers?

Outcomes (Individual, Work, Family, Life, etc.) of Being Happy Workers

Summary and Conclusion

References

Chapter 7: Organizational Characteristics of Happy Organizations

Introduction

Defining Happiness

Measuring Happiness at Work

The Happiness of Wellbeing

Happiness as Satisfaction, Commitment, and Engagement

Enhancing Happiness at Work

The Happiness of Stress and the Stress of Happiness

Daily Progress, Happiness, and Performance

Conclusion

References

Part 4: Character and Wellbeing

Chapter 8: Character and Wellbeing

Organizational Research on Wellbeing

Character Defined

Character and Wellbeing

Future Research Directions

Concluding Thoughts

References

Chapter 9: Stress, Health, and Wellbeing in Practice

Stress: A Double-Edged Sword

Positive Pathways to Health and Wellbeing

Strength of Character

Self-Awareness

Socialized Power Motivation

Requisite Self-Reliance

Diverse Professional Supports

Summary and Integration of the Five Pathways

Stress and Health Promotion Interventions

Conclusion

References

Part 5: Organizational Strategies to Promote Wellbeing

Chapter 10: Cancer, Work, and the Quality of Working Life

Overview

The Accommodation Adaptation Intervention Paradigm

Background: Cancers and Work

Review Method

Accommodation by the Organization

Individual Adaptation: An Organizational Perspective

Discussion

References

Chapter 11: Lead Well, Be Well

Introduction

Leadership and Employee Wellbeing

Abusive Supervision

Laissez-Faire Leadership

Transformational Leadership

Looking to the Future

Conclusion

References

Chapter 12: Organizational Coping Strategies and Wellbeing

Early-Stage Broad Strategies

Mid-Stage Group and Individual Strategies

Late-Stage Narrow Strategies

Summary of Benefits and Limitations

References

Chapter 13: Workplace Mistreatment

Introduction

Incivility: What It Is and What It Is Not

Measurement

Origin

Consequences of Incivility

Solving the Incivility Problem

Future Directions and Concluding Remarks

References

Chapter 14: The Sustainable Workforce

Sustainable Workforce, Work–Life Balance, and Wellbeing: Conceptualization and Linkages

Organizational Strategies to Foster a Sustainable Workforce

Conclusions and Future Directions

References

Chapter 15: Development of a Theoretically Grounded Model of Sexual Harassment Awareness Training Effectiveness

General Model of SHA Training Effectiveness

Centrality of Motivation and Cynicism

Pre-Training Conditions Influencing SHA Training Effectiveness

Possible SHA Training Outcomes

Implications and Future Directions

References

Chapter 16: The Working Wounded

Stigma and Return to Work

Predicting Stigma for Returning Workers

Safety Climate

Managing Stigma in Return to Work

Conclusion

References

Chapter 17: Job Stress in University Academics

Introduction

The Sources of Work Stress in Universities

Effects of Work Stress in Universities

Interventions

Methodological Critique of Work Stress Research in the Academic Profession

National University Stress Study

Conclusions

References

Part 6: From Research to National Policy

Chapter 18: Longitudinal Research in Occupational Stress

What Constitutes (Good) Longitudinal Research?

Objectives of Longitudinal Research

Methodological Considerations in Longitudinal Research

Longitudinal Research Designs

Concluding Comments

References

Chapter 19: Measuring Wellbeing in Modern Societies

Introduction

Wellbeing Policy in the United Kingdom

Approach to Wellbeing Measurement and Early Results

Reflecting Wellbeing in Policy Decisions

Closing Remarks

Disclaimer

References

Index

Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Volume I: Wellbeing in Children and Families

Edited by Susan H. Landry and Cary L. Cooper

Volume II: Wellbeing and the Environment

Edited by Rachel Cooper, Elizabeth Burton, and Cary L. Cooper

Volume III: Work and Wellbeing

Edited by Peter Y. Chen and Cary L. Cooper

Volume IV: Wellbeing in Later Life

Edited by Thomas B. L. Kirkwood and Cary L. Cooper

Volume V: The Economics of Wellbeing

Edited by David McDaid and Cary L. Cooper

Volume VI: Interventions and Policies to Enhance Wellbeing

Edited by Felicia A. Huppert and Cary L. Cooper

This edition first published 2014

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Work and wellbeing / volume editor, Peter Y. Chen; editor-in-chief, Cary L. Cooper.

    pages cm. – (Wellbeing : a complete reference guide; volume III)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-118-60836-4 (cloth : alk. paper)

1. Industrial hygiene. 2. Work environment. 3. Quality of work life. 4. Well-being. I. Chen, Peter Y.

HD7261.W65 2014

650.1–dc23

2013030507

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Cover image: © Ekely / Getty

Cover design by cyandesign.co.uk

About the Editors

Peter Y. Chen is Professor of Management at the University of South Australia Business School and former Professor of Psychology at Colorado State University. He is Fellow of the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology and on the Board of Directors for Mates in Construction SA Ltd. He served as Associate Editor of the Journal of Occupational Health Psychology (2005–2010) and as President of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology (2006–2007). Professor Chen was ranked 29th (2000–2004) based on ISI citation impact in 30 management journals. He is the coauthor of Correlation: Parametric and nonparametric measures (2002), and has written or cowritten over 90 journal articles, book chapters, and encyclopedia entries.

Cary L. Cooper, CBE, is Distinguished Professor of Organizational Psychology and Health at Lancaster University Management School, U.K. He is the author/editor of over 150 books, has written over 400 scholarly articles for academic journals, and is a frequent contributor to national newspapers, TV, and radio. He is the Chair of the Academy of Social Sciences (comprised of 46 learned societies in the social sciences, with nearly 90,000 social scientists), President of RELATE, President of the Institute of Welfare, and immediate past President of the British Association of Counselling and Psychotherapy. He was the Founding President of the British Academy of Management, Founding Editor of the Journal of Organizational Behavior, and is currently Editor-in-Chief of the international scholarly journal Stress & Health. He has received honorary doctorates from a number of universities (e.g., University of Sheffield, Aston University, and Heriot-Watt University). He has been awarded honorary fellowships by the Royal College of Physicians, Royal College of Physicians of Ireland, British Psychological Society, European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology, and Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. In 2010 Professor Cooper was awarded the Lord Dearing Lifetime Achievement Award at the The Times Higher Education Awards for his distinguished contribution to higher education. He was lead scientist on the U.K. Government's Foresight program on Mental Capital and Wellbeing, which had a major impact in the United Kingdom and Europe. Professor Cooper was Chair of the Global Agenda Council on Chronic Diseases in the World Economic Forum in 2009–2010. In 2012, HR magazine voted him the Fourth Most Influential HR Thinker. In 2001, he was awarded a CBE by the Queen for his contribution to occupational health.

Contributors

Paul Allin, Imperial College London, U.K.

Arnold B. Bakker, Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands and Lingnan University, Hong Kong

Julian Barling, Queen's University, Australia

Joel Bennett, Organizational Wellness and Learning Systems, U.S.A.

Robert C. Brusso, Old Dominion University, U.S.A. and ICF International

Rachel C. Callan, Old Dominion University, U.S.A.

James E. Cameron, Saint Mary's University, Canada

Victor M. Catano, Saint Mary's University, Canada

Peter Y. Chen, University of South Australia, Australia

Konstantin P. Cigularov, Old Dominion University, U.S.A.

Cary L. Cooper, Lancaster University, U.K.

Tom Cox, Birkbeck, University of London, U.K.

Arla L. Day, Saint Mary's University, Canada

Evangelia Demerouti, Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands

Philip Dewe, Birkbeck, University of London, U.K.

Erin M. Eatough, University of South Florida, U.S.A.

Nada ElRakhawy, Al Garhoud Private Hospital, United Arab Emirates

Cynthia D. Fisher, Bond University, Australia

Lori Francis, Saint Mary's University, Canada

Michael Hanrahan, Acadia University, Canada

M. Blake Hargrove, Shippensburg University, U.S.A.

C. Gail Hepburn, University of Lethbridge, Canada

Peter Hosie, Curtin University, Australia

Lisa M. Kath, San Diego State University, U.S.A.

E. Kevin Kelloway, Saint Mary's University, Canada

Ellen Ernst Kossek, Purdue University Krannert School of Management, U.S.A.

Tyler Lauer, Manhattan, Kansas, U.S.A.

Michael P. Leiter, Acadia University, Canada

Pamela Lirio, EDHEC Business School, France

Sara MacLennan, University of Aberdeen, U.K.

Vicki J. Magley, University of Connecticut, U.S.A.

James N'Dow, University of Aberdeen, U.K.

James Campbell Quick, The University of Texas at Arlington, U.S.A. and Lancaster University Management School, U.K.

Jennifer Robertson, Western University, Australia

Bret L. Simmons, University of Nevada, U.S.A.

Matthew Smeed, Robertson Cooper, U.K.

Paul E. Spector, University of South Florida, U.S.A.

Gordon Tinline, Robertson Cooper, U.K.

Monique Valcour, EDHEC Business School, France

Anthony H. Winefield, University of South Australia, Australia

Thomas A. Wright, Fordham University, U.S.A.

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Volume I Wellbeing in Children and Families

Edited by Susan H. Landry and Cary L. Cooper

About the Editors

Contributors

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

1 Introduction

Susan H. Landry

Part 1 The Development of Early Social and Cognitive Skills Important for Child Wellbeing

2 Children's Self-Regulation and Executive Control: Critical for Later Years

Caron A. C. Clark, Miriam M. Martinez, Jennifer Mize Nelson, Sandra A. Wiebe, and Kimberly Andrews Espy

3 Children's Emotion Regulation in Classroom Settings

C. Cybele Raver

4 Early Math and Literacy Skills: Key Predictors of Later School Success

Greg J. Duncan, Chantelle Dowsett, and Joshua F. Lawrence

5 Children's Intrinsic Motivation to Learn: Does It Decline over Time and, If So, Why?

Verena Freiberger and Birgit Spinath

Part 2 Parenting and Children's Development

6 Parents' Role in Infants' Language Development and Emergent Literacy

Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda, Rufan Luo, and Lulu Song

7 Can Parents Be Supported to Use a Responsive Interaction Style with Young Children?

Susan H. Landry

8 Parenting and Executive Function: Positive and Negative Influences

Claire Hughes, Gabriela Roman, and Rosie Ensor

9 The Nature of Effective Parenting: Some Current Perspectives

Joan E. Grusec, Dilek Sarita, and Ella Daniel

10 Parenting and Early Intervention: The Impact on Children's Social and Emotional Skill Development

Catherine C. Ayoub, Jessical Dym Bartlett, and Mallary I. Swartz

Part 3 School and Child Care: Settings that Impact Child and Family Wellbeing

11 High-Risk Home and Child-Care Environments and Children's Social-Emotional Outcomes

Lisa S. Badanes and Sarah Enos Watamura

12 Classroom Peer Relations as a Context for Social and Scholastic Development

Gary W. Ladd, Becky Kochenderfer-Ladd, and Casey M. Sechler

13 The Importance of Quality Prekindergarten Programs for Promoting School Readiness Skills

Andrew J. Mashburn

14 Consistent Environmental Stimulation from Birth to Elementary School: The Combined Contribution of Different Settings on School Achievement

Robert C. Pianta

Part 4 Stress and Family and Child Wellbeing

15 Poverty, Public Policy, and Children's Wellbeing

Aletha C. Huston

16 Early Life Stress and Neurobehavioral Development

Sarah Stellern and Megan R. Gunnar

17 Neighborhood Effects and Young Children's Outcomes

Dafna Kohen and Leanne Findlay

18 The Family Check-Up: A Tailored Approach to Intervention with High-Risk Families

Anne M. Gill, Thomas J. Dishion, and Daniel S. Shaw

Index

Volume II Wellbeing and the Environment

Edited by Rachel Cooper, Elizabeth Burton, and Cary L. Cooper

About the Editors

Contributors

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

1 Wellbeing and the Environment: An Overview

Rachel Cooper

Part 1 Wellbeing and the Neighborhood

2 Urban Neighborhoods and Mental Health across the Life Course

Erin Gilbert and Sandro Galea

3 The Impact of the Local Social and Physical Local Environment on Wellbeing

Anne Ellaway

4 Density and Mental Wellbeing

Christopher T. Boyko and Rachel Cooper

5 Neighborhoods and Social Interaction

Scott C. Brown and Joanna Lombard

6 Living in the City: Mixed Use and Quality of Life

Graeme Evans

7 “We Live Here Too”… What Makes a Child-Friendly Neighborhood?

Karen E. Martin and Lisa J. Wood

8 A Step Too Far? Designing Dementia-Friendly Neighborhoods

Lynne Mitchell

9 Walkable Neighborhoods: Principles, Measures, and Health Impacts

Tim G. Townshend

10 Quality of Urban Spaces and Wellbeing

Mags Adams

Part 2 Wellbeing and Buildings

11 Children and the Physical Environment

Lorraine E. Maxwell and Gary W. Evans

12 Wellbeing and the School Environment

Andy Jones and Flo Harrison

13 The Built Housing Environment, Wellbeing, and Older People

Rachael Dutton

14 Workplace and Wellbeing

Jeremy Myerson

15 Linking the Physical Design of Health-Care Environments to Wellbeing Indicators

Sarah Payne, Rachel Potter, and Rebecca Cain

Part 3 Wellbeing and Green Spaces

16 Wellbeing and Green Spaces in Cities

William Sullivan

17 Environmental Interaction and Engagement: Supporting Wellbeing

Richard Coles

Part 4 Wellbeing and the Environment: Other Factors and the Future

18 Crime and the Urban Environment: The Implications for Wellbeing

Caroline L. Davey and Andrew B. Wootton

19 Transport and Wellbeing

Nick Tyler

20 Air Quality and Wellbeing

Ben Croxford

21 Implications of Low-Carbon Design of Housing for Health and Wellbeing: A U.K. Case Study

Michael Davies, Ian Hamilton, Anna Mavrogianni, Rokia Raslan, and Paul Wilkinson

22 Cobenefits of Insulating Houses: Research Evidence and Policy Implications

Philippa Howden-Chapman and Nicholas Preval

23 The Multiple Pathways between Environment and Health

Marketta Kyttä and Anna Broberg

24 Summary: Wellbeing and the Environmental Implications for Design

Rachel Cooper and Elizabeth Burton

Index

Volume III Work and Wellbeing

Edited by Peter Y. Chen and Cary L. Cooper

About the Editors

Contributors

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Part 1 Introduction

1 Introduction: From Stress to Happiness

Peter Y. Chen and Cary L. Cooper

2 Conceptualizing and Measuring Wellbeing at Work

Cynthia D. Fisher

Part 2 Resources, Coping, and Control

3 Job Demands–Resources Theory

Arnold B. Bakker and Evangelia Demerouti

4 Positive Psychology and Coping: Towards a Better Understanding of the Relationship

Philip Dewe

5 The Role of Workplace Control in Positive Health and Wellbeing

Erin M. Eatough and Paul E. Spector

Part 3 Happy Workers and Happy Organizations

6 The Happy Worker: Revisiting the “Happy–Productive Worker” Thesis

Peter Hosie and Nada ElRakhawy

7 Organizational Characteristics of Happy Organizations

Bret L. Simmons

Part 4 Character and Wellbeing

8 Character and Wellbeing

Thomas A. Wright and Tyler Lauer

9 Stress, Health, and Wellbeing in Practice: Workplace Leadership and Leveraging Stress for Positive Outcomes

James Campbell Quick, Joel Bennett, and M. Blake Hargrove

Part 5 Organizational Strategies to Promote Wellbeing

10 Cancer, Work, and the Quality of Working Life: A Narrative Review

Tom Cox, Sara MacLennan, and James N'Dow

11 Lead Well, Be Well: Leadership Behaviors Influence Employee Wellbeing

Jennifer Robertson and Julian Barling

12 Organizational Coping Strategies and Wellbeing

Gordon Tinline and Matthew Smeed

13 Workplace Mistreatment: Recent Developments in Theory, Research, and Interventions

Michael Hanrahan and Michael P. Leiter

14 The Sustainable Workforce: Organizational Strategies for Promoting Work–Life Balance and Wellbeing

Ellen Ernst Kossek, Monique Valcour, and Pamela Lirio

15 Development of a Theoretically Grounded Model of Sexual Harassment Awareness Training Effectiveness

Lisa M. Kath and Vicki J. Magley

16 The Working Wounded: Stigma and Return to Work

Lori Francis, James E. Cameron, E. Kevin Kelloway, Victor M. Catano, Arla L. Day, and C. Gail Hepburn

17 Job Stress in University Academics: Evidence from an Australian National Study

Anthony H. Winefield

Part 6 From Research to National Policy

18 Longitudinal Research in Occupational Stress: A Review of Methodological Issues

Robert C. Brusso, Konstantin P. Cigularov, and Rachel C. Callan

19 Measuring Wellbeing in Modern Societies

Paul Allin

Index

Volume IV Wellbeing in Later Life

Edited by Thomas B. L. Kirkwood and Cary L. Cooper

About the Editors

Contributors

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

1 Introduction: Wellbeing in Later Life

Cary L. Cooper and Thomas B. L. Kirkwood

Part 1 Longevity and Wellbeing

2 The Changing Demographic Context of Aging

Roland Rau and James W. Vaupel

3 Biological Determinants and Malleability of Aging

Thomas B. L. Kirkwood

4 Wellbeing as Experienced by the Very Old

Carol Jagger and Katie Brittain

Part 2 Factors Influencing Wellbeing

5 Psychological Wellbeing in Later Life

Kate M. Bennett and Laura K. Soulsby

6 Nutrition and Lifelong Wellbeing

C. Alexandra Munro and John C. Mathers

7 Physical Activity, Exercise, and Aging

Grainne S. Gorman, Josh Wood, and Michael I. Trenell

8 Capability and Independency in Later Life

John Bond

9 Combating Isolation Through Technology in Older People

Peter Gore

10 Wellbeing and Vitality in Later Life: The Role of the Consumer Industry

Michael Catt and Frans J. G. van der Ouderaa

11 Education and its Role in Wellbeing

Jim Soulsby

Part 3 Wellbeing at the End of Life

12 The Threat to Wellbeing from Cognitive Decline

Louise Robinson and Lynne Corner

13 When Vitality Meets Longevity: New Strategies for Health in Later Life

Rudi G. J. Westendorp, Bert Mulder, A. J. Willem van der Does, and Frans J. G. van der Ouderaa

14 Maintaining Wellbeing Through the End of Life

Julian C. Hughes

Part 4 Comparative Perspectives on Wellbeing

15 Cultures, Aging, and Wellbeing

Ngaire Kerse, Mere Kpa, Ruth Teh, and Lorna Dyall

16 Wellbeing in the Oldest Old and Centenarians in Japan

Yasuyuki Gondo, Yasumichi Arai, and Nobuyoshi Hirose

17 Wellbeing in Later Life in Eighteenth-Century England

Helen Yallop

Appendix

Foresight Mental Capital and Wellbeing Project: Mental Capital Through Life: Future Challenges

Thomas B. L. Kirkwood, John Bond, Carl May, Ian McKeith, and Min-Min Teh

Index

Volume V The Economics of Wellbeing

Edited by David McDaid and Cary L. Cooper

About the Editors

Contributors

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

1 Introduction

David McDaid and Cary L. Cooper

Part 1 Perspectives on the Economics of Wellbeing

2 A Short History of Wellbeing Research

Laura Stoll

3 Income and Wellbeing: A Selective Review

Brendan Kennelly

4 Does Money Buy Me Love? Testing Alternative Measures of National Wellbeing

Arthur Grimes, Les Oxley, and Nicholas Tarrant

5 The Impact of the Great Recession on Economic Wellbeing: How Different Are OECD Nations and Why?

Lars Osberg and Andrew Sharpe

6 Was the Economic Crisis of 2008 Good for Icelanders? Impact on Health Behaviours

Tinna Laufey Ásgeirsdóttir, Hope Corman, Kelly Noonan, órhildur Ólafsdóttir, and Nancy E. Reichman

7 Mental Health: A New Frontier for Labor Economics

Richard Layard

Part 2 Promoting Wellbeing: The Economic Case for Action

8 Investing in the Wellbeing of Young People: Making the Economic Case

David McDaid, A-La Park, Candice Currie, and Cara Zanotti

9 Investing in Wellbeing in the Workplace: More Than Just a Business Case

David McDaid and A-La Park

10 Promoting the Health and Wellbeing of Older People: Making an Economic Case

A-La Park, David McDaid, Anna K. Forsman, and Kristian Wahlbeck

11 Promoting and Protecting Mental Wellbeing during Times of Economic Change

David McDaid and Kristian Wahlbeck

12 Making Use of Evidence from Wellbeing Research in Policy and Practice

David McDaid

Index

Volume VI Interventions and Policies to Enhance Wellbeing

Edited by Felicia A. Huppert and Cary L. Cooper

About the Editors

Contributors

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to this Volume

1 The State of Wellbeing Science: Concepts, Measures, Interventions, and Policies

Felicia A. Huppert

Part 1 Individual and Group Interventions across the Life Course

2 Parenting Interventions to Promote Wellbeing and Prevent Mental Disorder

Sarah Stewart-Brown

3 Promoting Mental Health and Wellbeing in Schools

Katherine Weare and Melanie Nind

4 An Exploration of the Effects of Mindfulness Training and Practice in Association with Enhanced Wellbeing for Children and Adolescents: Theory, Research, and Practice

Christine Burke

5 MindMatters: Implementing Mental Health Promotion in Secondary Schools in Australia

Louise Rowling and Trevor Hazell

6 A Systematic Review of Mental Health Promotion in the Workplace

Czesław Czabała and Katarzyna Charzyska

7 Wellbeing Begins with “We”: The Physical and Mental Health Benefits of Interventions that Increase Social Closeness

Bethany E. Kok and Barbara L. Fredrickson

8 The Experience Corps®: Intergenerational Interventions to Enhance Wellbeing Among Retired People

George W. Rebok, Michelle C. Carlson, Kevin D. Frick, Katherine D. Giuriceo, Tara L. Gruenewald, Sylvia McGill, Jeanine M. Parisi, William A. Romani, Teresa E. Seeman, Elizabeth K. Tanner, and Linda P. Fried

9 Enhancing Mental Health and Mental Wellbeing in Older People: Important Concepts and Effective Psychosocial Interventions

Anna K. Forsman, Eija Stengård, and Kristian Wahlbeck

Part 2 Interventions to Create Positive Organizations and Communities

10 Wellbeing as a Business Priority: Experience from the Corporate World

Catherine Kilfedder and Paul Litchfield

11 The Power of Philanthropy and Volunteering

Sara Konrath

12 Community Change: The Complex Nature of Interventions to Promote Positive Connections

Sue Roffey and Jacqueline Barnes

13 The Health and Wellbeing Effects of Active Labor Market Programs

Adam P. Coutts, David Stuckler, and David J. Cann

Part 3 The Policy Perspective

14 Creating Good Lives Through Computer Games

Daniel Johnson, Peta Wyeth, and Penny Sweetser

15 Retooling for Wellbeing: Media and the Public's Mental Health

Marten W. deVries

16 Policy and Wellbeing: The U.K. Government Perspective

David Halpern

17 Measuring what Matters

Juliet Michaelson, Charles Seaford, Saamah Abdallah, and Nic Marks

18 Mental Health and Wellbeing at the Top of the Global Agenda

Eva Jané-Llopis, Peter Anderson, and Helen Herrman

19 How can Subjective Wellbeing be Improved?

John F. Helliwell

Index

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Cary L. Cooper

Lancaster University, U.K.

This series of six volumes explores one of the most important social issues of our times, that of how to enhance the mental wellbeing of people, whether in the developed, developing, or underdeveloped world, and across the life course from birth to old age. We know that 1 in 4–6 people in most countries in the world suffer from a common mental disorder of anxiety, depression, or stress. We also know that mental ill health costs countries billions of dollars per annum. In the United Kingdom, for example, mental health-care costs have amounted to over £77 billion per annum, the bill for sickness absence and presenteeism (people turning up to work ill or not delivering due to job stress) in the workplace is another £26 billion, and the costs of dementia will rise from £20 billion to an estimated £50 billion in 25 years' time (Cooper, Field, Goswami, Jenkins, & Sahakian, 2009). In Germany, the leading cause of early retirement from work in 1989 was musculoskeletal disease but by 2004 it was stress and mental ill health, now representing 40% of all early retirements (German Federal Health Monitoring, 2007). In many European countries (e.g., Finland, Holland, Norway, and Switzerland) the cost of lost productive value due to lack of mental wellbeing is a significant proportion of gross domestic product (McDaid, Knapp, Medeiros, & MHEEN Group, 2008). Indeed, the costs of depression alone in the European Union were shown to be €41 billion, with €77 billion in terms of lost productivity to all the economies (Sobocki, Jonsson, Angst, & Rehnberg, 2006).

The issue of wellbeing has been around for sometime but has been brought to the fore more recently because of the global recession and economic downturn, which have made the situation worse (Antoniou & Cooper, 2013). But it was as early as 1968 that politicians began to talk about the inadequacy of gross national product as a measure of a society's success. In a powerful speech by Bobby Kennedy at the University of Kansas, when he was on the campaign trail for the Democratic Party nomination for U.S. President, he reflected:

But even if we act to erase material poverty, there is another greater task, it is to confront the poverty of satisfaction—purpose and dignity—that afflicts us all. Too much and for too long, we seemed to have surrendered personal excellence and community values in the mere accumulation of material things. Our gross national product, now, is over $800 billion a year, but that gross national product—if we judge the United States of America by that—that gross national product counts air pollution and cigarette advertising, and ambulances to clear our highways of carnage. It counts special locks for our doors and the jails for the people who break them. It counts the destruction of the redwood and the loss of our natural wonder in the chaotic sprawl. It counts napalm and counts nuclear warheads and armoured cars for the police to fight the riots in our cities. …Yet the GNP does not allow for the health of our children, the quality of their education or the joy of their play. It does not include the beauty of our poetry or the strength of our marriages, the intelligence of our public debate or the integrity of our public officials. It measures neither our wit nor our courage, neither our wisdom nor our learning, neither our compassion nor our devotion to our country, it measures everything in short, except that which makes life worthwhile.

University of Kansas, March 18, 1968,http://www.americanswhotellthetruth.org/portraits/robert-f-kennedy

Since that time there have been numerous studies to show that the wealth of a country is not related to its happiness (Cooper & Robertson, 2013); indeed, as you earn far beyond your means you may become less happy or content. More recently, we have had politicians like former President Sarkozy of France, Prime Minister Cameron of the United Kingdom, and the King of Bhutan extoll the virtue of gross national wellbeing; that is, that the goal of a nation's politicians should be to enhance wellbeing among its citizens, with gross national product being only one indicator of a country's success. Indeed, Prime Minister Cameron has instituted an annual assessment of this through the U.K. Office of National Statistics which measures wellbeing among a large sample of the U.K. population, publishing the results, highlighting concerns, and ultimately considering policies to deal with them. The World Economic Forum of leading global companies, nongovernmental organizations, international bodies, and global charities now has one of its Global Agenda Councils on “mental health and wellbeing.” Happiness and wellbeing indices abound (e.g., The Happy Planet), and many countries are being compared and assessed on a range of quality-of-life metrics. Indeed, in April 2012, 79 countries in the General Assembly of the United Nations signed the Bhutan Agreement, supporting the view that an overarching goal of a country should be to enhance the wellbeing and happiness of its people.

The biggest study of its kind undertaken by any government was the 2 year U.K. Government's Foresight project on mental capital and wellbeing, the aim of which was “to produce a challenging and long-term vision for optimising mental capital and wellbeing in the United Kingdom in the 21st century—both for the benefit of society and for the individual” (Cooper et al., 2009). Mental capital was defined as the metaphorical “bank account of the mind,” which gets enhanced or depleted throughout the life course (see figure). Mental wellbeing was defined as “a dynamic state that refers to individuals' ability to develop their potential, work productively and creatively, build strong and positive relationships with others and contribute to their community” (Beddington et al., 2008).

Figure. Synthetic View of the Mental Capital Trajectory.

Over 85 international science reviews were commissioned to assess the factors that influence an individual's mental capital and wellbeing throughout life, from early childhood to school years to working life to old age. There were numerous findings in this report, which were costed and developed as potential government policy and/or interventions. An example of some of the findings were: (a) if society does not catch learning difficulties in children early enough, there will be increased personal and economic costs downstream, leading to depleted mental wellbeing in terms of increased antisocial behavior as well as significant health costs; (b) if society does not identify the common mental disorders (CMDs) of anxiety, depression, and stress early enough, and provide appropriate treatment and support, society won't be able to tackle the 1 in 4–6 people suffering from depression and other CMDs; (c) with the workplace being more insecure, people working longer hours, and being more overloaded, occupational stress in many countries is now the leading cause of sickness absence and presenteeism, which has implications for the viability of businesses and their productivity; and, finally, (d) with the doubling of over-65-year-olds and the tripling of over-80-year-olds over the next 30 years, society needs to deal with the consequences of dementia now with preventative strategies, better early diagnosis, and more successful and evidence-based treatment regimes. The Foresight project developed many recommendations to enhance mental capital and wellbeing not only in the United Kingdom but also for other countries (Cooper et al., 2009), and its legacy has provided a roadmap for how other countries should think about this in the future, in terms of both policies and interventions for wellbeing.

The Volumes in the Series

Each volume in the series has a senior editor who is a leading international scholar in a particular field, following the life-course model described by the Foresight program. We start with Wellbeing in children and families and progress to Wellbeing and the environment, Work and wellbeing, Wellbeing in later life, The economics of wellbeing, and, finally, Interventions and policies to enhance wellbeing. The contributors to each of these volumes are distinguished international academics who work in the domain covered, reviewing the evidence that can help to develop policies and interventions to enhance wellbeing in that particular context.

In the first volume on children and families we explore four different themes, with a number of chapters under each of these: the development of the early social and cognitive skills that are important in child wellbeing, parenting and children's development, school and child care-settings that impact child and family wellbeing, and stress and family and child wellbeing.

The second volume is on wellbeing and the environment. This comprises sections, with chapters in each, on wellbeing and the neighborhood, wellbeing and buildings, wellbeing and green spaces, crime and the urban environment (and the implications for wellbeing), and wellbeing and the environmental implications for design.

The third volume highlights the issues of work and wellbeing. A range of topics is covered here: the impact of job demands, the role of workplace control, the organizational characteristics of “happy organizations,” leadership behaviors that influence employee wellbeing, the sustainable workforce, the “working wounded” (including stigma and return to work), organizational coping strategies and wellbeing, and many more.

The fourth volume highlights wellbeing in later life. Topics covered include the changing demographic context of aging, biological determinants and malleability of aging, psychological aspects of wellbeing in later life, nutrition and lifelong wellbeing, physical exercise and aging, combating isolation through technology in older people, the threat to wellbeing from cognitive decline, and maintaining wellbeing through the end of life, among others.

The fifth volume explores the economics of wellbeing, with chapters on income and wellbeing, alternative measures of national wellbeing, the impact of the great recession on economic wellbeing, whether recessions are good for one's health, investing in the wellbeing of children, investing in wellbeing in the workplace, promoting health and wellbeing of older people and protecting population mental health, wellbeing during an economic crisis, and many others.

Finally, the sixth volume highlights interventions and policies that can enhance wellbeing throughout the life course. There are three sections, with chapters on the state of wellbeing science, individual/group interventions on childhood and adolescence, promoting mental health and wellbeing in schools, mindfulness training for children and adolescents, interventions in working years and post retirement, mental health promotion in the workplace, intergenerational interventions to enhance wellbeing among retired people, interventions to create positive organizations and communities with wellbeing as a business priority, the power of philanthropy and volunteering, and creating community connections. Finally, policies are discussed, such as mental health and wellbeing at the top of the global agenda, how subjective wellbeing can influence policy, media and the public's mental health, and promoting wellbeing through new technology.

These volumes contain the leading-edge research, practice, and policies to help government, businesses, local authorities, and global institutions consider how we can action some of what Bobby Kennedy suggested were an important set of outcomes for a successful society. Our institutions need to change, and we as individuals need to do so as well, if we are to achieve personal wellbeing, or as Abraham Lincoln wrote during the American Civil War, “it is not the years in your life which are important, but the life in your years.” Winston Churchill reflected on this as well, when he wrote in an essay on how he dealt with the excessive pressures of life and found solace: “many remedies are suggested for the avoidance of worry and mental overstrain by persons who, over prolonged periods, have to bear exceptional responsibilities and discharge duties upon a very large scale. Some advise exercise, and others, repose. Some counsel travel, and others, retreat…no doubt all of these may play their part according to individual temperament. But the element which is constant and common in all of them is Change…a man can wear out a particular part of his mind by continually using it and tiring it, just in the same way as he can wear out the elbows of his coats…but the tired parts of the mind can be rested and strengthened, not merely by rest, but by using other parts…it is only when new cells are called into activity, when new stars become the lords of the ascendant, that relief, repose, refreshment are afforded.”

I hope that these volumes will provide you with the science, practice, and tools to enhance the mental wellbeing of people in your own work.

References

Antoniou, A., & Cooper, C. L. (Eds.) (2013). The psychology of the recession on the workplace. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Beddington, J., Cooper, C. L., Field, J., Goswami, U., Huppert, F., Jenkins, R., …Thomas, S. (2008). The mental wealth of nations. Nature, 455(23), 1057–1060.

Cooper, C. L., Field, J., Goswami, U., Jenkins, R., & Sahakian, B. (Eds.) (2009). Mental capital and wellbeing. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell.

Cooper, C. L., & Robertson, I. (Eds.) (2013). Management and happiness. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.

German Federal Health Monitoring (2007). Trends in causes of early retirement. http://www.gber.bund.de.

McDaid, D., Knapp, M., Medeiros, H., & MHEEN Group (2008). Employment and mental health. Brussels: European Commission.

Sobocki, P., Jonsson, B., Angst, J., & Rehnberg, C. (2006). Cost of depression in Europe. Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics, 9(2), 87–98.

Part 1

Introduction

Chapter 1

Introduction

From Stress to Happiness

Peter Y. Chen

University of South Australia, Australia

Cary L. Cooper

Lancaster University, U.K.

Prior to the collapse of the dot-com bubble in the United States, a company the first author worked for had a bigger plan to grow. In a fall afternoon of 1999, one of his colleagues, called John, sent a message to say that he would be late for an appointment because of a meeting request from the VP. After he came back from the meeting, John revealed that his position had just been terminated after more than 20 years of service. Understandably, his disbelief, anger, and worry were evident—and about 30 minutes later he experienced a bad stomachache (Chen, 2007).

Occupational stressors and job strains experienced by workers, such as what John went through, are not foreign to us. We have witnessed workers who have suffered from depression and humiliation while being abused or harassed (Barling, Dupre, & Kelloway, 2009; Leiter, Laschinger, Day, & Gilin-Oore, 2011), some who have lost their lives at work (Gittleman et al., 2010) or who have developed cardiovascular illness in demanding jobs without much personal control (De Lange, Taris, Kompier, Houtman, & Bongers, 2003).

The grim reality we face today, as described above, is not new, and the focus on workers' wellbeing has not improved significantly in recent decades (Ilgen, 1990). Wellbeing at work has been a major concern since the turn of the last century. Hugo Münsterberg, 1898 President of the American Psychological Association, researched accident prevention and safety promotion and published his work in Psychology and industrial efficiency (1913). The author of the first textbook on the subject of industrial and organizational psychology (Viteles, 1932) spent almost half of the book covering topics such as industrial accidents, fatigue, and safety. Ilgen (1990) voiced a similar concern, and reminded organizational researchers that occupational health is a timeless concern for humanitarian and utilitarian reasons, as well as obvious economic reasons.

There are numerous job stressors at work, with different levels of severity and frequency. Some of them are inherent in the job, and some of them may not easily be eliminated or isolated. Although we are not immune from exposure to these psychosocial hazards, there are venues for governments, societies, organizations, management, as well as individual workers to build and sustain healthy workplaces in which workers utilize their talents to achieve high performance as well as pursue happiness (Quick, 1999).

Over the past decade, positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) has stimulated our thinking to consider taking a balanced approach in job stress research and practice. There is considerable evidence suggesting the benefit of focusing on positive aspects of work contexts and activities, and beliefs and attitudes to build a healthy workplace, as well as to improve workers' wellbeing. Following the World Health Organization's (1948) definition of health, we believe that a lack of negative aspects in a workplace does not constitute a sufficient condition of having a happy and healthy workplace. To follow this line of thinking, we have planned this volume by inviting world-renowned scholars and rising stars to explore ways of addressing workplace stress from the perspectives of positive psychology.

In Chapter 2, Fisher provides an in-depth and thorough review of a family of wellbeing constructs and operationalizations, and recommends ways of reaching a consensus of defining and conceptualizing wellbeing at work. Then, in Chapter 3, Bakker and Demerouti present a refined job demands–resources theory that integrates past job design and job stress theories. This refined theory undoubtedly advances research in job demand and resources, and clearly offers actionable approaches to reduce job demands and increase job and personal resources.

In Chapter 4, Dewe leads us to consider how the positive psychology movement affects research in work-related coping, and how coping through positive emotion and appraisals leads to success and positive outcomes. Eatough and Spector (Chapter 5) articulate how job control contributes to positive health and wellbeing by providing an insightful synthesis pertaining to the nature of job control from both subjective and objective perspectives.

Hosie and ElRakhawy (Chapter 6) and Simmons (Chapter 7) explore characteristics of happy workers and happy organizations, respectively. They also review the factors that facilitate being happy workers and organizations, and provide convincing arguments why these characteristics would provide competitive advantages for organizations to succeed and be sustainable in the current fast-moving environment.

In the next two chapters, attention is turned to the role of person characters and experience to counter work stress, and pathways of pursuing happiness. Wright and Lauer (Chapter 8) eloquently articulate how characters are conceptualized, what are important characters in different work occupations, and how characters serve the foundation of wellbeing at work. In Chapter 9, Quick, Bennett, and Hargrove offer insights into how one can build strong leadership and promote a healthy workplace via five positive pathways: strength of character, self-awareness, socialized power motivation, requisite self-reliance, and diverse professional supports.

The focus of the next eight chapters is on organizational strategies that promote wellbeing at work. Cox, MacLennan, and N'Dow (Chapter 10) present a very timely topic faced in workplaces that has not been adequately addressed in the management and applied psychology literature. They introduce approaches that organizations can use to assist workers with cancer to maintain quality of working life and wellbeing. Simple things to most people's minds, such as toilet facilities and access, could make huge differences in improving workers' wellbeing at work. Robertson and Barling (Chapter 11) review the leadership literature and discuss the distinctions between poor and positive leadership, and how positive leadership behaviors can enhance workers' wellbeing. Tinline and Smeed (Chapter 12) suggest practical strategies at both organizational and individual level that can not only assist workers to cope with job stressors, but also increase workers' wellbeing and health, motivation, as well as productivity. Hanrahan and Leiter (Chapter 13) provide a review about workplace incivility, which is considered to be a common psychosocial hazard routinely faced by workers around the globe. They summarize recent theoretical developments, and suggest ways of reducing incivility based on their recent work on incivility intervention. Kossek, Valcour, and Lirio (Chapter 14) discuss the connections among sustainable workforce, work–life balance, and wellbeing, and propose three human resources strategies to develop sustainable workforces by strengthening work–life balance and wellbeing. In Chapter 15, Kath and Magley review the literature of sexual harassment awareness training, which has been under-studied in the sexual harassment literature. They further propose a comprehensive sexual harassment awareness training model that captures key factors to be considered by organizations, including design issues, individual factors such as attitude and motivation, organizational factors such as workgroups' cynicism about organizational change and training transfer climate, as well as proximal and distal training outcomes. Francis, Cameron, Kelloway, Catano, Day, and Hepburn (Chapter 16) bring our attention to challenges faced by injured workers after they return to work. Adverse consequences of stigmatization on injured workers after they return to work have profound impacts on workers, organizations, and societies. The authors provide insightful recommendations to organizations about how management can alleviate and counter the stressful stigmatization faced by injured workers. Winefield in Chapter 17 documents the rising stress experienced by academic staff members over the past three decades. He provides ways of reducing stress and improving wellbeing based on his research in Australian tertiary institutions.

To improve wellbeing in the workplace with sound evidence cannot be achieved without adequate methodology. Brusso, Cigularov, and Callan (Chapter 18) discuss and recommend approaches of investigating causal processes of occupational stress and wellbeing. Finally, to reflect and extend Fisher's essay in Chapter 2 of this volume, Allin (Chapter 19) highlights the role of governments in promoting the happiness of citizens, sharing with us his unique insight into the U.K. Government's policy and measurement program of wellbeing. He points out that knowing the level of national wellbeing and its impacts not only informs policy makers about what really matters to the citizens they work for, but also offers directions and actions to address barriers to improved wellbeing.

In contrast to focusing on the dark side of job stress in past stress research, this volume provides an array of essays that outline how governments, organizations, as well as individual workers are striving for wellbeing and happiness, as well as building and sustaining healthy workplaces by taking positive and proactive approaches with solid evidence. It is our belief that absence of job stress is not sufficient for pursuing wellbeing and happiness.

References

Barling, J., Dupre, K. E., & Kelloway, E. K. (2009). Predicting workplace aggression and violence. Annual Review of Psychology, 60, 671–692.

Chen, P. Y. (2007). The meaning of occupational health psychology: Personal reflection. Society for Occupational Health Psychology Newsletter, 1, 1. http://sohp.psy.uconn.edu/Downloads/SOHPNewsletterV1.pdf.

De Lange, A. H., Taris, T. W., Kompier, M. A. J., Houtman, I. L. D., & Bongers, P. M. (2003). “The very best of the millennium”: Longitudinal research and the Demand-Control-(Support) model. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 8, 282–305.

Gittleman, J., Gardner, P., Haile, E., Sampson, J., Cigularov, K. P., Ermann, E. D., Stafford, P., & Chen, P. Y. (2010). City center and cosmopolitan construction projects, Las Vegas, Nevada: Lessons learned from the use of multiple sources and mixed methods in a safety needs assessment. Journal of Safety Research, 41, 263–291.

Ilgen, D. R. (1990). Health issues at work: Opportunity for industrial/organizational psychology. American Psychologist, 45, 273–283.

Leiter, M. P., Laschinger, H. K. S., Day, A., & Gilin-Oore, D. (2011). The impact of civility interventions on employee social behavior, distress, and attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 96, 1258–1274.

Münsterberg, H. (1913). Psychology and industrial efficiency. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Quick, J. C. (1999). Occupational health psychology: Historical roots and future directions. Health Psychology, 18, 82–99.

Seligman, M. E. P., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction. American Psychologist, 55, 5–14.

Viteles, M. S. (1932). Industrial psychology. New York: W. W. Norton.

World Health Organization (1948, April 7). WHO definition of health. http://www.who.int/about/definition/en/print.html.

Chapter 2

Conceptualizing and Measuring Wellbeing at Work

Cynthia D. Fisher

Bond University, Australia

Happiness and wellbeing are important to people both in general and in the workplace, and have implications for mental and physical health (Diener, 2000; Lyubomirsky, King, & Diener, 2005). Rath and Harter (2010) identify five domains comprising overall wellbeing, and conclude that career wellbeing is probably the most important of the five for most people. Organizational scholars have long been interested in job satisfaction and related positive attitudes and experiences involving work, jobs, and employers. This interest has intensified following the rise of positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000), which directs attention toward flourishing and vibrant mental health rather than merely the absence of stress, mental illness, and suffering. Organizational scholars have followed this lead with streams of research called positive organizational scholarship (Cameron, Dutton, & Quinn, 2003; Cameron & Spreitzer, 2011) and positive organizational behavior (Luthans, 2002; Nelson & Cooper, 2007), as well as a great deal of research on engagement and on positive moods and emotions at work. Our understanding of the antecedents and consequences of happiness and wellbeing in the workplace is growing rapidly (Fisher, 2010).

The purpose of this chapter is to consider what might be meant by wellbeing at work. Many constructs and measures potentially fall under this umbrella, and wellbeing at work has been operationalized in a wide variety of ways. I will describe some existing conceptualizations and definitions, discuss a variety of approaches to measuring these phenomena, and then recommend means of both broadening and deepening the conceptualization and assessment of wellbeing in the workplace. I begin with the general psychology literature on the meaning of wellbeing, and then apply insights from that literature to the more specific domain of workplace wellbeing.

Wellbeing in Life

Philosophers and researchers have defined happiness and wellbeing in a variety of ways (Kesebir & Diener, 2008). There are a great many conceptual and operational definitions of these terms, and the same terms have been used inconsistently by different authors. Some conceptualizations and operationalizations are well established, while others are much newer and less consensually held. The major division is between hedonic views of wellbeing as pleasant feelings and evaluations, versus eudaimonic views which suggest that wellbeing involves engaging in behavior that is self-actualizing, meaningful, and growth producing (Ryan & Deci, 2001; Ryff & Singer, 2008).

Hedonic Wellbeing

Much of the research on wellbeing has focused on the hedonic aspect of experiencing a pleasant life. “Subjective wellbeing” (SWB) is a well-established and frequently studied construct in this tradition. SWB is widely agreed to contain three aspects (Diener, 1984): the frequent experience of positive affect, the infrequent experience of negative affect, and positive cognitive evaluations of life satisfaction. Affective wellbeing is often measured with Bradburn's (1969) Affect Balance Scale. Diener et al. (2010) have recently developed the 12-item Scale of Positive and Negative Experiences (SPANE). This scale uses both broad affect (e.g., good, unpleasant) and specific emotion (afraid, joyful) terms, rated on frequency of occurrence over the preceding 4 weeks. The instrument is designed to be scored for positive affect and negative affect, and if desired, for affect balance by subtracting the negative affect score from the positive affect score.

There has been considerable debate as to whether or not positive and negative affect are opposite ends of the same bipolar continuum, or are separable unipolar dimensions that are less than perfectly correlated. The latter opinion holds the upper hand at present (Schimmack, 2007). Positive and negative affect add uniquely to the prediction of some outcomes, and their ratio or relative frequency has important implications (Diener, Sandvik, & Pavot, 1991; Fredrickson & Losada, 2005). Therefore, both affects should be included in definitions and measures of subjective wellbeing. However, this does not resolve the problem of how best to conceptualize and measure positive and negative feelings. The affective component of wellbeing is sometimes conceptualized largely as hedonic tone, pleasant versus unpleasant moods and emotions. The affect circumplex adds a second dimension of high to low arousal (Russell, 1980). Another conceptualization rotates these two axes 45 degrees to define a dimension of positive affect running from high arousal pleasant feelings (e.g., enthusiastic, active, strong) to low arousal unpleasant feelings (e.g., dull, sluggish), and a second dimension of negative affect running from high arousal negative feelings (e.g., distressed, nervous, hostile) to low arousal positive feelings (e.g., placid, relaxed) (Watson & Tellegen, 1985). The 20 adjectives in the Positive and Negative Affect Scales (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) are commonly used to assess these constructs. Thompson (2007) provides a shortened and internationally validated version of the PANAS. An alternate approach is found in the Subjective Happiness Scale, which ignores arousal and the unipolar versus bipolar issue and assesses general happiness with four items such as “Compared to most of my peers, I consider myself: 1 = less happy, 7 = more happy” (Lyubomirsky & Lepper, 1999).

The other component of subjective wellbeing is a judgment of life satisfaction. This is sometimes measured by a single item, or alternatively by the 5-item Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener, Emmons, Larsen, & Griffin, 1985). Sample items in this instrument include, “In most ways, my life is close to my ideal” and “So far I have gotten the important things I want in life.”

Eudaimonic Wellbeing

Philosophers believe that eudaimonic wellbeing is also important. This involves living a good life, not just a pleasant one. Eudaimonic approaches are linked to the satisfaction of basic human needs for competence, autonomy, relatedness, and self-acceptance. The focus is on growth, purpose in life, meaning, pursuing self-concordant goals, self-actualization, and virtue (Sheldon & Elliot, 1999; Warr, 2007). This approach has roots in Greek philosophy, but a much newer and less-developed base in measurement and empirical research than subjective wellbeing (Waterman, 2008). The eudaimonic tradition concentrates on positive psychological functioning, called flourishing by Keyes (2002, 2005), rather than feelings of personal pleasure. Kashdan, Biswas-Diener, and King (2008) note that any aspect of wellbeing that is not explicitly affective seems to be considered eudaimonic. Ryff and her colleagues (Ryff, 1989; Ryff & Singer, 2008) suggest six dimensions of psychological wellbeing, none of which refer directly to the experience of pleasure. These are self-acceptance, purpose in life, environmental mastery, positive relationships, personal growth, and autonomy. Ryff (1989) has developed scales for measuring these factors.

Research based on the “strengths” view suggests that eudaimonic wellbeing involves using one's personal strengths often in daily life (Buckingham & Clifton, 2001; Seligman, Steen, Park, & Peterson, 2005). Another concept related to eudaimonic wellbeing is the experience of purpose or meaning in life (e.g., The Meaning in Life Questionnaire; Steger, Frazier, Oishi, & Kaler, 2006). Sometimes measures of energy/vitality are also considered eudaimonic, though one could also argue that these are high arousal positive emotions that instead comprise one of the three aspects of subjective wellbeing (Kashdan et al., 2008).

There is currently a debate in the literature as to whether hedonic and eudaimonic dimensions of wellbeing are conceptually and empirically separable (e.g., Kashdan et al., 2008; Raibley, 2012; Waterman, 2008). In practice, they are highly correlated. There is considerable evidence that behaving in eudaimonic ways is predictive of hedonic pleasure (Kashdan et al., 2008; Sheldon, Ryan, & Reis, 1996; Steyer, Kashdan, & Oishi, 2008; Waterman, 2008). Waterman explains that this is expected, because it is pleasant and satisfying to be self-actualizing. He also points out that eudaimonic wellbeing is sufficient but not necessary for hedonic happiness, and that measures of hedonic and eudaimonic wellbeing have somewhat different causes and different predictive relationships with outcomes. He suggests that both types of wellbeing are important and should be measured. King, Hicks, Krull, and Del Gaiso (2006) have confirmed a strong relationship between positive affect and the eudaimonic experience of meaning in life, but interestingly have shown that positive affect can be a cause as well as an effect of the short-term experience of meaning.

Social Wellbeing

There also may be a third distinct aspect of wellbeing to complement the hedonic aspect of inner pleasure and the eudaimonic aspect of inner growth, autonomy, and self-realization. It is the more outer-directed aspect of social wellbeing (Keyes, 1998). This is consistent with basic need theories which all acknowledge the importance of social relationships. A major review by Baumeister and Leary (1995) demonstrates the pervasive importance of social relationships for human wellbeing. They conclude that individuals need frequent interactions in stable relationships with others that involve giving and receiving care. Gallagher, Lopez, and Preacher (2009) proposed and found empirical support for a hierarchical structure of wellbeing as shown in Figure 2.1. The three second-order factors (hedonic, eudaimonic, and social wellbeing) have unique indicators but are quite highly correlated and combine to indicate overall wellbeing. Gallagher et al. make the case that each dimension should be assessed separately.

Figure 2.1 Model of Overall Wellbeing in Life. Adapted from Gallagher, Lopez, & Preacher (2009).

Other Multidimensional Models of Wellbeing

Recent European research by Huppert and So (2013) suggests a three-dimensional model of wellbeing/flourishing. The dimensions are positive appraisal (life satisfaction), positive functioning (engagement, competence, meaning, and positive relationships), and positive personal characteristics (emotional stability, vitality, optimism, resilience, positive emotion, and self-esteem).

Two additional models of the dimensions of wellbeing appear in Martin Seligman's work. His original model of “authentic happiness” contained three elements thought to be essential for overall happiness and life satisfaction: positive emotions, engagement (defined as experiencing states of deeply engaged interest called flow; see Csikszentmihalyi, 1990), and meaning or purpose in life (Seligman, 2002). His more recent thinking expands beyond life satisfaction or happiness to what he simply calls “wellbeing theory.” This five-element construct combines hedonic, eudaimonic, and social components by adding two elements to the earlier authentic happiness model. These are accomplishment (success/winning/mastery) and positive relationships with others (Seligman, 2011). When all elements are in place, individuals are expected to flourish. Fredrickson and Losada (2005, p. 678) define flourishing as living “within an optimal range of human functioning, one that connotes goodness, generativity, growth, and resilience.” Keyes (2002) and Huppert and So (2013) provide specific diagnostic criteria for flourishing. We will now turn to a discussion of wellbeing in the workplace, and consider how ideas from the general wellbeing literature might inform our understanding of wellbeing at work.

Wellbeing at Work

Organizational scholars have been measuring aspects of satisfaction, happiness, or wellbeing at work for nearly a century. A great number of concepts might be construed as belonging to the family of wellbeing constructs, including job satisfaction, job involvement, affective organizational commitment, work engagement, positive and negative emotions and moods at work, flow states, intrinsic motivation, thriving, and vigor (Fisher, 2010). Although I focus here on indicators of high wellbeing, constructs involving very low wellbeing, such as burnout, could also be included on the list. In parallel with the research on general wellbeing shown in Figure 2.1, the separate aspects of wellbeing at work might fit together to comprise overall wellbeing in the workplace as shown in Figure 2.2. Happiness, the inner circle, is the experience of pleasant moods and emotions while working. It is one of three components of subjective wellbeing at work. The second circle includes negative moods and emotions at work and cognitive judgments of work satisfaction and similar attitudes. The higher level construct of overall wellbeing at work adds eudaimonic and social wellbeing components. Figure 2.2 will guide the following discussion of the ways in which organizational scholars have and should conceptualize and measure wellbeing in the workplace.

Figure 2.2 Components of Overall Wellbeing at Work.

It is very clear that wellbeing at work is multidimensional (e.g., Grant, Christianson, & Price, 2007; Page & Vella-Brodrick, 2009; Warr, 2013). Many concepts and measures used in organizational behavior appear to straddle these different dimensions of wellbeing, often combining cognitive judgments with affect, hedonic happiness with eudaimonic wellbeing, or eudaimonic with social wellbeing. Furthermore, some aspects are commonly measured, and measured very well, while other important components of overall wellbeing at work have been largely ignored. This suggests considerable scope to broaden the ways we think about and assess wellbeing at work.

Subjective Wellbeing at Work

Subjective wellbeing includes positive attitudinal judgments as well as the experience of positive and negative affect. Workplace approaches to each of these will be discussed in turn.

Satisfaction and related attitudes.

Organizational researchers have been interested in job satisfaction since the 1920s, and it is the most commonly researched phenomenon in all of organizational behavior (Weiss & Brief, 2001; Wright, 2006). We are good at measuring it, with many well-validated measures of both overall job satisfaction and facet satisfactions (e.g., supervisor, pay, work itself) being available. Collections of job attitude measures can be found in Cook, Hepworth, Wall, and Warr (1981) and in Fields (2002).