Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide, Wellbeing in Children and Families E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 765

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014

Beschreibung

This is a wide-ranging look at the factors which positively and negatively affect the wellbeing of children and families.

• Discusses core developmental competencies for later life, the role of the family, the impact of different settings, and factors associated with lower levels of wellbeing
• Brings together the latest research from leaders in the field of child development
• Outlines important recommendations for families, caregivers, educators, social workers, and policymakers to assure and increase child wellbeing
• Part of the six-volume Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide, which brings together leading research from across the social sciences

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Title Page

Copyright

About the Editors

Contributors

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

The Volumes in the Series

References

1: Introduction

Part 1: The Development of Early Social and Cognitive Skills Important for Child Wellbeing

2: Children's Self-Regulation and Executive Control: Critical for Later Years

Executive Control

The Development of Executive Control in Early Childhood

Neural Mechanisms Supporting Executive Control Development in Early Childhood

Sociofamilial Factors that Support the Early Development of Executive Control

The Relevance of Executive Control for Later Academic Achievement, Behavior, and Socioemotional Wellbeing

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

3: Children's Emotion Regulation in Classroom Settings

Emotion Regulation: Definitions and Links to Learning

Socialization of Emotion Regulation and Implications for Classroom Settings

Interventions as an Opportunity to Improve Children's Emotional Development

Looking Ahead: Emotion Regulation in the Context of Elementary School

Summary and Implications

4: Early Math and Literacy Skills

Reading and Math Skills

Correlations and Gaps

Early Skills and Later Achievement

Early Skills, High-School Completion, and College Attendance

Why Math More than Reading?

Summary and Implications for Early Childhood Interventions

Acknowledgments

References

5: Children's Intrinsic Motivation to Learn

Introduction

Defining the Concept of Intrinsic Motivation

The Relevance of Intrinsic Motivation for School Functioning

Development of Children's Intrinsic Motivation

Possible Explanations for the Decline in Intrinsic Motivation

Summary

References

Part 2: Parenting and Children's Development

6: Parents' Role in Infants' Language Development and Emergent Literacy

Lexical Development

Grammatical Development

Pragmatic Development

Literacy Development

Conclusions

Acknowledgment

References

7: Can Parents Be Supported to Use a Responsive Interaction Style with Young Children?

Responsive Parenting from Two Theoretical Frameworks

A Responsive Parenting Intervention during the Infancy Period

The Need for Consistency in Responsive Parenting across Early Childhood

A Responsive Parenting Intervention during the Toddler/Preschool Period

Generalization of Responsive Behaviors to Shared Book-Reading Activities

Responsiveness Behaviors Explain Increases in Children's Development

Conclusion

References

8: Parenting and Executive Function

Challenges for Researchers Investigating Parental Influences on Children's Development

Can Parents Scaffold Their Children's EF Skills?

Family Risk Factors for EF Development: Maternal Depression and Family Chaos

Conclusions and New Directions

9: The Nature of Effective Parenting

The Requirements of Parenting

The Specificity of Socialization

The Meaning of Parenting Actions

General Conclusion

References

10: Parenting and Early Intervention

Emotion Regulation

Emotion Understanding

Attachment

Risk and Protective Factors: Strengths and Challenges in Building Positive Relationships

Child Characteristics

Parent and Family Characteristics

Environmental Characteristics

Early Intervention as a Developmental Change Agent

Implications for Promoting Social and Emotional Health in Early Childhood

References

Part 3: School and Child Care: Settings that Impact Child and Family Wellbeing

11: High-Risk Home and Child-Care Environments and Children's Social-Emotional Outcomes

Home and Child-Care Environments as Bioecological Systems

High-Risk Home Environments

High-Risk Child-Care Environments

Joint Effects of Home and Child-Care Environments

Poverty

Conclusions

References

12: Classroom Peer Relations as a Context for Social and Scholastic Development

Classroom Peer Acceptance and Rejection

Classroom Friendships

Bully–Victim Relations

Peer Work Partnerships

Summary and Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

13: The Importance of Quality Prekindergarten Programs for Promoting School Readiness Skills

Defining and Measuring High-Quality Pre-K and Children's School Readiness

Research on Prekindergarten Quality and Children's School Readiness

Limitations and Problems with Research on Pre-K Quality and Children's School Readiness

Contributions of Developmental Theories to Understanding Pre-K Quality and School Readiness

Conclusions

References

14: Consistent Environmental Stimulation from Birth to Elementary School

Relationships, Interactions, and Development of School-Readiness Skills

Interactions with Contexts: Relationships and Distributed Competence

Relationships, Interactions, and School Readiness: Birth to Elementary School

How We Think about Risk: Challenges to Interactions, Relationships, and School Readiness

References

Part 4: Stress and Family and Child Wellbeing

15: Poverty, Public Policy, and Children's Wellbeing

Definitions of Poverty

Poverty and Child Development

Policies Affecting Children in Poverty

Conclusions

References

16: Early Life Stress and Neurobehavioral Development

An Overview of Stress Neurobiology

Regulation of Stress by Relationships in Early Childhood

Toxic Stress Due to Deprivation, Neglect, and Relationship Disruption

Implications for Policy and Practice

Acknowledgment

References

17: Neighborhood Effects and Young Children's Outcomes

Examples of Two Experimental Studies

Contagion or Epidemic Theories

Social Organization and Parenting

Stress Theories

Neighborhood Institutional Resources

Neighborhood Research in a Canadian Context

Conclusions

References

18: The Family Check-Up

Overview

Key Components of the Family Check-Up Model

The Initial Interview, Family Assessment, and the Feedback Session

Summary

References

Index

Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Volume I: Wellbeing in Children and Families

Edited by Susan H. Landry and Cary L. Cooper

Volume II: Wellbeing and the Environment

Edited by Rachel Cooper, Elizabeth Burton, and Cary L. Cooper

Volume III: Work and Wellbeing

Edited by Peter Y. Chen and Cary L. Cooper

Volume IV: Wellbeing in Later Life

Edited by Thomas B. L. Kirkwood and Cary L. Cooper

Volume V: The Economics of Wellbeing

Edited by David McDaid and Cary L. Cooper

Volume VI: Interventions and Policies to Enhance Wellbeing

Edited by Felicia A. Huppert and Cary L. Cooper

This edition first published 2014

© 2014 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Wellbeing in children and families / volume editor, Susan H. Landry; editor-in-chief : Cary L. Cooper.

    pages cm. – (Wellbeing : a complete reference guide; volume I)

  Includes bibliographical references and index.

  ISBN 978-1-118-60845-6 (cloth : alk. paper) 1.Children. 2.Families. 3.Well-being. I. Landry, Susan.

  HQ767.9.W456 2014

  158 – dc23

2013030481

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Cover image: © Ekely / Getty

Cover design by cyandesign.co.uk

About the Editors

Susan H. Landry, a developmental psychologist, is the Albert and Margaret Alkek Chair in Early Childhood and Michael Matthew Knight Professor in the Department of Pediatrics at the University of Texas Health Science Center-Houston, U.S.A. She is Director and Founder of the Children's Learning Institute. Her research examines biological and environmental influences on children's development using parent–child and early childhood classroom intervention studies. She is the author of more than 100 peer-reviewed publications, over 20 book chapters, and a monograph describing the findings of these research studies.

Cary L. Cooper, CBE, is Distinguished Professor of Organizational Psychology and Health at Lancaster University Management School, U.K. He is the author/editor of over 150 books, has written over 400 scholarly articles for academic journals, and is a frequent contributor to national newspapers, TV, and radio. He is the Chair of the Academy of Social Sciences (comprised of 46 learned societies in the social sciences, with nearly 90,000 social scientists), President of RELATE, President of the Institute of Welfare, and immediate past President of the British Association of Counselling and Psychotherapy. He was the Founding President of the British Academy of Management, Founding Editor of the Journal of Organizational Behavior, and is currently Editor-in-Chief of the international scholarly journal Stress & Health. He has received honorary doctorates from a number of universities (e.g., University of Sheffield, Aston University, and Heriot-Watt University). He has been awarded honorary fellowships by the Royal College of Physicians, Royal College of Physicians of Ireland, British Psychological Society, European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology, and Institute of Occupational Safety and Health. In 2010 Professor Cooper was awarded the Lord Dearing Lifetime Achievement Award at the The Times Higher Education Awards for his distinguished contribution to higher education. He was lead scientist on the U.K. Government's Foresight program on Mental Capital and Wellbeing, which had a major impact in the United Kingdom and Europe. Professor Cooper was Chair of the Global Agenda Council on Chronic Diseases in the World Economic Forum in 2009–2010. In 2012, HR magazine voted him the Fourth Most Influential HR Thinker. In 2001, he was awarded a CBE by the Queen for his contribution to occupational health.

Contributors

Catherine C. Ayoub, Harvard Medical School and Brazelton Touchpoints Center, Boston, U.S.A.

Lisa S. Badanes, University of Denver, U.S.A.

Jessica Dym Bartlett, Brazelton Touchpoints Center, Boston, U.S.A.

Caron A. C. Clark, University of Oregon, U.S.A.

Ella Daniel, University of Toronto, Canada

Thomas J. Dishion, Arizona State University, U.S.A.

Chantelle Dowsett, University of Kansas, U.S.A.

Greg J. Duncan, University of California, Irvine, U.S.A.

Rosie Ensor, University of Cambridge, U.K.

Kimberly Andrews Espy, University of Oregon, U.S.A.

Leanne Findlay, Health Analysis Division of Statistics Canada, Canada

Verena Freiberger, Heidelberg University, Germany

Anne M. Gill, University of Pittsburgh, U.S.A.

Joan E. Grusec, University of Toronto, Canada

Megan R. Gunnar, University of Minnesota, U.S.A.

Claire Hughes, University of Cambridge, U.K.

Aletha C. Huston, University of Texas at Austin, U.S.A.

Becky Kochenderfer-Ladd, Arizona State University, U.S.A.

Dafna Kohen, University of Ottawa, Canada

Gary W. Ladd, Arizona State University, U.S.A.

Susan H. Landry, University of Texas Health Science Center, U.S.A.

Joshua F. Lawrence, University of California, Irvine, U.S.A.

Rufan Luo, New York University, U.S.A.

Miriam M. Martinez, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, U.S.A.

Andrew J. Mashburn, Portland State University, U.S.A.

Jennifer Mize Nelson, University of Nebraska–Lincoln, U.S.A.

Robert C. Pianta, University of Virginia, U.S.A.

C. Cybele Raver, New York University, U.S.A.

Gabriela Roman, University of Cambridge, U.K.

Dilek Sarita, University of Toronto, Canada

Casey M. Sechler, Arizona State University, U.S.A.

Daniel S. Shaw, University of Pittsburgh, U.S.A.

Lulu Song, New York University, U.S.A.

Birgit Spinath, Heidelberg University, Germany

Sarah Stellern, University of Minnesota, U.S.A.

Mallary I. Swartz, Brazelton Touchpoints Center, Boston, U.S.A.

Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda, New York University, U.S.A.

Sarah Enos Watamura, University of Denver, U.S.A.

Sandra A. Wiebe, University of Alberta, Canada

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Volume I Wellbeing in Children and Families

Edited by Susan H. Landry and Cary L. Cooper

About the Editors

Contributors

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

1 Introduction

Susan H. Landry

Part 1 The Development of Early Social and Cognitive Skills Important for Child Wellbeing

2 Children's Self-Regulation and Executive Control: Critical for Later Years

Caron A. C. Clark, Miriam M. Martinez, Jennifer Mize Nelson, Sandra A. Wiebe, and Kimberly Andrews Espy

3 Children's Emotion Regulation in Classroom Settings

C. Cybele Raver

4 Early Math and Literacy Skills: Key Predictors of Later School Success

Greg J. Duncan, Chantelle Dowsett, and Joshua F. Lawrence

5 Children's Intrinsic Motivation to Learn: Does It Decline over Time and, If So, Why?

Verena Freiberger and Birgit Spinath

Part 2 Parenting and Children's Development

6 Parents' Role in Infants' Language Development and Emergent Literacy

Catherine S. Tamis-LeMonda, Rufan Luo, and Lulu Song

7 Can Parents Be Supported to Use a Responsive Interaction Style with Young Children?

Susan H. Landry

8 Parenting and Executive Function: Positive and Negative Influences

Claire Hughes, Gabriela Roman, and Rosie Ensor

9 The Nature of Effective Parenting: Some Current Perspectives

Joan E. Grusec, Dilek Sarita, and Ella Daniel

10 Parenting and Early Intervention: The Impact on Children's Social and Emotional Skill Development

Catherine C. Ayoub, Jessical Dym Bartlett, and Mallary I. Swartz

Part 3 School and Child Care: Settings that Impact Child and Family Wellbeing

11 High-Risk Home and Child-Care Environments and Children's Social-Emotional Outcomes

Lisa S. Badanes and Sarah Enos Watamura

12 Classroom Peer Relations as a Context for Social and Scholastic Development

Gary W. Ladd, Becky Kochenderfer-Ladd, and Casey M. Sechler

13 The Importance of Quality Prekindergarten Programs for Promoting School Readiness Skills

Andrew J. Mashburn

14 Consistent Environmental Stimulation from Birth to Elementary School: The Combined Contribution of Different Settings on School Achievement

Robert C. Pianta

Part 4 Stress and Family and Child Wellbeing

15 Poverty, Public Policy, and Children's Wellbeing

Aletha C. Huston

16 Early Life Stress and Neurobehavioral Development

Sarah Stellern and Megan R. Gunnar

17 Neighborhood Effects and Young Children's Outcomes

Dafna Kohen and Leanne Findlay

18 The Family Check-Up: A Tailored Approach to Intervention with High-Risk Families

Anne M. Gill, Thomas J. Dishion, and Daniel S. Shaw

Index

Volume II Wellbeing and the Environment

Edited by Rachel Cooper, Elizabeth Burton, and Cary L. Cooper

About the Editors

Contributors

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

1 Wellbeing and the Environment: An Overview

Rachel Cooper

Part 1 Wellbeing and the Neighborhood

2 Urban Neighborhoods and Mental Health across the Life Course

Erin Gilbert and Sandro Galea

3 The Impact of the Local Social and Physical Local Environment on Wellbeing

Anne Ellaway

4 Density and Mental Wellbeing

Christopher T. Boyko and Rachel Cooper

5 Neighborhoods and Social Interaction

Scott C. Brown and Joanna Lombard

6 Living in the City: Mixed Use and Quality of Life

Graeme Evans

7 “We Live Here Too”… What Makes a Child-Friendly Neighborhood?

Karen E. Martin and Lisa J. Wood

8 A Step Too Far? Designing Dementia-Friendly Neighborhoods

Lynne Mitchell

9 Walkable Neighborhoods: Principles, Measures, and Health Impacts

Tim G. Townshend

10 Quality of Urban Spaces and Wellbeing

Mags Adams

Part 2 Wellbeing and Buildings

11 Children and the Physical Environment

Lorraine E. Maxwell and Gary W. Evans

12 Wellbeing and the School Environment

Andy Jones and Flo Harrison

13 The Built Housing Environment, Wellbeing, and Older People

Rachael Dutton

14 Workplace and Wellbeing

Jeremy Myerson

15 Linking the Physical Design of Health-Care Environments to Wellbeing Indicators

Sarah Payne, Rachel Potter, and Rebecca Cain

Part 3 Wellbeing and Green Spaces

16 Wellbeing and Green Spaces in Cities

William Sullivan

17 Environmental Interaction and Engagement: Supporting Wellbeing

Richard Coles

Part 4 Wellbeing and the Environment: Other Factors and the Future

18 Crime and the Urban Environment: The Implications for Wellbeing

Caroline L. Davey and Andrew B. Wootton

19 Transport and Wellbeing

Nick Tyler

20 Air Quality and Wellbeing

Ben Croxford

21 Implications of Low-Carbon Design of Housing for Health and Wellbeing: A U.K. Case Study

Michael Davies, Ian Hamilton, Anna Mavrogianni, Rokia Raslan, and Paul Wilkinson

22 Cobenefits of Insulating Houses: Research Evidence and Policy Implications

Philippa Howden-Chapman and Nicholas Preval

23 The Multiple Pathways between Environment and Health

Marketta Kyttä and Anna Broberg

24 Summary: Wellbeing and the Environmental Implications for Design

Rachel Cooper and Elizabeth Burton

Index

Volume III Work and Wellbeing

Edited by Peter Y. Chen and Cary L. Cooper

About the Editors

Contributors

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Part 1 Introduction

1 Introduction: From Stress to Happiness

Peter Y. Chen and Cary L. Cooper

2 Conceptualizing and Measuring Wellbeing at Work

Cynthia D. Fisher

Part 2 Resources, Coping, and Control

3 Job Demands–Resources Theory

Arnold B. Bakker and Evangelia Demerouti

4 Positive Psychology and Coping: Towards a Better Understanding of the Relationship

Philip Dewe

5 The Role of Workplace Control in Positive Health and Wellbeing

Erin M. Eatough and Paul E. Spector

Part 3 Happy Workers and Happy Organizations

6 The Happy Worker: Revisiting the “Happy–Productive Worker” Thesis

Peter Hosie and Nada ElRakhawy

7 Organizational Characteristics of Happy Organizations

Bret L. Simmons

Part 4 Character and Wellbeing

8 Character and Wellbeing

Thomas A. Wright and Tyler Lauer

9 Stress, Health, and Wellbeing in Practice: Workplace Leadership and Leveraging Stress for Positive Outcomes

James Campbell Quick, Joel Bennett, and M. Blake Hargrove

Part 5 Organizational Strategies to Promote Wellbeing

10 Cancer, Work, and the Quality of Working Life: A Narrative Review

Tom Cox, Sara MacLennan, and James N'Dow

11 Lead Well, Be Well: Leadership Behaviors Influence Employee Wellbeing

Jennifer Robertson and Julian Barling

12 Organizational Coping Strategies and Wellbeing

Gordon Tinline and Matthew Smeed

13 Workplace Mistreatment: Recent Developments in Theory, Research, and Interventions

Michael Hanrahan and Michael P. Leiter

14 The Sustainable Workforce: Organizational Strategies for Promoting Work–Life Balance and Wellbeing

Ellen Ernst Kossek, Monique Valcour, and Pamela Lirio

15 Development of a Theoretically Grounded Model of Sexual Harassment Awareness Training Effectiveness

Lisa M. Kath and Vicki J. Magley

16 The Working Wounded: Stigma and Return to Work

Lori Francis, James E. Cameron, E. Kevin Kelloway, Victor M. Catano, Arla L. Day, and C. Gail Hepburn

17 Job Stress in University Academics: Evidence from an Australian National Study

Anthony H. Winefield

Part 6 From Research to National Policy

18 Longitudinal Research in Occupational Stress: A Review of Methodological Issues

Robert C. Brusso, Konstantin P. Cigularov, and Rachel C. Callan

19 Measuring Wellbeing in Modern Societies

Paul Allin

Index

Volume IV Wellbeing in Later Life

Edited by Thomas B. L. Kirkwood and Cary L. Cooper

About the Editors

Contributors

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

1 Introduction: Wellbeing in Later Life

Cary L. Cooper and Thomas B. L. Kirkwood

Part 1 Longevity and Wellbeing

2 The Changing Demographic Context of Aging

Roland Rau and James W. Vaupel

3 Biological Determinants and Malleability of Aging

Thomas B. L. Kirkwood

4 Wellbeing as Experienced by the Very Old

Carol Jagger and Katie Brittain

Part 2 Factors Influencing Wellbeing

5 Psychological Wellbeing in Later Life

Kate M. Bennett and Laura K. Soulsby

6 Nutrition and Lifelong Wellbeing

C. Alexandra Munro and John C. Mathers

7 Physical Activity, Exercise, and Aging

Grainne S. Gorman, Josh Wood, and Michael I. Trenell

8 Capability and Independency in Later Life

John Bond

9 Combating Isolation Through Technology in Older People

Peter Gore

10 Wellbeing and Vitality in Later Life: The Role of the Consumer Industry

Michael Catt and Frans J. G. van der Ouderaa

11 Education and its Role in Wellbeing

Jim Soulsby

Part 3 Wellbeing at the End of Life

12 The Threat to Wellbeing from Cognitive Decline

Louise Robinson and Lynne Corner

13 When Vitality Meets Longevity: New Strategies for Health in Later Life

Rudi G. J. Westendorp, Bert Mulder, A. J. Willem van der Does, and Frans J. G. van der Ouderaa

14 Maintaining Wellbeing Through the End of Life

Julian C. Hughes

Part 4 Comparative Perspectives on Wellbeing

15 Cultures, Aging, and Wellbeing

Ngaire Kerse, Mere Kēpa, Ruth Teh, and Lorna Dyall

16 Wellbeing in the Oldest Old and Centenarians in Japan

Yasuyuki Gondo, Yasumichi Arai, and Nobuyoshi Hirose

17 Wellbeing in Later Life in Eighteenth-Century England

Helen Yallop

Appendix

Foresight Mental Capital and Wellbeing Project: Mental Capital Through Life: Future Challenges

Thomas B. L. Kirkwood, John Bond, Carl May, Ian McKeith, and Min-Min Teh

Index

Volume V The Economics of Wellbeing

Edited by David McDaid and Cary L. Cooper

About the Editors

Contributors

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

1 Introduction

David McDaid and Cary L. Cooper

Part 1 Perspectives on the Economics of Wellbeing

2 A Short History of Wellbeing Research

Laura Stoll

3 Income and Wellbeing: A Selective Review

Brendan Kennelly

4 Does Money Buy Me Love? Testing Alternative Measures of National Wellbeing

Arthur Grimes, Les Oxley, and Nicholas Tarrant

5 The Impact of the Great Recession on Economic Wellbeing: How Different Are OECD Nations and Why?

Lars Osberg and Andrew Sharpe

6 Was the Economic Crisis of 2008 Good for Icelanders? Impact on Health Behaviours

Tinna Laufey Ásgeirsdóttir, Hope Corman, Kelly Noonan, órhildur Ólafsdóttir, and Nancy E. Reichman

7 Mental Health: A New Frontier for Labor Economics

Richard Layard

Part 2 Promoting Wellbeing: The Economic Case for Action

8 Investing in the Wellbeing of Young People: Making the Economic Case

David McDaid, A-La Park, Candice Currie, and Cara Zanotti

9 Investing in Wellbeing in the Workplace: More Than Just a Business Case

David McDaid and A-La Park

10 Promoting the Health and Wellbeing of Older People: Making an Economic Case

A-La Park, David McDaid, Anna K. Forsman, and Kristian Wahlbeck

11 Promoting and Protecting Mental Wellbeing during Times of Economic Change

David McDaid and Kristian Wahlbeck

12 Making Use of Evidence from Wellbeing Research in Policy and Practice

David McDaid

Index

Volume VI Interventions and Policies to Enhance Wellbeing

Edited by Felicia A. Huppert and Cary L. Cooper

About the Editors

Contributors

Full Contents of Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Introduction to this Volume

1 The State of Wellbeing Science: Concepts, Measures, Interventions, and Policies

Felicia A. Huppert

Part 1 Individual and Group Interventions across the Life Course

2 Parenting Interventions to Promote Wellbeing and Prevent Mental Disorder

Sarah Stewart-Brown

3 Promoting Mental Health and Wellbeing in Schools

Katherine Weare and Melanie Nind

4 An Exploration of the Effects of Mindfulness Training and Practice in Association with Enhanced Wellbeing for Children and Adolescents: Theory, Research, and Practice

Christine Burke

5 MindMatters: Implementing Mental Health Promotion in Secondary Schools in Australia

Louise Rowling and Trevor Hazell

6 A Systematic Review of Mental Health Promotion in the Workplace

Czesław Czabała and Katarzyna Charzyska

7 Wellbeing Begins with “We”: The Physical and Mental Health Benefits of Interventions that Increase Social Closeness

Bethany E. Kok and Barbara L. Fredrickson

8 The Experience Corps®: Intergenerational Interventions to Enhance Wellbeing Among Retired People

George W. Rebok, Michelle C. Carlson, Kevin D. Frick, Katherine D. Giuriceo, Tara L. Gruenewald, Sylvia McGill, Jeanine M. Parisi, William A. Romani, Teresa E. Seeman, Elizabeth K. Tanner, and Linda P. Fried

9 Enhancing Mental Health and Mental Wellbeing in Older People: Important Concepts and Effective Psychosocial Interventions

Anna K. Forsman, Eija Stengård, and Kristian Wahlbeck

Part 2 Interventions to Create Positive Organizations and Communities

10 Wellbeing as a Business Priority: Experience from the Corporate World

Catherine Kilfedder and Paul Litchfield

11 The Power of Philanthropy and Volunteering

Sara Konrath

12 Community Change: The Complex Nature of Interventions to Promote Positive Connections

Sue Roffey and Jacqueline Barnes

13 The Health and Wellbeing Effects of Active Labor Market Programs

Adam P. Coutts, David Stuckler, and David J. Cann

Part 3 The Policy Perspective

14 Creating Good Lives Through Computer Games

Daniel Johnson, Peta Wyeth, and Penny Sweetser

15 Retooling for Wellbeing: Media and the Public's Mental Health

Marten W. deVries

16 Policy and Wellbeing: The U.K. Government Perspective

David Halpern

17 Measuring what Matters

Juliet Michaelson, Charles Seaford, Saamah Abdallah, and Nic Marks

18 Mental Health and Wellbeing at the Top of the Global Agenda

Eva Jané-Llopis, Peter Anderson, and Helen Herrman

19 How can Subjective Wellbeing be Improved?

John F. Helliwell

Index

Introduction to Wellbeing: A Complete Reference Guide

Cary L. Cooper

Lancaster University, U.K.

This series of six volumes explores one of the most important social issues of our times, that of how to enhance the mental wellbeing of people, whether in the developed, developing, or underdeveloped world, and across the life course from birth to old age. We know that 1 in 4–6 people in most countries in the world suffer from a common mental disorder of anxiety, depression, or stress. We also know that mental ill health costs countries billions of dollars per annum. In the United Kingdom, for example, mental health-care costs have amounted to over £77 billion per annum, the bill for sickness absence and presenteeism (people turning up to work ill or not delivering due to job stress) in the workplace is another £26 billion, and the costs of dementia will rise from £20 billion to an estimated £50 billion in 25 years' time (Cooper, Field, Goswami, Jenkins, & Sahakian, 2009). In Germany, the leading cause of early retirement from work in 1989 was musculoskeletal disease but by 2004 it was stress and mental ill health, now representing 40% of all early retirements (German Federal Health Monitoring, 2007). In many European countries (e.g., Finland, Holland, Norway, and Switzerland) the cost of lost productive value due to lack of mental wellbeing is a significant proportion of gross domestic product (McDaid, Knapp, Medeiros, & MHEEN Group, 2008). Indeed, the costs of depression alone in the European Union were shown to be €41 billion, with €77 billion in terms of lost productivity to all the economies (Sobocki, Jonsson, Angst, & Rehnberg, 2006).

The issue of wellbeing has been around for sometime but has been brought to the fore more recently because of the global recession and economic downturn, which have made the situation worse (Antoniou & Cooper, 2013). But it was as early as 1968 that politicians began to talk about the inadequacy of gross national product as a measure of a society's success. In a powerful speech by Bobby Kennedy at the University of Kansas, when he was on the campaign trail for the Democratic Party nomination for U.S. President, he reflected:

But even if we act to erase material poverty, there is another greater task, it is to confront the poverty of satisfaction—purpose and dignity—that afflicts us all. Too much and for too long, we seemed to have surrendered personal excellence and community values in the mere accumulation of material things. Our gross national product, now, is over $800 billion a year, but that gross national product—if we judge the United States of America by that—that gross national product counts air pollution and cigarette advertising, and ambulances to clear our highways of carnage. It counts special locks for our doors and the jails for the people who break them. It counts the destruction of the redwood and the loss of our natural wonder in the chaotic sprawl. It counts napalm and counts nuclear warheads and armoured cars for the police to fight the riots in our cities. …Yet the GNP does not allow for the health of our children, the quality of their education or the joy of their play. It does not include the beauty of our poetry or the strength of our marriages, the intelligence of our public debate or the integrity of our public officials. It measures neither our wit nor our courage, neither our wisdom nor our learning, neither our compassion nor our devotion to our country, it measures everything in short, except that which makes life worthwhile.

University of Kansas, March 18, 1968,http://www.americanswhotellthetruth.org/portraits/robert-f-kennedy

Since that time there have been numerous studies to show that the wealth of a country is not related to its happiness (Cooper & Robertson, 2013); indeed, as you earn far beyond your means you may become less happy or content. More recently, we have had politicians like former President Sarkozy of France, Prime Minister Cameron of the United Kingdom, and the King of Bhutan extoll the virtue of gross national wellbeing; that is, that the goal of a nation's politicians should be to enhance wellbeing among its citizens, with gross national product being only one indicator of a country's success. Indeed, Prime Minister Cameron has instituted an annual assessment of this through the U.K. Office of National Statistics which measures wellbeing among a large sample of the U.K. population, publishing the results, highlighting concerns, and ultimately considering policies to deal with them. The World Economic Forum of leading global companies, nongovernmental organizations, international bodies, and global charities now has one of its Global Agenda Councils on “mental health and wellbeing.” Happiness and wellbeing indices abound (e.g., The Happy Planet), and many countries are being compared and assessed on a range of quality-of-life metrics. Indeed, in April 2012, 79 countries in the General Assembly of the United Nations signed the Bhutan Agreement, supporting the view that an overarching goal of a country should be to enhance the wellbeing and happiness of its people.

The biggest study of its kind undertaken by any government was the 2 year U.K. Government's Foresight project on mental capital and wellbeing, the aim of which was “to produce a challenging and long-term vision for optimising mental capital and wellbeing in the United Kingdom in the 21st century—both for the benefit of society and for the individual” (Cooper et al., 2009). Mental capital was defined as the metaphorical “bank account of the mind,” which gets enhanced or depleted throughout the life course (see figure). Mental wellbeing was defined as “a dynamic state that refers to individuals' ability to develop their potential, work productively and creatively, build strong and positive relationships with others and contribute to their community” (Beddington et al., 2008).

Figure. Synthetic View of the Mental Capital Trajectory.

Over 85 international science reviews were commissioned to assess the factors that influence an individual's mental capital and wellbeing throughout life, from early childhood to school years to working life to old age. There were numerous findings in this report, which were costed and developed as potential government policy and/or interventions. An example of some of the findings were: (a) if society does not catch learning difficulties in children early enough, there will be increased personal and economic costs downstream, leading to depleted mental wellbeing in terms of increased antisocial behavior as well as significant health costs; (b) if society does not identify the common mental disorders (CMDs) of anxiety, depression, and stress early enough, and provide appropriate treatment and support, society won't be able to tackle the 1 in 4–6 people suffering from depression and other CMDs; (c) with the workplace being more insecure, people working longer hours, and being more overloaded, occupational stress in many countries is now the leading cause of sickness absence and presenteeism, which has implications for the viability of businesses and their productivity; and, finally, (d) with the doubling of over-65-year-olds and the tripling of over-80-year-olds over the next 30 years, society needs to deal with the consequences of dementia now with preventative strategies, better early diagnosis, and more successful and evidence-based treatment regimes. The Foresight project developed many recommendations to enhance mental capital and wellbeing not only in the United Kingdom but also for other countries (Cooper et al., 2009), and its legacy has provided a roadmap for how other countries should think about this in the future, in terms of both policies and interventions for wellbeing.

The Volumes in the Series

Each volume in the series has a senior editor who is a leading international scholar in a particular field, following the life-course model described by the Foresight program. We start with Wellbeing in children and families and progress to Wellbeing and the environment, Work and wellbeing, Wellbeing in later life, The economics of wellbeing, and, finally, Interventions and policies to enhance wellbeing. The contributors to each of these volumes are distinguished international academics who work in the domain covered, reviewing the evidence that can help to develop policies and interventions to enhance wellbeing in that particular context.

In the first volume on children and families we explore four different themes, with a number of chapters under each of these: the development of the early social and cognitive skills that are important in child wellbeing, parenting and children's development, school and child care-settings that impact child and family wellbeing, and stress and family and child wellbeing.

The second volume is on wellbeing and the environment. This comprises sections, with chapters in each, on wellbeing and the neighborhood, wellbeing and buildings, wellbeing and green spaces, crime and the urban environment (and the implications for wellbeing), and wellbeing and the environmental implications for design.

The third volume highlights the issues of work and wellbeing. A range of topics is covered here: the impact of job demands, the role of workplace control, the organizational characteristics of “happy organizations,” leadership behaviors that influence employee wellbeing, the sustainable workforce, the “working wounded” (including stigma and return to work), organizational coping strategies and wellbeing, and many more.

The fourth volume highlights wellbeing in later life. Topics covered include the changing demographic context of aging, biological determinants and malleability of aging, psychological aspects of wellbeing in later life, nutrition and lifelong wellbeing, physical exercise and aging, combating isolation through technology in older people, the threat to wellbeing from cognitive decline, and maintaining wellbeing through the end of life, among others.

The fifth volume explores the economics of wellbeing, with chapters on income and wellbeing, alternative measures of national wellbeing, the impact of the great recession on economic wellbeing, whether recessions are good for one's health, investing in the wellbeing of children, investing in wellbeing in the workplace, promoting health and wellbeing of older people and protecting population mental health, wellbeing during an economic crisis, and many others.

Finally, the sixth volume highlights interventions and policies that can enhance wellbeing throughout the life course. There are three sections, with chapters on the state of wellbeing science, individual/group interventions on childhood and adolescence, promoting mental health and wellbeing in schools, mindfulness training for children and adolescents, interventions in working years and post retirement, mental health promotion in the workplace, intergenerational interventions to enhance wellbeing among retired people, interventions to create positive organizations and communities with wellbeing as a business priority, the power of philanthropy and volunteering, and creating community connections. Finally, policies are discussed, such as mental health and wellbeing at the top of the global agenda, how subjective wellbeing can influence policy, media and the public's mental health, and promoting wellbeing through new technology.

These volumes contain the leading-edge research, practice, and policies to help government, businesses, local authorities, and global institutions consider how we can action some of what Bobby Kennedy suggested were an important set of outcomes for a successful society. Our institutions need to change, and we as individuals need to do so as well, if we are to achieve personal wellbeing, or as Abraham Lincoln wrote during the American Civil War, “it is not the years in your life which are important, but the life in your years.” Winston Churchill reflected on this as well, when he wrote in an essay on how he dealt with the excessive pressures of life and found solace: “many remedies are suggested for the avoidance of worry and mental overstrain by persons who, over prolonged periods, have to bear exceptional responsibilities and discharge duties upon a very large scale. Some advise exercise, and others, repose. Some counsel travel, and others, retreat…no doubt all of these may play their part according to individual temperament. But the element which is constant and common in all of them is Change…a man can wear out a particular part of his mind by continually using it and tiring it, just in the same way as he can wear out the elbows of his coats…but the tired parts of the mind can be rested and strengthened, not merely by rest, but by using other parts…it is only when new cells are called into activity, when new stars become the lords of the ascendant, that relief, repose, refreshment are afforded.”

I hope that these volumes will provide you with the science, practice, and tools to enhance the mental wellbeing of people in your own work.

References

Antoniou, A., & Cooper, C. L. (Eds.) (2013). The psychology of the recession on the workplace. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Beddington, J., Cooper, C. L., Field, J., Goswami, U., Huppert, F., Jenkins, R., …Thomas, S. (2008). The mental wealth of nations. Nature, 455(23), 1057–1060.

Cooper, C. L., Field, J., Goswami, U., Jenkins, R., & Sahakian, B. (Eds.) (2009). Mental capital and wellbeing. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell.

Cooper, C. L., & Robertson, I. (Eds.) (2013). Management and happiness. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing.

German Federal Health Monitoring (2007). Trends in causes of early retirement. http://www.gber.bund.de.

McDaid, D., Knapp, M., Medeiros, H., & MHEEN Group (2008). Employment and mental health. Brussels: European Commission.

Sobocki, P., Jonsson, B., Angst, J., & Rehnberg, C. (2006). Cost of depression in Europe. Journal of Mental Health Policy and Economics, 9(2), 87–98.

1

Introduction

Susan H. Landry

University of Texas Health Science Center, U.S.A.

The wellbeing of children and families is of utmost importance to our communities, cities, and nations. This volume is a collection of chapters that address many of the issues related to understanding the wellbeing of young children and, in turn, the wellbeing of their families. The first part of this volume includes four chapters that describe different, but related, areas of children's early development that together provide an important foundation for later competence. The changes in children's self-regulation and executive control over the first years of life, described in Chapter 2, are dramatic. This is important to appreciate as these skills are critical to children's ability, at entry into school, to function somewhat independently in a classroom with all of the numerous social and cognitive demands they face in this complex setting. The inclusion of these discussions in this book is important, given how self-regulation and executive control together with emotion regulation are integral to later academic and social competence.

Chapter 3 provides a sound rationale for considering the importance of early emotional regulatory skills for understanding that early cognitive learning can be best supported if there is careful attention to these skills and the emotional climates of children's learning environment (e.g., classrooms, schools, and home). We also understand, from information provided in Chapter 4, how early math and literacy skills that develop across the first 5 years are key to understanding later academic achievement. The rigorous research described in this chapter demonstrates longitudinal support for these skills as early predictors that can guide educational policy to make informed decisions.

When Chapters 2, 3, and 4 are considered together, the complex nature of children's early development, in terms of the need to consider the interrelatedness of skills across different developmental domains in order to account for later life competence, is truly highlighted. However, in light of the dynamic nature of the early development of the many skills necessary to put children on a trajectory that will better assure life success, the evidence provided in Chapter 5 is concerning. This chapter considers the importance of intrinsic motivation for understanding a sustained high level of learning in light of the decline in this key predictor across the elementary-school years. Discussion of the factors that may buffer this decline provides hope for ways to intervene effectively.

Parts 2 to 4 of this collection of chapters explore the many factors that are documented to influence the quality and rate of development of children's abilities, such as those described in Part 1. The caregiving environment and parents' interactions with their young children are consistently documented as two of the most important environmental influences on children's outcomes. The selection of chapters in Part 2 considers the mechanisms that explain this influence, as well as some of the developmental areas that are impacted by parenting. The critical nature of parents' behaviors with their children, beginning at birth, is striking—as described in Chapter 6 in relation to early language development and emergent literacy, and in Chapter 8 in relation to executive functions. In addition to delineating the mechanisms that help explain the parent–child associations, Chapter 6 provides empirical evidence for four specific features of parents' language with their young children that could have strong implications for future interventions to facilitate parents' use of effective language support strategies. The role of parenting in understanding change in development, in contrast to the role of genetic factors in explaining stable individual differences, highlights the specific aspects of parent interactional behavior that predict variability in change or rates of growth in executive function skills. The theme of specificity is expanded on in Chapter 9, where the reader is provided with insight into the complexity of parenting in terms of its multifaceted nature. A variety of factors such as the goals of parenting (e.g., teaching values or customs, obtaining cooperation, positive engagement) and how different forms of parenting predict different outcomes are highlighted as well as the importance of considering the bidirectional nature (parent–child, child–parent) of the influence of this process. As much of what is known about the importance of early parenting is based on correlational data, Chapter 7 provides experimental research that supports a causal influence of this environmental factor on children's development.

In Part 3, chapters explore the interplay of contextual influences on the child. This is illustrated in one chapter using a bioecological system approach that reveals how high-risk home and child-care environments are more likely to be present for children from poverty and describes the interconnectedness and joint negative influences of two low-quality caregiving environments on children's outcomes. In light of the destructive effect on children's development of low-quality early caregiving settings and growing documentation of the economic benefits of investing in high-quality early childhood programs, Chapter 13 describes the research that has informed this educational movement.

In a comprehensive discussion of the contribution of quality environmental stimulation across the period from birth to elementary school in Chapter 14, the importance of the relationship between children and adults (e.g., parents, teachers, and child-care staff) is demonstrated in terms of its potential influence on aspects of social and cognitive development including emergent literacy skills. Finally in Part 3, the influence of relationships with same-aged peers gets attention. Although much has been written about the adult–child relationship, elementary-school peers can influence children's openness to school participation and learning. Chapter 12 considers distinct types of peer relationships, how they develop, and the process by which they affect the child.

We understand, in the first chapter of the final part of this volume, that poverty in early childhood has a more lasting negative impact than poverty in later childhood. These effects are far-reaching and the things they impact include adult health status and earnings. When one considers how poverty affects multiple aspects of the young child's environment (e.g., the nurturance, physical, and nutritional), the explanation in this chapter regarding the extent to which safety nets are in place to protect young children from the devastating effect of poverty is revealing. Another chapter reveals the importance of considering characteristics of a child's neighborhood for understanding variability in child outcomes. A comprehensive discussion of the direct and indirect influences of neighborhood effects on child outcomes provides insight into the mechanisms by which neighborhoods manifest effects on children and their families. The theme of the importance of the early caregiving environment for understanding child wellbeing is reiterated in Chapter 16, although with a thoughtful discussion of the effect of negative early experiences impacting neurobehavioral development. When children are exposed chronically to negative experiences, biological systems are activated in response to these environmental stressors that affect brain and body. Information on this process and its environmental triggers can ultimately inform preventative approaches. The final chapter in Part 4 describes such a program. Although the effects of the Family Check-Up Program have not been investigated in relation to children's physiological responses, it targets prevention of many of the negative environmental factors that are known to be triggers for elevations in cortisol levels showing higher reactivity to stress. Programs such as the Family Check-Up, which fit within the service-delivering milieu and are effective in early identification of caregiving problems with effective solutions, may advance our public health initiatives that target the wellbeing of families and their children.

Part 1

The Development of Early Social and Cognitive Skills Important for Child Wellbeing

2

Children's Self-Regulation and Executive Control

Critical for Later Years

Caron A. C. Clark

University of Oregon, U.S.A.

Miriam M. Martinez and Jennifer Mize Nelson

University of Nebraska–Lincoln, U.S.A.

Sandra A. Wiebe

University of Alberta, Canada

Kimberly Andrews Espy

University of Oregon, U.S.A.

In everyday life, we are challenged continually to modulate our thoughts, behavior, and emotions in accordance with goals, social norms, and expectations. This ability to self-regulate has broad bearing on our competence and functioning. Indeed, deficits in the effective self-regulation of thoughts, emotions, and behavior are defining features of many psychological disorders. Not surprisingly then, self-regulation is a critical area of interest for developmental science.

Expectations for self-regulation change dramatically over the course of childhood, and particularly in the first few years of life. Although, normatively, toddlers are expected to throw tantrums in the supermarket when denied a particular goody, this behavior is considered unacceptable from an adult. These age-related differences reflect a progression from behavior that is reflexive and modulated externally to behavior that is controlled internally in a voluntary manner (Kopp, 1982). For instance, a toddler is critically dependent on her caregiver to monitor her safety and social behavior. Although she may be responsive to instructions, ultimately these guidelines for her behavior emanate from an external source. Toddlers and infants also are driven to a large extent by external cues in their environment and tend to respond automatically. If a toddler sees a toy, she will often reach or grab for it, perhaps even grabbing it from another child. By formal schooling entry, however, most children function with far less supervision, and navigate more independently the complex social and academic demands of the classroom. What is it that allows for such a dramatic change in behavior within so short a time frame?

Executive Control

Undeniably, a driving force behind children's ability to accomplish such a remarkable transition is the development of their cognitive abilities. Toddlers are deficient in the set of volitional cognitive processes that are responsible for biasing thoughts and actions in the service of behavioral goals. This coordinating, tertiary set of mental processes is known as executive control (EC). In some venues, the terms EC and self-regulation are used interchangeably. However, self-regulation typically is used as a more general term for the behavioral outcome of several interacting, internal processes that is manifested across everyday contexts, including the home, the classroom, or a crowded supermarket. Processes that support effective self-regulation are not all “executive” in nature, and include a coherent sense of self, emotion recognition, a stable pattern of physiological arousal, an understanding of social norms and expectations, facility with language, and sensory motor proficiency (Kopp, 1982). Furthermore, the term self-regulation often is used in conjunction with terms from the temperament or personality literature, such as “willpower” or “stress reactivity” (Mischel & Ayduk, 2011; Rothbart, Ellis, & Posner, 2011). In contrast, EC has its roots in the cognitive and neuropsychology literatures and is framed more specifically as the mental system that draws on and integrates information and cues from long-term memory, internal states, and the immediate external context to coordinate and prioritize thoughts, emotions, and responses in the service of goals, especially in situations where an automatic or habitual response is not appropriate (Aron, 2008; Hughes, 2002; Welsh, 2002). Note that this designation of EC as a conscious, volitional system means that its employment need not always provide the best means of self-regulation. In some cases, such as cases of immediate danger or threat, an automatic response, orchestrated by lower level response systems (i.e., run, don't think), may be more optimal. Indeed, recent research has highlighted the important role of automatic or nonconscious processes in self-regulation (Papies & Aarts, 2011). Therefore, one way to view the relation between EC and self-regulation is by thinking of self-regulation as the behavioral outcome of a dynamic interchange between several modular, bottom-up processes and the orchestrating, top-down, tertiary EC system.

What, specifically, are the mental component processes that characterize EC? Although there is continued debate regarding this question, the broad consensus in the adult literature is that EC is both unitary and differentiated in nature. Specifically, whereas adult performance on different tasks assessing EC is correlated, tasks that demand more specific abilities cluster together, generally into two or three underlying components (Friedman et al., 2008; Miyake, Friedman, Emerson, Witzki, & Howerter, 2000). One component is working memory, defined as a mental processing space that allows one to hold task-related information in mind, often while simultaneously using or manipulating this information (Baddeley, 1986; Gathercole & Pickering, 2000). A second is inhibitory control, which incorporates the ability to suppress a prepotent or impulsive response, as well as the ability to filter out distracting, goal-irrelevant information (Friedman & Miyake, 2004; Nigg, 2000). Clearly, holding personal goals or task requirements “active” in the mind, while simultaneously suppressing impulsive behavior or distracting information, is essential for self-regulated behavior (Hofmann, Schmeichel, & Baddeley, 2012). However, when the means to accomplish a goal or the goal itself changes, self-regulated behavior also entails recognizing the need for a new behavioral response and implementing it. Thus, cognitive flexibility, sometimes referred to as set-shifting, is a third important aspect of executive control, which incorporates the ability to switch flexibly from one response set to another in accordance with shifting contextual cues or task requirements. These processes—working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility—theoretically work together in everyday life to enable an individual to regulate his or her behavior in the service of contextual and prospective demands.

A variety of psychometric tests have allowed psychologists to capture robust individual differences in the mature EC abilities of adults. The challenge for developmental psychologists, though, is to capture these abilities in their most basic or rudimentary forms and to understand the basis of development from the dysregulated toddler to the competent adult. Not surprisingly, young children generally are unable to complete EC measures designed for adults, many of which rely on well-developed modular skills such as reading. Due to these limitations in measurement, the study of EC in early childhood was largely neglected until recent decades. However, adaptations of paradigms from the animal literature and from neuropsychology have made it clear that even infants possess the capacity to hold mental representations active in service of a behavioral goal when the linguistic, perceptual, and motor requirements of the tasks are simplified (Diamond & Goldman-Rakic, 1986; Espy, 1999; Johnson, 1995). Thus, prerequisite EC skills appear to be present very early in childhood, although the tasks used to assess EC, the neural systems that support EC, and the fundamental form that EC as a latent construct takes may differ from adults'. In our own studies, we have been particularly interested in the development and structure of EC in early childhood, as well as in the potential risk and protective factors that affect trajectories of EC development.

The Development of Executive Control in Early Childhood

Results from several cross-sectional studies indicate that the preschool period may be a particularly important time for the development of EC skills (Carlson, 2005; Diamond & Taylor, 1996; Espy, 1999; Hughes, 1998; Zelazo, Muller, Frye, & Marcovitch, 2003). Between age 2 and 5 years, children progressively become able to utilize rules to guide behavior in a flexible manner (Frye, Zelazo, & Palfai, 1995; Zelazo, Reznick, & Pinon, 1995). For instance, when sorting cards by different dimensions (e.g., color and shape), children younger than 3 years of age will soon forget the rule by which they are told to sort and begin to sort in haphazard fashion. At age 3 years, most children are able to sort by one rule, but will find it difficult to flexibly switch to a new rule with a different sorting dimension. By age 5 years, children generally are able to employ these rules flexibly and to shift from sorting by one dimension to another. Similarly, children show dramatic improvements in their ability to overcome automatic response tendencies and distracters. For example, children under the age of 4 years find it difficult to tap a dowel once when an examiner taps twice. However, their accuracy on this task increases to near ceiling levels by age 5 years (Diamond & Taylor, 1996). These and other studies suggest the preschool years may be a particularly valuable period for examining growth in EC.

Although cross-sectional studies are useful, they do not characterize variability in the developmental trajectories of individual children. To better elucidate these individual patterns of EC development in early childhood, our group has been conducting a longitudinal study of 388 children from two Midwestern study sites, which tracks their incremental gains on measures of EC. One challenge with regard to this repeated testing on EC measures across time is that children may simply remember elements of the tasks or responses across testing sessions, which could yield performance improvements representing repeated testing effects in the context of developmental change. To parse these potential testing effects from true developmental change, we employed a lagged-sequential design. Specifically, 228 children were enrolled in the study at age 3 years, with further cohorts of approximately 50 children, who had not previously been exposed to the measures of EC, added to the sample at each 9-month follow-up point. At study entry and every 9 months thereafter until age 5.25 years, children attended a laboratory visit, where they completed the same battery of tasks selected to assess putative executive skills of working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility. Table 2.1 describes three measures, each selected to assess one of these executive components, that will be discussed below.

Table 2.1 Descriptions of Three Executive Function Tasks for Preschool Children.

Description

Dependent variable

Nebraska Barnyard

(Adapted from Noisy Book; Hughes, Dunn, & White, 1998)

A span-type measure of working memory administered on a touch screen computer. Children are shown a grid of 9 colored buttons depicting barnyard animals, which make the corresponding animal sounds when pressed. During test trials, the pictures are no longer present on the buttons and children are told to press, in sequence, the buttons corresponding to increasing strings of animal names read by the examiner. The task ceases after 3 incorrect trials at a given span level.

Summary score of correct presses/ incorrect presses summed across completed trials.

Big-Little Stroop

(Kochanska, Murray, & Harlan, 2000)

A measure of inhibitory control requiring children to name a small shape embedded in a larger shape. For 50% of trials (nonconflict), the smaller and larger shapes match, whereas, for 50% of trials, the shapes conflict.

Proportion of correct responses for conflict trials.

Shape School Switch Condition

(Espy, 1997; Espy, Bull, Martin, & Stroup, 2006)

During baseline trials, the child names a series of characters by their colors and then a series by their shapes. During the switch condition, which assesses cognitive flexibility, children are required to alternate naming by color or shape according to whether the character is wearing a hat or not.

Proportion of correct responses for switching trials of the switch condition.

Figure 2.1 depicts individual and mean performance on the three EC measures at each study age point. Against a backdrop of considerable individual heterogeneity in patterns of growth, it is clear from the figure that children's mean performance on EC measures (illustrated by the bolded black line) improves dramatically through early childhood. In order to better define the average rate of change, we constructed latent growth curve models for each of the three tasks (see Figure 2.2). Age was centered at 3 years. Thus, the growth intercepts shown in Figure 2.2 represent mean performance on the tasks at age 3 years, the slope estimates represent the linear degree of change occurring per 9-month increase in age, and the quadratic estimates reflect the increase or decrease in slope with each assessment. The growth model for Nebraska Barnyard indicated that task performance increased in a linear fashion, at an average rate of 22 summary score points for every 9-month increase in age (χ2(6)=10.22, p=.12; CFI=.99; RMSEA=.04). By contrast, the best model of growth for Big-Little conflict trial performance incorporated a quadratic term, where accuracy improved by 41% between age 3 and 3.75 years, and then tapered off, improving by only 9% between age 4.5 and 5.25 years (χ2(4) = 7.06, p = .13; CFI = .98; RMSEA = .05). Gains in accuracy for the Shape School switch trials also attenuated with time, increasing by 30% between age 3 and 3.75, and only by 9% between 4.5 and 5.25 years (χ2(2)=3.16, p=.21; CFI=.99; RMSEA=.04). Comparisons of mean performance for the different age of entry cohorts revealed no significant differences, allowing for greater confidence that our findings for growth in EC are not an artifact of repeated test administration.

Figure 2.1 Individual and Mean Trajectories for Children's Performance on the Nebraska Barnyard, Big-Little Stroop, and Shape School Switch Tasks across Early Childhood.

Taken together, findings from this and other studies suggest that there may be a rapid, qualitative shift in children's ability to perform EC tasks between 3 and 4 years of age. At age 3 years, children do not demonstrate the ability to employ EC processes, in that mean performance is below 30%. By age 4.5 years, children's performance has increased to over 70%, well above chance levels. Note that, for the Big-Little and Shape School tasks, children completed baseline conditions or trials where they were required only to name colors or shapes, theoretically posing minimal demands on EC. On these shape- and color-naming conditions, children's mean performance was above 70% even at age 3 years. Therefore, improved EC task performance does not appear to be the simple result of improvements in modular language or baseline naming skills, but is specific to conditions that place demands on the EC skills of interest.

Figure 2.2 Unconditional Latent Growth Models for Children's Performance on the (a) Nebraska Barnyard, (b) Big-Little Stroop, and (c) Shape School Tasks across Early Childhood.

Another interesting finding concerns the differences in developmental trajectories for the three tasks. As noted above, studies with school-aged children and adults have provided support for separate components of EC (Huizinga, Dolan, & van der Molan, 2006; Miyake et al., 2000; Pennington, 1998). However, there is debate as to whether the same structure is applicable in early childhood, with a growing number of studies indicating that EC may operate in a more unitary or general fashion in this young age group (Hughes & Ensor, 2010; Shing, Lindenberger, Diamond, Li, & Davidson, 2010; Wiebe, Espy, & Charak, 2008; Wiebe et al., 2011; Willoughby, Blair, Wirth, & Greenberg, 2010). Theoretically, some researchers have argued for the plausibility of a unitary EC structure because working memory and inhibition may be considered one process: activating a mental representation in working memory necessarily involves inhibiting or deactivating other representations (Pennington, 1994). Others have suggested that all EC tasks tap a common underlying core ability, which, conceptually, could operate as a fundamental substrate for EC growth (Garon, Bryson, & Smith, 2008; Miyake & Friedman, 2012). For instance, all measures of EC may require maintenance of a goal in mind and all measures of EC demand basic attention orienting. It is possible that EC skills differentiate over time from this more basic, underlying core. Differences in the shape of growth trajectories for the different tasks in our study (i.e., linear growth for Nebraska Barnyard vs. quadratic growth for Big-Little and Shape School) may reflect ceiling effects for some measures, but may also indicate subtle contrasts in the developmental trajectories of the underlying working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility component processes that these tasks are designed to differentially assess. This differential pattern may hint that separable EC components may be emerging in early childhood, although studies examining the latent structure of EC longitudinally over a wide age range will be necessary to better address this question.