What Works in Conservation 2021 E-Book

William J. Sutherland

• Herausgeber: Open Book Publishers
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch
• Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2021

Beschreibung

Does the creation of artificial reefs benefit subtidal benthic invertebrates?
Is the use of organic farming instead of conventional farming beneficial to bat conservation?
Does installing wildlife warning reflectors along roads benefit mammal conservation?
Does the installation of exclusion and/or escape devices on fishing nets benefit marine and freshwater mammal conservation?

What Works in Conservation has been created to provide practitioners with answers to these and many other questions about practical conservation.

This book provides an assessment of the effectiveness of 2526 conservation interventions based on summarized scientific evidence. The 2021 edition containssubstantial new material on bat conservation, terrestrial mammal conservation and marine and freshwater mammals, thus completing the evidence for all mammal species categories. Other chapters cover practical global conservation of primates, amphibians, bats, birds, forests, peatlands, subtidal benthic invertebrates, shrublands and heathlands, as well as the conservation of European farmland biodiversity and some aspects of enhancing natural pest control, enhancing soil fertility, management of captive animals and control of freshwater invasive species. It contains key results from the summarized evidence for each conservation intervention and an assessment of the effectiveness of each by international expert panels. The accompanying website www.conservationevidence.com describes each of the studies individually, and provides full references.

This is the fourth author-approved edition of What Works in Conservation, which is revised on an annual basis.

Leseprobe

WHAT WORKS IN CONSERVATION

What Works in Conservation

2021

Edited by William J. Sutherland, Lynn V. Dicks, Silviu O. Petrovan and Rebecca K. Smith

http://www.openbookpublishers.com

© 2021 William J. Sutherland

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International license (CC BY 4.0). This license allows you to share, copy, distribute and transmit the work; to adapt the work and to make commercial use of the work providing attribution is made to the authors (but not in any way that suggests that they endorse you or your use of the work). Attribution should include the following information:

Sutherland, W.J., Dicks, L.V., Petrovan, S.O., and Smith, R.K. What Works in Conservation 2021. Cambridge, UK: Open Book Publishers, 2021. https://doi.org/10.11647/OBP.0267

In order to access detailed and updated information on the license, please visit https://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/1490#copyright

Further details about CC BY licenses are available at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

All links were active at the time of publication unless otherwise stated.

Digital material and resources associated with this volume are available at https://www.openbookpublishers.com/product/1490#resources and http://www.conservationevidence.com

What Works in Conservation Series | ISSN: 2059-4232 (Print); 2059-4240 (Online)

ISBN Paperback: 978-1-80064-272-0

ISBN Hardback: 978-1-80064-273-7

ISBN Digital (PDF): 978-1-80064-274-4

ISBN Digital ebook (epub): 978-1-80064-275-1

ISBN Digital ebook (mobi): 978-1-80064-276-8

DOI: 10.11647/OBP.0267

Funded by Arcadia, DEFRA, ESRC, MAVA Foundation, NERC, Natural England, Robert Bosch Stiftung, Synchronicity Earth, South West Water and Waitrose Ltd.

Cover image: A close up shot of the underside of a Dwarf Cavendish (Musa acuminata) by Ben Clough, CC BY-SA 3.0. Wikimedia http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dwarf_cavendish_leaf_2.jpg. Cover design: Heidi Coburn

Contents

Introduction1

Who is What Works in Conservation for?1

The Conservation Evidence project1

Which conservation interventions are included?2

How we review the literature3

What does What Works in Conservation include?4

Expert assessment of the evidence4

Categorization of interventions6

How to use What Works in Conservation6

1. AMPHIBIAN CONSERVATION9

1.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development11

Legal protection of species11

Protect brownfield or ex-industrial sites12

Restrict herbicide, fungicide and pesticide use on and around ponds on golf courses12

1.2 Threat: Agriculture13

1.2.1 Engage farmers and other volunteers13

Engage landowners and other volunteers to manage land for amphibians13

Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures14

1.2.2 Terrestrial habitat management14

Manage silviculture practices in plantations14

Manage cutting regime14

Manage grazing regime15

Maintain or restore hedges15

Plant new hedges15

Reduced tillage15

1.2.3 Aquatic habitat management15

Manage ditches15

Exclude domestic animals or wild hogs from ponds by fencing16

1.3 Threat: Energy production and mining17

Artificially mist habitat to keep it damp17

1.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors18

Close roads during seasonal amphibian migration18

Modify gully pots and kerbs19

Install barrier fencing along roads19

Install culverts or tunnels as road crossings19

Use signage to warn motorists20

Use humans to assist migrating amphibians across roads20

1.5 Threat: Biological resource use21

1.5.1 Hunting and collecting terrestrial animals21

Reduce impact of amphibian trade21

Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations22

Commercially breed amphibians for the pet trade22

Use amphibians sustainably22

1.5.2 Logging and wood harvesting22

Retain riparian buffer strips during timber harvest23

Use shelterwood harvesting instead of clearcutting23

Leave coarse woody debris in forests23

Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting24

Leave standing deadwood/snags in forests24

Use leave-tree harvesting instead of clearcutting24

Harvest groups of trees instead of clearcutting25

Thin trees within forests25

1.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance26

Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance26

1.7 Threat: Natural system modifications27

Regulate water levels27

Mechanically remove mid-storey or ground vegetation28

Use herbicides to control mid-storey or ground vegetation28

Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (forests)28

Use prescribed fire or modifications to burning regime (grassland)29

1.8 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species30

1.8.1 Reduce predation by other species30

Remove or control fish by drying out ponds30

Remove or control fish population by catching31

Remove or control invasive bullfrogs31

Remove or control invasive viperine snake31

Remove or control mammals31

Remove or control fish using Rotenone32

Exclude fish with barriers32

Encourage aquatic plant growth as refuge against fish predation32

Remove or control non-native crayfish32

1.8.2 Reduce competition with other species32

Reduce competition from native amphibians33

Remove or control invasive Cuban tree frogs33

Remove or control invasive cane toads33

1.8.3 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species33

Control invasive plants33

Prevent heavy usage/exclude wildfowl from aquatic habitat34

1.8.4 Reduce parasitism and disease – chytridiomycosis34

Use temperature treatment to reduce infection35

Use antifungal treatment to reduce infection35

Add salt to ponds35

Immunize amphibians against infection36

Remove the chytrid fungus from ponds36

Sterilize equipment when moving between amphibian sites36

Treating amphibians in the wild or pre-release36

Use gloves to handle amphibians36

Use antibacterial treatment to reduce infection37

Use antifungal skin bacteria or peptides to reduce infection37

Use zooplankton to remove zoospores37

1.8.5 Reduce parasitism and disease – ranaviruses38

Sterilize equipment to prevent ranaviruses38

1.9 Threat: Pollution39

1.9.1 Agricultural pollution39

Create walls or barriers to exclude pollutants39

Plant riparian buffer strips39

Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertilizer use40

Prevent pollution from agricultural lands or sewage treatment facilities entering watercourses40

1.9.2 Industrial pollution40

Add limestone to water bodies to reduce acidification40

Augment ponds with ground water to reduce acidification41

1.10 Threat: Climate change and severe weather42

Deepen ponds to prevent desiccation43

Use irrigation systems for amphibian sites43

Artificially shade ponds to prevent desiccation43

Protect habitat along elevational gradients43

Provide shelter habitat43

1.11 Habitat protection44

Retain buffer zones around core habitat44

Protect habitats for amphibians45

Retain connectivity between habitat patches45

1.12 Habitat restoration and creation46

1.12.1 Terrestrial habitat46

Replant vegetation46

Clear vegetation47

Create artificial hibernacula or aestivation sites47

Create refuges47

Restore habitat connectivity48

Change mowing regime48

Create habitat connectivity48

1.12.2 Aquatic habitat48

Create ponds (amphibians in general)49

Create ponds (frogs)50

Create ponds (natterjack toads)50

Create ponds (salamanders including newts)50

Create wetlands50

Deepen, de-silt or re-profile ponds51

Restore wetlands51

Create ponds (great crested newts)51

Create ponds (green toads)52

Create ponds (toads)52

Remove specific aquatic plants52

Restore ponds52

Remove tree canopy to reduce pond shading53

Add nutrients to new ponds as larvae food source53

Add specific plants to aquatic habitats53

Add woody debris to ponds53

Create refuge areas in aquatic habitats53

1.13 Species management54

1.13.1 Translocate amphibians54

Translocate amphibians (amphibians in general)54

Translocate amphibians (great crested newts)55

Translocate amphibians (natterjack toads)55

Translocate amphibians (salamanders including newts)55

Translocate amphibians (toads)56

Translocate amphibians (wood frogs)56

Translocate amphibians (frogs)56

1.13.2 Captive breeding, rearing and releases57

Release captive-bred individuals (amphibians in general)58

Release captive-bred individuals (frogs)58

Breed amphibians in captivity (frogs)58

Breed amphibians in captivity (harlequin toads)59

Breed amphibians in captivity (Mallorcan midwife toad)59

Breed amphibians in captivity (salamanders including newts)59

Breed amphibians in captivity (toads)59

Head-start amphibians for release60

Release captive-bred individuals (Mallorcan midwife toad)60

Release captive-bred individuals (toads)60

Use artificial fertilization in captive breeding61

Use hormone treatment to induce sperm and egg release61

Release captive-bred individuals (salamanders including newts)61

Freeze sperm or eggs for future use62

Release captive-bred individuals (green and golden bell frogs)62

1.14 Education and awareness raising63

Engage volunteers to collect amphibian data (citizen science)63

Provide education programmes about amphibians63

Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information64

2. BAT CONSERVATION65

2.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development67

Retain existing bat roosts and access points within developments68

Change timing of building work68

Create alternative bat roosts within developments69

Create or restore bat foraging habitat in urban areas69

Exclude bats from roosts during building work70

Legally protect bats during development70

Protect brownfield or ex-industrial sites71

Relocate access points to bat roosts within developments71

Educate homeowners about building and planning laws relating to bats to reduce disturbance to bat roosts72

Increase semi-natural habitat within gardens72

Install sound-proofing insulation between bat roosts and areas occupied by humans within developments72

Plant gardens with night-scented flowers72

Protect greenfield sites or undeveloped land in urban areas72

2.2 Threat: Agriculture73

2.2.1 All farming systems73

Retain or plant native trees and shrubs amongst crops (agroforestry)74

Use organic farming instead of conventional farming75

Create tree plantations on agricultural land75

Engage farmers and landowners to manage land for bats76

Manage hedges to benefit bats76

Plant field margins with a diverse mix of plant species77

Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)77

Retain riparian buffers on agricultural land77

Retain unmown field margins78

Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures (e.g. agri-environment schemes)78

Increase the proportion of semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape79

Manage ditches to benefit bats79

Plant in-field trees79

Plant new hedges79

Provide or retain set-aside areas in farmland79

Retain existing in-field trees79

Retain remnant forest or woodland on agricultural land79

2.2.2 Livestock farming79

Manage livestock water troughs as a drinking resource for bats79

Avoid the use of antiparasitic drugs for livestock80

Manage grazing regimes to increase invertebrate prey80

Replace culling of bats with non-lethal methods of preventing vampire bats from spreading rabies to livestock80

2.2.3 Perennial, non-timber crops80

Use non-lethal measures to prevent bats from accessing fruit in orchards to reduce human-wildlife conflict81

Introduce certification for bat-friendly crop harvesting regimes81

Prevent culling of bats around fruit orchards81

Restore and manage abandoned orchards for bats81

2.3 Threat: Energy production82

2.3.1 Wind turbines82

Increase the wind speed at which turbines become operational (‘cut-in speed’)83

Prevent turbine blades from turning at low wind speeds ('feathering')83

Automatically reduce turbine blade rotation when bat activity is high84

Slow rotation of turbine blades at low wind speeds84

Apply textured coating to turbines84

Deter bats from turbines using ultrasound85

Close off potential access points on turbines to prevent roosting bats85

Deter bats from turbines using low-level ultraviolet light85

Deter bats from turbines using radar85

Modify turbine placement to reduce bat fatalities85

Paint turbines to reduce insect attraction85

Remove turbine lighting to reduce bat and insect attraction85

Retain a buffer between turbines and habitat features used by bats85

2.3.2 Mining86

Install and maintain gates at mine entrances to restrict public access86

Maintain microclimate in closed/abandoned mines87

Restore bat foraging habitat at ex-quarry sites87

Exclude bats from roosts prior to mine reclamation88

Provide artificial subterranean bat roosts to replace roosts in reclaimed mines88

Relocate bats from reclaimed mines to alternative subterranean roost sites88

Reopen entrances to closed mines and make suitable for roosting bats88

Retain access points for bats following mine closures88

2.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors89

2.4.1 Roads89

Create spaces for roosting bats in road/railway bridges and culverts90

Install overpasses as road/railway crossing structures for bats91

Install underpasses or culverts as road/railway crossing structures for bats91

Maintain bat roosts in road/railway bridges and culverts92

Divert bats to safe crossing points over or under roads/railways with plantings or fencing92

Install green bridges as road/railway crossing structures for bats92

Provide alternative bat roosts during maintenance work at road/railway bridges and culverts93

Install bat gantries or bat bridges as road/railway crossing structures for bats93

Avoid planting fruit trees alongside roads/railways in areas with fruit bats94

Change timing of maintenance work at road/railway bridges and culverts94

Deter bats from roads/railways using lighting94

Deter bats from roads/railways using ultrasound94

Exclude bats from roosts during maintenance work at road/railway bridges and culverts94

Install hop-overs as road/railway crossing structures for bats94

Manage vegetation along utility and service line corridors to increase foraging habitat for bats94

Minimize road lighting to reduce insect attraction94

Replace or improve habitat for bats around roads/railways94

Replace or improve roosting habitat for bats along utility and service line corridors94

2.5 Threat: Biological resource use95

2.5.1 Hunting95

Inform local communities about disease risks from hunting and eating bat meat to reduce killing of bats96

Inform local communities about the negative impacts of bat hunting to reduce killing of bats96

Encourage online vendors to remove bat specimens for sale96

Enforce regulations to prevent trafficking and trade of bats96

Introduce alternative treatments to reduce the use of bats in traditional medicine96

Introduce and enforce legislation to control hunting of bats97

Introduce other food sources to replace bat meat97

Introduce other income sources to replace bat trade97

Replace culling of bats with non-lethal methods of preventing vampire bats from spreading rabies to humans97

Restrict the collection of bat specimens for research97

Strengthen cultural traditions that discourage bat harvesting97

2.5.2 Guano harvesting97

Introduce and enforce legislation to regulate harvesting of bat guano97

2.5.3 Logging and wood harvesting97

Retain forested corridors in logged areas98

Thin trees within forest and woodland99

Use selective or reduced impact logging instead of conventional logging99

Manage forest and woodland to encourage understorey growth100

Retain residual tree patches in logged areas101

Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting101

Change timing of forestry operations101

Coppice woodland102

Encourage natural regeneration in former plantations102

Maintain forest and woodland edges for foraging bats102

Protect roost trees during forest operations102

Replant native trees in logged areas102

Retain buffers around roost trees in logged areas102

Retain riparian buffers in logged areas102

Strengthen cultural traditions such as sacred groves that prevent timber harvesting102

Train arborists and forestry operatives to identify potential bat roosts102

2.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance103

2.6.1 Caving and tourism103

Impose restrictions on cave visits104

Install and maintain cave gates to restrict public access104

Install fencing around cave entrances to restrict public access105

Minimize noise levels within caves106

Restrict artificial lighting in caves and around cave entrances106

Inform the public of ways to reduce disturbance to bats in caves107

Introduce guidelines for sustainable cave development and use107

Minimize alterations to caves for tourism107

Provide artificial subterranean bat roosts to replace roosts in disturbed caves107

Restore and maintain microclimate in modified caves107

Retain bat access points to caves107

Train tourist guides to minimize disturbance and promote bat conservation107

2.7 Threat: Natural system modifications108

2.7.1 Fire or fire suppression108

Use prescribed burning108

2.7.2 Dams and water management/use110

Create or maintain small dams to provide foraging and drinking habitat for bats110

Relocate bat colonies roosting inside dams110

2.8 Threat: Invasive or problematic species and disease111

2.8.1 Invasive species111

Control invasive predators111

Control invasive plant species112

Control harmful invasive bat prey species112

Control invasive non-predatory competitors112

Exclude domestic and feral cats from bat roosts and roost entrances112

Keep domestic cats indoors at night112

Use collar-mounted devices on cats to reduce predation of bats112

2.8.2 White-nose syndrome112

Modify bat hibernacula environments to increase survival of bats infected with white-nose syndrome113

Treat bats for infection with white-nose syndrome114

Breed bats in captivity to supplement wild populations affected by white-nose syndrome114

Cull bats infected with white-nose syndrome114

Decontaminate clothing and equipment after entering caves to reduce the spread of the white-nose syndrome pathogen114

Restrict human access to bat caves to reduce the spread of the white-nose syndrome pathogen114

Treat bat hibernacula environments to reduce the white-nose syndrome pathogen reservoir114

Vaccinate bats against the white-nose syndrome pathogen114

2.8.3 Disease115

Carry out surveillance of bats to prevent the spread of disease/viruses to humans to reduce human-wildlife conflict115

2.8.4 Problematic native species115

Modify bats roosts to reduce negative impacts of one bat species on another115

Protect bats within roosts from disturbance or predation by native species115

2.9 Threat: Pollution116

2.9.1 Domestic and urban waste water116

Change effluent treatments of domestic and urban waste water116

Prevent pollution from sewage treatment facilities from entering watercourses117

Reduce or prevent the use of septic systems near caves117

2.9.2 Agricultural and forestry effluents117

Reduce pesticide, herbicide or fertiliser use117

Change effluent treatments used in agriculture and forestry118

Introduce legislation to control the use of hazardous substances118

Plant riparian buffer strips118

Prevent pollution from agricultural land or forestry from entering watercourses118

Use organic pest control instead of synthetic pesticides118

2.9.3 Light pollution118

Leave bat roosts and roost entrances unlit119

Avoid illumination of bat commuting routes120

Avoid illumination of bat foraging, drinking and swarming sites120

Use low intensity lighting121

Use red lighting rather than other lighting colours121

Restrict timing of lighting122

Use ultraviolet filters on lights122

Direct lighting away from bat access points or habitats122

Use 'warm white' rather than 'cool' LED lights122

Use glazing treatments to reduce light spill from inside lit buildings122

2.9.4 Timber treatments123

Restrict timing of timber treatment application123

Use mammal-safe timber treatments in roof spaces123

2.9.5 Industrial effluents124

Introduce or enforce legislation to prevent ponds and streams from being contaminated by toxins124

2.9.6 Noise pollution124

Impose noise limits in proximity to bat roosts and habitats124

Install sound barriers in proximity to bat roosts and habitats124

2.10 Threat: Climate change and severe weather125

Adapt bat roost structures to buffer against temperature extremes125

Enhance natural habitat features to improve landscape connectivity to allow for range shifts of bats125

Manage natural water bodies in arid areas to prevent desiccation125

Provide suitable bat foraging and roosting habitat at expanding range fronts125

2.11 Habitat protection126

Conserve roosting sites for bats in old structures or buildings126

Legally protect bat habitats127

Retain buffer zones around core habitat128

Retain connectivity between habitat patches128

Retain existing bat commuting routes128

Retain native forest and woodland128

Retain remnant habitat patches128

Retain veteran and standing dead trees as roosting sites for bats128

Retain wetlands128

2.12 Habitat restoration and creation129

Create artificial caves or hibernacula for bats129

Create artificial water sources130

Restore or create wetlands130

Create artificial hollows and cracks in trees for roosting bats131

Reinstate bat roosts in felled tree trunks131

Restore or create forest or woodland131

Restore or create grassland132

Create new unlit commuting routes using planting132

Restore or create linear habitat features/green corridors132

2.13 Species management133

2.13.1 Species management133

Provide bat boxes for roosting bats133

Manage microclimate of artificial bat roosts135

Legally protect bat species135

Regularly clean bat boxes to increase occupancy135

Release captive-bred bats135

2.13.2 Ex-situ conservation136

Breed bats in captivity136

Rehabilitate injured/orphaned bats to maintain wild bat populations136

2.13.3 Translocation137

Translocate bats137

2.14 Education and awareness raising139

Educate farmers, land managers and local communities about the benefits of bats to improve management of bat habitats140

Educate farmers, local communities and pest controllers to reduce indiscriminate culling of vampire bats140

Educate pest controllers and homeowners/tenants to reduce the illegal use of pesticides in bat roosts140

Educate the public to improve perception of bats to improve behaviour towards bats140

Engage policymakers to make policy changes beneficial to bats140

Promote careful bat-related eco-tourism to improve behaviour towards bats140

Provide training to conservationists, land managers, and the building and development sector on bat ecology and conservation to reduce bat roost disturbance140

Provide training to wildlife control operators on least harmful ways of removing bats from their roosts140

3. BIRD CONSERVATION141

3.1 Habitat protection143

Legally protect habitats for birds143

Provide or retain un-harvested buffer strips144

Ensure connectivity between habitat patches144

3.2 Education and awareness raising145

Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information145

Provide bird feeding materials to families with young children146

Enhance bird taxonomy skills through higher education and training146

Provide training to conservationists and land managers on bird ecology and conservation146

3.3 Threat: Residential and commercial development147

Angle windows to reduce bird collisions147

Mark windows to reduce bird collisions147

3.4 Threat: Agriculture148

3.4.1 All farming systems148

Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture149

Provide (or retain) set-aside areas in farmland150

Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields150

Increase the proportion of natural/semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape150

Manage ditches to benefit wildlife151

Pay farmers to cover the costs of conservation measures151

Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields152

Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips152

Leave refuges in fields during harvest152

Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using bird scarers)153

Relocate nests at harvest time to reduce nestling mortality153

Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality153

Control scrub on farmland153

Offer per clutch payment for farmland birds154

Manage hedges to benefit wildlife154

Plant new hedges154

Reduce conflict by deterring birds from taking crops (using repellents)154

Take field corners out of management155

Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing155

Cross compliance standards for all subsidy payments155

Food labelling schemes relating to biodiversity-friendly farming155

Manage stone-faced hedge banks to benefit birds155

Plant in-field trees155

Protect in-field trees155

Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)155

Support or maintain low-intensity agricultural systems155

Tree pollarding, tree surgery155

3.4.2 Arable farming156

Create ‘skylark plots’ (undrilled patches in cereal fields)156

Leave overwinter stubbles157

Leave uncropped cultivated margins or fallow land (includes lapwing and stone curlew plots)157

Sow crops in spring rather than autumn158

Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example158

Reduce tillage158

Implement mosaic management159

Increase crop diversity to benefit birds159

Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)159

Create beetle banks159

Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows160

Revert arable land to permanent grassland160

Add 1% barley into wheat crop for corn buntings160

Create corn bunting plots160

Leave unharvested cereal headlands within arable fields160

Plant nettle strips160

3.4.3 Livestock farming161

Delay mowing date on grasslands161

Leave uncut rye grass in silage fields162

Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland162

Maintain traditional water meadows162

Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality163

Plant cereals for whole crop silage163

Reduce grazing intensity163

Reduce management intensity of permanent grasslands164

Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat164

Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland164

Maintain upland heath/moor164

Protect nests from livestock to reduce trampling165

Provide short grass for waders165

Raise mowing height on grasslands165

Use traditional breeds of livestock165

Maintain lowland heathland166

Maintain rush pastures166

Maintain wood pasture and parkland166

Plant Brassica fodder crops166

Use mixed stocking166

3.4.4 Perennial, non-timber crops166

Maintain traditional orchards166

Manage perennial bioenergy crops to benefit wildlife166

3.4.5 Aquaculture167

Deter birds from landing on shellfish culture gear167

Disturb birds at roosts168

Provide refuges for fish within ponds168

Use electric fencing to exclude fish-eating birds168

Use ‘mussel socks’ to prevent birds from attacking shellfish168

Use netting to exclude fish-eating birds168

Increase water turbidity to reduce fish predation by birds169

Translocate birds away from fish farms169

Use in-water devices to reduce fish loss from ponds169

Disturb birds using foot patrols169

Spray water to deter birds from ponds169

Scare birds from fish farms170

3.5 Threat: Energy production and mining171

Paint wind turbines to increase their visibility171

3.6 Threat: Transportation and service corridors172

3.6.1 Verges and airports172

Scare or otherwise deter birds from airports172

Mow roadside verges173

Sow roadside verges173

3.6.2 Power lines and electricity pylons173

Mark power lines174

Bury or isolate power lines174

Insulate electricity pylons174

Remove earth wires from power lines174

Use perch-deterrents to stop raptors perching on pylons174

Thicken earth wires175

Add perches to electricity pylons175

Reduce electrocutions by using plastic, not metal, leg rings to mark birds175

Use raptor models to deter birds from power lines175

3.7 Threat: Biological resource use176

3.7.1 Reducing exploitation and conflict176

Use legislative regulation to protect wild populations177

Use wildlife refuges to reduce hunting disturbance177

Employ local people as ‘biomonitors’177

Increase ‘on-the-ground’ protection to reduce unsustainable levels of exploitation177

Introduce voluntary ‘maximum shoot distances’178

Mark eggs to reduce their appeal to collectors178

Move fish-eating birds to reduce conflict with fishermen178

Promote sustainable alternative livelihoods178

Provide ‘sacrificial grasslands’ to reduce conflict with farmers178

Relocate nestlings to reduce poaching179

Use education programmes and local engagement to help reduce persecution or exploitation of species179

Use alerts during shoots to reduce mortality of non-target species179

3.7.2 Reducing fisheries bycatch180

Use streamer lines to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines181

Mark trawler warp cables to reduce seabird collisions181

Reduce seabird bycatch by releasing offal overboard when setting longlines181

Weight baits or lines to reduce longline bycatch of seabirds182

Set lines underwater to reduce seabird bycatch182

Set longlines at night to reduce seabird bycatch182

Dye baits to reduce seabird bycatch182

Thaw bait before setting lines to reduce seabird bycatch183

Turn deck lights off during night-time setting of longlines to reduce bycatch183

Use a sonic scarer when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch183

Use acoustic alerts on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch183

Use bait throwers to reduce seabird bycatch183

Use bird exclusion devices such as ‘Brickle curtains’ to reduce seabird mortality when hauling longlines184

Use high visibility mesh on gillnets to reduce seabird bycatch184

Use shark liver oil to deter birds when setting lines184

Use a line shooter to reduce seabird bycatch184

Reduce bycatch through seasonal or area closures185

Reduce ‘ghost fishing’ by lost/discarded gear185

Reduce gillnet deployment time to reduce seabird bycatch185

Set longlines at the side of the boat to reduce seabird bycatch185

Tow buoys behind longlining boats to reduce seabird bycatch185

Use a water cannon when setting longlines to reduce seabird bycatch185

Use high-visibility longlines to reduce seabird bycatch185

Use larger hooks to reduce seabird bycatch on longlines185

3.8 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance186

Provide paths to limit disturbance186

Start educational programmes for personal watercraft owners187

Use signs and access restrictions to reduce disturbance at nest sites187

Use voluntary agreements with local people to reduce disturbance187

Habituate birds to human visitors187

Use nest covers to reduce the impact of research on predation of ground-nesting seabirds188

Reduce visitor group sizes188

Set minimum distances for approaching birds (buffer zones)188

3.9 Threat: Natural system modifications189

Create scrapes and pools in wetlands and wet grasslands191

Provide deadwood/snags in forests (use ring-barking, cutting or silvicides)191

Use patch retention harvesting instead of clearcutting191

Clear or open patches in forests191

Employ grazing in artificial grasslands/pastures192

Employ grazing in natural grasslands192

Employ grazing in non-grassland habitats192

Manage water level in wetlands193

Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) in forests193

Mow or cut natural grasslands194

Mow or cut semi-natural grasslands/pastures194

Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) in shrublands194

Raise water levels in ditches or grassland195

Thin trees within forests195

Use prescribed burning: grasslands195

Use prescribed burning: pine forests196

Use prescribed burning: savannahs196

Use prescribed burning: shrublands196

Use selective harvesting/logging instead of clearcutting197

Clearcut and re-seed forests197

Coppice trees197

Fertilise grasslands198

Manage woodland edges for birds198

Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (reedbeds)198

Manually control or remove midstorey and ground-level vegetation (including mowing, chaining, cutting etc.) (savannahs)199

Plant trees to act as windbreaks199

Plough habitats199

Provide deadwood/snags in forests (adding woody debris to forests)199

Remove coarse woody debris from forests199

Replace non-native species of tree/shrub200

Re-seed grasslands200

Use environmentally sensitive flood management200

Use fire suppression/control200

Use greentree reservoir management201

Use prescribed burning (Australian sclerophyll forest)201

Use shelterwood cutting instead of clearcutting201

Use variable retention management during forestry operations201

Apply herbicide to mid- and understorey vegetation201

Treat wetlands with herbicides202

Use prescribed burning (coastal habitats)202

Use prescribed burning (deciduous forests)202

Protect nest trees before burning203

3.10 Habitat restoration and creation204

Restore or create forests204

Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (inland wetlands)205

Restore or create grassland205

Restore or create traditional water meadows206

Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (coastal and intertidal wetlands)206

Restore or create shrubland206

Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (kelp forests)207

Restore or create wetlands and marine habitats (lagoons)207

Restore or create savannahs207

Revegetate gravel pits207

3.11 Threat: Invasive alien and other problematic species208

3.11.1 Reduce predation by other species208

Control mammalian predators on islands209

Remove or control predators to enhance bird populations and communities209

Control avian predators on islands209

Control invasive ants on islands210

Reduce predation by translocating predators210

Control predators not on islands210

3.11.2 Reduce incidental mortality during predator eradication or control211

Distribute poison bait using dispensers211

Use coloured baits to reduce accidental mortality during predator control211

Use repellents on baits211

Do birds take bait designed for pest control?212

3.11.3 Reduce nest predation by excluding predators from nests or nesting areas212

Physically protect nests from predators using non-electric fencing213

Physically protect nests with individual exclosures/barriers or provide shelters for chicks213

Protect bird nests using electric fencing213

Use artificial nests that discourage predation214

Guard nests to prevent predation214

Plant nesting cover to reduce nest predation214

Protect nests from ants214

Use multiple barriers to protect nests214

Use naphthalene to deter mammalian predators215

Use snakeskin to deter mammalian nest predators215

Play spoken-word radio programmes to deter predators215

Use ‘cat curfews’ to reduce predation215

Use lion dung to deter domestic cats215

Use mirrors to deter nest predators215

Use ultrasonic devices to deter cats215

Can nest protection increase nest abandonment?215

Can nest protection increase predation of adults and chicks?216

3.11.4 Reduce mortality by reducing hunting ability or changing predator behaviour216

Reduce predation by translocating nest boxes216

Use collar-mounted devices to reduce predation217

Use supplementary feeding to reduce predation217

Use aversive conditioning to reduce nest predation217

3.11.5 Reduce competition with other species for food and nest sites218

Reduce inter-specific competition for food by removing or controlling competitor species218

Protect nest sites from competitors219

Reduce competition between species by providing nest boxes219

Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by modifying habitats to exclude competitor species219

Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (ground nesting seabirds)219

Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (songbirds)220

Reduce inter-specific competition for nest sites by removing competitor species (woodpeckers)220

3.11.6 Reduce adverse habitat alteration by other species221

Control or remove habitat-altering mammals221

Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (terrestrial species)221

Reduce adverse habitat alterations by excluding problematic species (aquatic species)222

Remove problematic vegetation222

Use buffer zones to reduce the impact of invasive plant control222

3.11.7 Reduce parasitism and disease223

Remove/control adult brood parasites223

Remove/treat endoparasites and diseases224

Alter artificial nest sites to discourage brood parasitism224

Exclude or control ‘reservoir species’ to reduce parasite burdens224

Remove brood parasite eggs from target species’ nests224

Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (provide beneficial nesting material)225

Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from feathers)225

Use false brood parasite eggs to discourage brood parasitism225

Remove/treat ectoparasites to increase survival or reproductive success (remove ectoparasites from nests)225

3.11.8 Reduce detrimental impacts of other problematic species226

Use copper strips to exclude snails from nests226

3.12 Threat: Pollution227

3.12.1 Industrial pollution227

Use visual and acoustic ‘scarers’ to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining or sewage227

Relocate birds following oil spills228

Use repellents to deter birds from landing on pools polluted by mining228

Clean birds after oil spills228

3.12.2 Agricultural pollution229

Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)229

Provide food for vultures to reduce mortality from diclofenac230

Reduce pesticide, herbicide and fertiliser use generally230

Reduce chemical inputs in permanent grassland management230

Restrict certain pesticides or other agricultural chemicals230

Make selective use of spring herbicides231

Provide buffer strips along rivers and streams231

Provide unfertilised cereal headlands in arable fields231

Use buffer strips around in-field ponds231

Use organic rather than mineral fertilisers231

3.12.3 Air-borne pollutants231

Use lime to reduce acidification in lakes231

3.12.4 Excess energy232

Shield lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights232

Turning off lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights232

Use flashing lights to reduce mortality from artificial lights233

Use lights low in spectral red to reduce mortality from artificial lights233

Reduce the intensity of lighthouse beams233

Using volunteers to collect and rehabilitate downed birds233

3.13 Threat: Climate change, extreme weather and geological events234

Replace nesting habitats when they are washed away by storms234

Water nesting mounds to increase incubation success in malleefowl235

3.14 General responses to small/declining populations236

3.14.1 Inducing breeding, rehabilitation and egg removal236

Rehabilitate injured birds236

Remove eggs from wild nests to increase reproductive output236

Use artificial visual and auditory stimuli to induce breeding in wild populations237

3.14.2 Provide artificial nesting sites237

Provide artificial nests (falcons)238

Provide artificial nests (owls)239

Provide artificial nests (songbirds)239

Provide artificial nests (wildfowl)240

Clean artificial nests to increase occupancy or reproductive success240

Provide artificial nests (burrow-nesting seabirds)241

Provide artificial nests (divers/loons)241

Provide artificial nests (ground- and tree-nesting seabirds)241

Provide artificial nests (oilbirds)241

Provide artificial nests (raptors)242

Provide artificial nests (wildfowl — artificial/floating islands)242

Artificially incubate eggs or warm nests242

Guard nests242

Provide artificial nests (gamebirds)243

Provide artificial nests (grebes)243

Provide artificial nests (ibises and flamingos)243

Provide artificial nests (parrots)243

Provide artificial nests (pigeons)244

Provide artificial nests (rails)244

Provide artificial nests (rollers)244

Provide artificial nests (swifts)244

Provide artificial nests (trogons)244

Provide artificial nests (waders)244

Provide artificial nests (woodpeckers)245

Provide nesting habitat for birds that is safe from extreme weather245

Provide nesting material for wild birds245

Remove vegetation to create nesting areas245

Repair/support nests to support breeding246

Use differently-coloured artificial nests246

3.14.3 Foster chicks in the wild246

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (raptors)247

Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (songbirds)247

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (bustards)248

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (cranes)248

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (gannets and boobies)248

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (owls)248

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (parrots)248

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (vultures)249

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (waders)249

Foster eggs or chicks with wild conspecifics (woodpeckers)249

Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (cranes)249

Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (ibises)249

Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (petrels and shearwaters)250

Foster eggs or chicks with wild non-conspecifics (cross-fostering) (waders)250

3.14.4 Provide supplementary food250

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (songbirds)252

Place feeders close to windows to reduce collisions253

Provide calcium supplements to increase survival or reproductive success253

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (cranes)253

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gulls, terns and skuas)253

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (owls)254

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (raptors)254

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (songbirds)254

Provide perches to improve foraging success255

Provide supplementary food through the establishment of food populations255

Provide supplementary food to allow the rescue of a second chick256

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gamebirds)256

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (gulls, terns and skuas)256

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (hummingbirds)256

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (nectar-feeding songbirds)257

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (pigeons)257

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (raptors)258

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (vultures)258

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (waders)258

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (wildfowl)258

Provide supplementary food to increase adult survival (woodpeckers)259

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (auks)259

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gamebirds)259

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (gannets and boobies)259

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (ibises)260

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (kingfishers)260

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (parrots)260

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (petrels)260

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (pigeons)261

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (rails and coots)261

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (vultures)261

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (waders)262

Provide supplementary food to increase reproductive success (wildfowl)262

Provide supplementary water to increase survival or reproductive success262

3.14.5 Translocations262

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (birds in general)264

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (raptors)264

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (parrots)264

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (pelicans)264

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (petrels and shearwaters)265

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (rails)265

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (songbirds)265

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (wildfowl)265

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (woodpeckers)266

Use decoys to attract birds to new sites266

Use techniques to increase the survival of species after capture266

Use vocalisations to attract birds to new sites266

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (gamebirds)267

Alter habitats to encourage birds to leave267

Ensure translocated birds are familiar with each other before release267

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (auks)267

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (herons, storks and ibises)268

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (megapodes)268

Translocate birds to re-establish populations or increase genetic variation (owls)268

Translocate nests to avoid disturbance268

Ensure genetic variation to increase translocation success268

3.15 Captive breeding, rearing and releases (ex situ conservation)269

3.15.1 Captive breeding269

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (raptors)270

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (seabirds)271

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (songbirds)271

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (waders)271

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (raptors)272

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (bustards)272

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (cranes)272

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (gamebirds)273

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (parrots)273

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (penguins)273

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (rails)273

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (storks and ibises)274

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (vultures)274

Artificially incubate and hand-rear birds in captivity (wildfowl)274

Freeze semen for artificial insemination274

Use artificial insemination in captive breeding275

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (bustards)275

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (cranes)275

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (pigeons)275

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (rails)276

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (seabirds)276

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (songbirds)276

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (storks and ibises)276

Use captive breeding to increase or maintain populations (tinamous)277

Use puppets to increase the success of hand-rearing277

Wash contaminated semen and use it for artificial insemination277

Can captive breeding have deleterious effects?277

3.15.2 Release captive-bred individuals278

Provide supplementary food after release279

Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (cranes)279

Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (raptors)279

Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (songbirds)280

Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (vultures)280

Clip birds’ wings on release280

Release birds as adults or sub-adults not juveniles281

Release birds in groups281

Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (bustards)281

Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (gamebirds)281

Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (owls)282

Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (parrots)282

Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (pigeons)282

Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (rails)282

Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (storks and ibises)283

Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (waders)283

Release captive-bred individuals into the wild to restore or augment wild populations (wildfowl)283

Release chicks and adults in ‘coveys’284

Use ‘anti-predator training’ to improve survival after release284

Use appropriate populations to source released populations284

Use ‘flying training’ before release284

Use holding pens at release sites284

Use microlites to help birds migrate285

4. FARMLAND CONSERVATION287

4.1 All farming systems289

Create uncultivated margins around intensive arable or pasture fields290

Plant grass buffer strips/margins around arable or pasture fields291

Plant nectar flower mixture/wildflower strips291

Plant wild bird seed or cover mixture291

Provide or retain set-aside areas in farmland292

Manage ditches to benefit wildlife292

Manage hedgerows to benefit wildlife (includes no spray, gap-filling and laying)292

Pay farmers to cover the cost of conservation measures (as in agri-environment schemes)293

Provide supplementary food for birds or mammals293

Connect areas of natural or semi-natural habitat293

Increase the proportion of semi-natural habitat in the farmed landscape294

Make direct payments per clutch for farmland birds294

Manage the agricultural landscape to enhance floral resources294

Mark bird nests during harvest or mowing294

Plant new hedges295

Provide nest boxes for bees (solitary bees or bumblebees)295

Provide nest boxes for birds295

Provide other resources for birds (water, sand for bathing)296

Provide refuges during harvest or mowing296

Apply ‘cross compliance’ environmental standards linked to all subsidy payments296

Implement food labelling schemes relating to biodiversity-friendly farming (organic, LEAF marque)296

Introduce nest boxes stocked with solitary bees296

Maintain in-field elements such as field islands and rockpiles296

Manage stone-faced hedge banks to benefit wildlife296

Manage woodland edges to benefit wildlife296

Plant in-field trees (not farm woodland)296

Protect in-field trees (includes management such as pollarding and surgery)296

Provide badger gates296

Provide foraging perches (e.g. for shrikes)296

Provide otter holts296

Provide red squirrel feeders296

Reduce field size (or maintain small fields)296

Restore or maintain dry stone walls296

Support or maintain low intensity agricultural systems296

4.2 Arable farming297

Create skylark plots298

Leave cultivated, uncropped margins or plots (includes ‘lapwing plots’)298

Create beetle banks298

Leave overwinter stubbles299

Reduce tillage299

Undersow spring cereals, with clover for example299

Convert or revert arable land to permanent grassland300

Create rotational grass or clover leys300

Increase crop diversity300

Plant cereals in wide-spaced rows300

Plant crops in spring rather than autumn300

Plant nettle strips301

Sow rare or declining arable weeds301

Add 1% barley into wheat crop for corn buntings301

Create corn bunting plots301

Leave unharvested cereal headlands in arable fields301

Use new crop types to benefit wildlife (such as perennial cereal crops)301

Implement ‘mosaic management’, a Dutch agri-environment option301

Plant more than one crop per field (intercropping)302

Take field corners out of management302

4.3 Perennial (non-timber) crops303

Maintain traditional orchards303

Manage short-rotation coppice to benefit wildlife (includes 8 m rides)303

Restore or create traditional orchards303

4.4 Livestock farming304

Restore or create species-rich, semi-natural grassland305

Use mowing techniques to reduce mortality305

Delay mowing or first grazing date on grasslands306

Leave uncut strips of rye grass on silage fields306

Maintain species-rich, semi-natural grassland306

Maintain traditional water meadows (includes management for breeding and/or wintering waders/waterfowl)306

Maintain upland heath/moorland307

Reduce management intensity on permanent grasslands (several interventions at once)307

Restore or create traditional water meadows308

Add yellow rattle seed Rhinanthus minor to hay meadows308

Employ areas of semi-natural habitat for rough grazing (includes salt marsh, lowland heath, bog, fen)308

Exclude livestock from semi-natural habitat (including woodland)308

Maintain wood pasture and parkland309

Plant cereals for whole crop silage309

Raise mowing height on grasslands309

Restore or create upland heath/moorland309

Restore or create wood pasture310

Use traditional breeds of livestock310

Reduce grazing intensity on grassland (including seasonal removal of livestock)310

Maintain rush pastures311

Mark fencing to avoid bird mortality311

Plant brassica fodder crops (grazed in situ)311

Create open patches or strips in permanent grassland311

Provide short grass for birds311

Use mixed stocking311

4.5 Threat: Residential and commercial development312

Provide owl nest boxes (tawny owl, barn owl)312

Maintain traditional farm buildings312

Provide bat boxes, bat grilles, improvements to roosts312

4.6 Threat: Agri-chemicals313

Leave headlands in fields unsprayed (conservation headlands)313

Reduce fertilizer, pesticide or herbicide use generally314

Use organic rather than mineral fertilizers314

Reduce chemical inputs in grassland management314

Provide buffer strips alongside water courses (rivers and streams)315

Restrict certain pesticides315

Buffer in-field ponds315

Make selective use of spring herbicides315

4.7 Threat: Transport and service corridors316

Manage land under power lines to benefit wildlife316

4.8 Threat: Hunting and trapping (for pest control, food or sport)317

Enforce legislation to protect birds against persecution317

Provide ‘sacrificial’ grasslands to reduce the impact of wild geese on crops318

Avoid use of lead shot318

Use alerts to reduce grey partridge by-catch during shoots318

Use scaring devices (e.g. gas guns) and other deterrents to reduce persecution of native species318

4.9 Threat: Natural system modification319

Raise water levels in ditches or grassland319

Create scrapes and pools320

Manage heather by swiping to simulate burning320

Manage heather, gorse or grass by burning320

Remove flood defence banks to allow inundation320

Re-wet moorland321

4.10 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species322

Control predatory mammals and birds (foxes, crows, stoats and weasels)323

Control scrub323

Control weeds without damaging other plants in conservation areas323

Protect individual nests of ground-nesting birds323

Control grey squirrels324

Erect predator-proof fencing around important breeding sites for waders324

Manage wild deer numbers324

Remove coarse fish324

Control bracken324

Control invasive non-native plants on farmland (such as Himalayan balsam, Japanese knotweed)324

Control mink324

Provide medicated grit for grouse324

4.11 Threat: Education and awareness325

Provide specialist advice, assistance preparing conservation plans325

Provide training for land managers, farmers and farm advisers325

5. FOREST CONSERVATION327

5.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development329

5.1.1 Housing and urban areas329

Compensate for woodland removal with compensatory planting329

Incorporate existing trees or woods into the landscape of new developments329

Provide legal protection of forests from development329

5.1.2 Tourism and recreation areas330

Adopt ecotourism330

Create managed paths/signs to contain disturbance330

Re-route paths, control access or close paths330

Use warning signs to prevent fire330

5.2 Threat: Agriculture331

5.2.1 Livestock farming331

Use wire fences within grazing areas to exclude livestock from specific forest sections331

Prevent livestock grazing in forests332

Reduce the intensity of livestock grazing in forests332

Shorten livestock grazing period or control grazing season in forests332

Provide financial incentives not to graze333

5.3 Threat: Transport and service corridors334

Maintain/create habitat corridors334

5.4 Threat: Biological resource use335

5.4.1 Thinning and wood harvesting335

Log/remove trees within forests: effects on understory plants336

Thin trees within forests: effects on understory plants336

Thin trees within forests: effects on young trees336

Use shelterwood harvest instead of clearcutting336

Thin trees within forests: effects on mature trees337

Log/remove trees within forests: effects on young trees 337

Use partial retention harvesting instead of clearcutting 337

Use summer instead of winter harvesting337

Remove woody debris after timber harvest 338

Log/remove trees within forests: effect on mature trees 338

Log/remove trees within forests: effect on effects on non-vascular plants338

Thin trees within forests: effects on non-vascular plants339

Adopt continuous cover forestry339

Use brash mats during harvesting to avoid soil compaction339

5.4.2 Harvest forest products339

Adopt certification339

Sustainable management of non-timber products 340

5.4.3 Firewood340

Provide fuel efficient stoves340

Provide paraffin stoves340

5.5 Habitat protection341

5.5.1 Changing fire frequency341

Use prescribed fire: effect on understory plants341

Use prescribed fire: effect on young trees342

Use prescribed fire: effect on mature trees342

Mechanically remove understory vegetation to reduce wildfires342

Use herbicides to remove understory vegetation to reduce wildfires342

5.5.2 Water management343

Construct water detention areas to slow water flow and restore riparian forests343

Introduce beavers to impede water flow in forest watercourses343

Recharge groundwater to restore wetland forest343

5.5.3 Changing disturbance regime343

Use clearcutting to increase understory diversity344

Use group-selection harvesting344

Use shelterwood harvesting345

Thin trees by girdling (cutting rings around tree trunks)345

Use herbicides to thin trees345

Use thinning followed by prescribed fire345

Adopt conservation grazing of woodland346

Coppice trees346

Halo ancient trees346

Imitate natural disturbances by pushing over trees346

Pollard trees (top cutting or top pruning)346

Reintroduce large herbivores346

Retain fallen trees346

5.6 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species347

5.6.1 Invasive plants347

Manually/mechanically remove invasive plants347

Use herbicides to remove invasive plant species347

Use grazing to remove invasive plant species348

Use prescribed fire to remove invasive plant species348

5.6.2 Native plants348

Manually/mechanically remove native plants348

5.6.3 Herbivores348

Use wire fences to exclude large native herbivores349

Use electric fencing to exclude large native herbivores349

Control large herbivore populations349

Control medium-sized herbivores349

Use fencing to enclose large herbivores (e.g. deer)349

5.6.4 Rodents350

Control rodents350

5.6.5 Birds350

Control birds350

5.7 Threat: Pollution351

Maintain/create buffer zones351

Remove nitrogen and phosphorus using harvested products351

5.8 Threat: Climate change and severe weather352

Prevent damage from strong winds352

5.9 Habitat protection353

Adopt community-based management to protect forests353

Legal protection of forests353

Adopt Protected Species legislation (impact on forest management)354

5.10 Habitat restoration and creation355

5.10.1 Restoration after wildfire355

Thin trees after wildfire355

Remove burned trees356

Sow tree seeds after wildfire356

Plant trees after wildfire356

5.10.2 Restoration after agriculture356

Restore wood pasture (e.g. introduce grazing)357

5.10.3 Manipulate habitat to increase planted tree survival during restoration357

Apply herbicides after restoration planting357

Cover the ground using techniques other than plastic mats after restoration planting358

Cover the ground with plastic mats after restoration planting358

Use selective thinning after restoration planting358

5.10.4 Restore forest community358

Build bird-perches to enhance natural seed dispersal359

Plant a mixture of tree species to enhance diversity359

Sow tree seeds359

Water plants to preserve dry tropical forest species359

Restore woodland herbaceous plants using transplants and nursery plugs359

Use rotational grazing to restore oak savannas359

5.10.5 Prevent/encourage leaf litter accumulation360

Remove or disturb leaf litter to enhance germination360

Encourage leaf litter development in new planting360

5.10.6 Increase soil fertility360

Use vegetation removal together with mechanical disturbance to the soil361

Add organic matter361

Use fertilizer362

Use soil scarification or ploughing to enhance germination362

Add lime to the soil to increase fertility362

Use soil disturbance to enhance germination (excluding scarification or ploughing)363

Enhance soil compaction363

5.11 Actions to improve survival and growth rate of planted trees364

Prepare the ground before tree planting365

Use mechanical thinning before or after planting365

Fence to prevent grazing after tree planting366

Use herbicide after tree planting366

Use prescribed fire after tree planting366

Apply insecticide to protect seedlings from invertebrates366

Add lime to the soil after tree planting367

Add organic matter after tree planting367

Cover the ground with straw after tree planting367

Improve soil quality after tree planting (excluding applying fertilizer)367

Manage woody debris before tree planting 367

Use shading for planted trees368

Use tree guards or shelters to protect planted trees368

Use weed mats to protect planted trees368

Water seedlings368

Mechanically remove understory vegetation after tree planting368

Use different planting or seeding methods369

Use fertilizer after tree planting369

Apply fungicide to protect seedlings from fungal diseases369

Infect tree seedlings with mycorrhizae369

Introduce leaf litter to forest stands369

Plant a mixture of tree species to enhance the survival and growth of planted trees369

Reduce erosion to increase seedling survival369

Transplant trees369

Use pioneer plants or crops as nurse-plants369

5.12 Education and awareness raising370

Provide education programmes about forests370

Raise awareness amongst the general public through campaigns and public information370

6. PEATLAND CONSERVATION371

6.1 Threat: Residential and commercial development373

Remove residential or commercial development from peatlands373

Retain/create habitat corridors in developed areas373

6.2 Threat: Agriculture and aquaculture374

6.2.1 Multiple farming systems374

Retain/create habitat corridors in farmed areas374

Implement ‘mosaic management’ of agriculture375

6.2.2 Wood and pulp plantations375

Cut/remove/thin forest plantations375

Cut/remove/thin forest plantations and rewet peat376

6.2.3 Livestock farming and ranching377

Exclude or remove livestock from degraded peatlands377

Reduce intensity of livestock grazing378

Use barriers to keep livestock off ungrazed peatlands379

Change type of livestock379

Change season/timing of livestock grazing379

6.3 Threat: Energy production and mining380

Replace blocks of vegetation after mining or peat extraction380

Retain/create habitat corridors in areas of energy production or mining381

6.4 Threat: Transportation and service corridors382

Maintain/restore water flow across service corridors382

Backfill trenches dug for pipelines382

Retain/create habitat corridors across service corridors382

6.5 Threat: Biological resource use383

Reduce intensity of harvest 383

Reduce frequency of harvest384

Use low impact harvesting techniques384

Use low impact vehicles for harvesting384

Implement ‘mosaic management’ when harvesting wild biological resources384

Provide new technologies to reduce pressure on wild biological resources384

6.6 Threat: Human intrusions and disturbance385

Physically exclude vehicles from peatlands385

Restrict vehicle use on peatlands386

Restrict pedestrian access to peatlands386

Physically exclude pedestrians from peatlands386

Install boardwalks/paths to prevent trampling386

Wear snowshoes to prevent trampling386

Adopt ecotourism principles/create an ecotourism site386

6.7 Threat: Natural system modifications387

6.7.1 Modified water management387

Rewet peatland (raise water table) 387

Irrigate peatland390

Reduce water level of flooded peatlands390

Restore natural water level fluctuations390

6.7.2 Modified vegetation management390

Cut/mow herbaceous plants to maintain or restore disturbance391

Cut large trees/shrubs to maintain or restore disturbance392

Use grazing to maintain or restore disturbance393

Remove plant litter to maintain or restore disturbance394

Use prescribed fire to maintain or restore disturbance395

6.7.3 Modified wild fire regime395

Thin vegetation to prevent wild fires396

Rewet peat to prevent wild fires396

Build fire breaks396

Adopt zero burning policies near peatlands396

6.8 Threat: Invasive and other problematic species397

6.8.1 All problematic species397

Implement biosecurity measures to prevent introductions of problematic species397

6.8.2 Problematic plants397

Use prescribed fire to control problematic plants398

Physically remove problematic plants399

Use cutting/mowing to control problematic herbaceous plants400

Change season/timing of cutting/mowing400

Use cutting to control problematic large trees/shrubs401

Use herbicide to control problematic plants402

Introduce an organism to control problematic plants402

Physically damage problematic plants402

Use grazing to control problematic plants402

Use covers/barriers to control problematic plants402

6.8.3 Problematic animals403

Exclude wild herbivores using physical barriers403

Control populations of wild herbivores403

6.9 Threat: Pollution404

6.9.1 Multiple sources of pollution404

Divert/replace polluted water source(s)404

Clean waste water before it enters the environment405

Slow down input water to allow more time for pollutants to be removed405

Retain or create buffer zones between pollution sources and peatlands406

Use artificial barriers to prevent pollution entering peatlands406

Reduce fertilizer or herbicide use near peatlands406

Manage fertilizer or herbicide application near peatlands406

6.9.2 Agricultural and aquacultural effluents406

Convert to organic agriculture or aquaculture near peatlands406

Limit the density of livestock on farmland near peatlands406

Use biodegradable oil in farming machinery406

6.9.3 Industrial and military effluents406

Remove oil from contaminated peatlands407

6.9.4 Airborne pollutants407

Remove pollutants from waste gases before they enter the environment407

Add lime to reduce acidity and/or increase fertility407

Drain/replace acidic water408

6.10 Threat: Climate change and severe weather409

Add water to peatlands to compensate for drought409

Plant shelter belts to protect peatlands from wind409

Build barriers to protect peatlands from the sea409

Restore/create peatlands in areas that will be climatically suitable in the future409

6.11 Habitat creation and restoration410

6.11.1 General habitat creation and restoration410

Restore/create peatland vegetation (multiple interventions)410

Restore/create peatland vegetation using the moss layer transfer technique411

6.11.2 Modify physical habitat only412

Fill/block ditches to create conditions suitable for peatland plants413

Remove upper layer of peat/soil413

Excavate pools414

Reprofile/relandscape peatland415

Disturb peatland surface to encourage growth of desirable plants415

Add inorganic fertilizer416

Cover peatland with organic mulch416