Wind Energy Handbook E-Book

Tony Burton

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1295

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

Named as one of Choice's Outstanding Academic Titles of 2012 Every year, Choice subject editors recognise the most significant print and electronic works reviewed in Choice during the previous calendar year. Appearing annually in Choice's January issue, this prestigious list of publications reflects the best in scholarly titles and attracts extraordinary attention from the academic library community. The authoritative reference on wind energy, now fully revised and updated to include offshore wind power A decade on from its first release, the Wind Energy Handbook, Second Edition, reflects the advances in technology underpinning the continued expansion of the global wind power sector. Harnessing their collective industrial and academic expertise, the authors provide a comprehensive introduction to wind turbine design and wind farm planning for onshore and offshore wind-powered electricity generation. The major change since the first edition is the addition of a new chapter on offshore wind turbines and offshore wind farm development. Opening with a survey of the present state of offshore wind farm development, the chapter goes on to consider resource assessment and array losses. Then wave loading on support structures is examined in depth, including wind and wave load combinations and descriptions of applicable wave theories. After sections covering optimum machine size and offshore turbine reliability, the different types of support structure deployed to date are described in turn, with emphasis on monopiles, including fatigue analysis in the frequency domain. Final sections examine the assessment of environmental impacts and the design of the power collection and transmission cable network. New coverage features: * turbulence models updated to reflect the latest design standards, including an introduction to the Mann turbulence model * extended treatment of horizontal axis wind turbines aerodynamics, now including a survey of wind turbine aerofoils, dynamic stall and computational fluid dynamics * developments in turbine design codes * techniques for extrapolating extreme loads from simulation results * an introduction to the NREL cost model * comparison of options for variable speed operation * in-depth treatment of individual blade pitch control * grid code requirements and the principles governing the connection of large wind farms to transmission networks * four pages of full-colour pictures that illustrate blade manufacture, turbine construction and offshore support structure installation Firmly established as an essential reference, Wind Energy Handbook, Second Edition will prove a real asset to engineers, turbine designers and wind energy consultants both in industry and research. Advanced engineering students and new entrants to the wind energy sector will also find it an invaluable resource.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover Page

Title Page

Copyright

About the Authors

Preface to Second Edition

Acknowledgements for First Edition

Acknowledgements for Second Edition

List of Symbols

Figures C1 and C2 – Co-ordinate Systems

1: Introduction

1.1 Historical development

1.2 Modern wind turbines

1.3 Scope of the book

2: The wind resource

2.1 The nature of the wind

2.2 Geographical variation in the wind resource

2.3 Long-term wind speed variations

2.4 Annual and seasonal variations

2.5 Synoptic and diurnal variations

2.6 Turbulence

2.7 Gust wind speeds

2.8 Extreme wind speeds

2.9 Wind speed prediction and forecasting

2.10 Turbulence in wakes and wind farms

2.11 Turbulence in complex terrain

3: Aerodynamics of horizontal axis wind turbines*

3.1 Introduction

3.2 The actuator disc concept

3.3 Rotor disc theory

3.4 Vortex cylinder model of the actuator disc

3.5 Rotor blade theory (blade-element/momentum theory)

3.6 Breakdown of the momentum theory

3.7 Blade geometry

3.8 The effects of a discrete number of blades

3.9 Stall delay

3.10 Calculated results for an actual turbine

3.11 The performance curves

3.12 Constant rotational speed operation

3.13 Pitch regulation

3.14 Comparison of measured with theoretical performance

3.15 Variable speed operation

3.16 Estimation of energy capture

3.17 Wind turbine aerofoil design

Appendix A3 lift and drag of aerofoils

4: Further aerodynamic topics for wind turbines

4.1 Introduction

4.2 The aerodynamics of turbines in steady yaw

4.3 The method of acceleration potential

4.4 Unsteady flow

4.5 Quasi-steady aerofoil aerodynamics

4.6 Dynamic stall

4.7 Computational fluid dynamics

5: Design loads for horizontal axis wind turbines

5.1 National and international standards

5.2 Basis for design loads

5.3 Turbulence and wakes

5.4 Extreme loads

5.5 Fatigue loading

5.6 Stationary blade loading

5.7 Blade loads during operation

5.8 Blade dynamic response

5.9 Blade fatigue stresses

5.10 Hub and low speed shaft loading

5.11 Nacelle loading

5.12 Tower loading

5.13 Wind turbine dynamic analysis codes

5.14 Extrapolation of extreme loads from simulations

Appendix 5: Dynamic response of stationary blade in turbulent wind

A5.1 Introduction

A5.2 Frequency response function

A5.3 Resonant displacement response ignoring wind variations along the blade

A5.4 Effect of across-wind turbulence distribution on resonant displacement response

A5.5 Resonant root bending moment

A5.6 Root bending moment background response

A5.7 Peak response

A5.8 Bending moments at intermediate blade positions

6: Conceptual design of horizontal axis wind turbines

6.1 Introduction

6.2 Rotor diameter

6.3 Machine rating

6.4 Rotational speed

6.5 Number of blades

6.6 Teetering

6.7 Power control

6.8 Braking systems

6.9 Fixed speed, two speed or variable speed

6.10 Type of generator

6.11 Drive train mounting arrangement options

6.12 Drive train compliance

6.13 Rotor position with respect to tower

6.14 Tower stiffness

6.15 Personnel safety and access issues

7: Component design

7.1 Blades

7.2 Pitch bearings

7.3 Rotor hub

7.4 Gearbox

7.5 Generator

7.6 Mechanical brake

7.7 Nacelle bedplate

7.8 Yaw drive

7.9 Tower

7.10 Foundations

8: The controller

8.1 Functions of the wind turbine controller

8.2 Closed loop control: issues and objectives

8.3 Closed loop control: general techniques

8.4 Closed loop control: analytical design methods

8.5 Pitch actuators (see also, Chapter 6 Section 6.7.2)

8.6 Control system implementation

9: Wind turbine installations and wind farms

9.1 Project development

9.2 Landscape and visual impact assessment

9.3 Noise

9.4 Electromagnetic Interference

9.5 Ecological assessment

10: Wind energy and the electric power system

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Wind farm power collection systems

10.3 Earthing (grounding) of wind farms

10.4 Lightning protection

10.5 Connection of wind generation to distribution networks

10.6 Power system studies

10.7 Power quality

10.8 Electrical protection

10.9 Distributed generation and the Grid Codes

10.10 Wind energy and the generation system

Appendix A10 Simple calculations for the connection of wind turbines

11: Offshore wind turbines and wind farms

11.1 Development of offshore wind energy

11.2 The offshore wind resource

11.3 Design loads

11.4 Machine size optimisation

11.5 Reliability of offshore wind turbines

11.6 Support structures

11.7 Environmental assessment of offshore wind farms

11.8 Offshore power collection and transmission

11.9 Operation and access

Appendix A11

Color Plate

Index

This edition first published 2011

© 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

First Edition published in 2001

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataWind energy handbook / Tony Burton … [et al.]. - 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-69975-1 (hardback) 1. Wind power-Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. Burton, Tony, 1947- TJ820.H35 2011 621.31′2136–dc22 2010046394

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Print ISBN: 978-0-470-69975-1 E-PDF ISBN: 978-1-119-99272-1 O-book ISBN: 978-1-119-99271-4 E-Pub ISBN: 978-1-119-99392-6 mobi ISBN: 978-1-119-99393-3

About the Authors

Tony Burton: After an early career in long-span bridge design and construction, Tony Burton joined the Wind Energy Group in 1982 to co-ordinate Phase IIB of the Offshore Wind Energy Assessment for the UK Department of Energy. This was a collaborative project involving British Aerospace, GEC and the CEGB, which had the task of producing an outline design and costing of a 100 m diameter wind turbine in a large offshore array. Following this, he worked on the design development for the UK prototype 3 MW turbine, before moving to Orkney to supervise its construction and commissioning. Later he moved to Wales to be site engineer for the construction and operation of Wind Energy Group's first wind farm at Cemmaes and he now works as a wind energy consultant.

Nick Jenkins was at the University of Manchester (UMIST) from 1992 to 2008. He then moved to Cardiff University where he is now Professor of Renewable Energy. His previous career had included 14 years industrial experience, of which five years were in developing countries. He is a Fellow of the IET, IEEE and Royal Academy of Engineering and for three years was the Shimizu Visiting Professor at Stanford University.

David Sharpe has worked in the aircraft industry for the British Aircraft Corporation as a structural engineer. From 1969 to 1995 he was a Senior Lecturer in aeronautical engineering at Kingston Polytechnic and at Queen Mary College, University of London. Between 1996 and 2003 he was at Loughborough University as a Senior Research Fellow at the Centre for Renewable Energy Systems Technology. David is a member of the Royal Aeronautical Society and was a member of the British Wind Energy Association at its inception. He has been active in wind turbine aerodynamics research since 1976.

Ervin Bossanyi: After graduating in theoretical physics and completing a PhD in energy economics at Cambridge University Ervin Bossanyi has been working in wind energy since 1978. He was a research fellow at Reading University and then Rutherford Appleton Laboratory before moving into industry in 1986 where he worked on advanced control methods for the Wind Energy Group. Since 1994 he has been with international consultants Garrad Hassan where he is a principal engineer.

Preface to Second Edition

The second edition of the Wind Energy Handbook seeks to reflect the evolution of design rules and the principal innovations in the technology that have taken place in the ten years since the first edition was published. A major new direction in wind energy development in this period has been the expansion offshore and so the opportunity has been taken to add a new chapter on offshore wind turbines and wind farms.

The offshore chapter begins with a survey of the present state of offshore wind farm development, before consideration of resource assessment and array losses. Then wave loading on support structures is examined in depth, including a summary of the combinations of wind and wave loading specified in the load cases of the IEC standard and descriptions of applicable wave theories. Linear (Airy) wave theory and Dean stream function theory are explained, together with their translation into wave loadings by means of Morison's equation. Diffraction and breaking wave theories are also covered.

Consideration of wave loading leads to a survey of the different types of support structure deployed to date. Monopile, gravity bases, jacket structures, tripods and tripiles are described in turn. In view of their popularity, monopiles are accorded the most space and, after an outline of the key design considerations, monopile fatigue analysis in the frequency domain is explained.

Another major cost element offshore is the undersea cable system needed to transmit power to land. This subject is considered in depth in the section on the power collection and transmission cable network. Machine reliability is also of much greater importance offshore, so developments in turbine condition monitoring and other means of increasing reliability are discussed. The chapter is completed by sections covering the assessment of environmental impacts, maintenance and access, and optimum machine size.

The existing chapters in the first edition have all been revised and brought up to date, with the addition of new material in some areas. The main changes are as follows:

Chapter 1: Introduction This chapter has been brought up to date and expanded.

Chapter 2: The wind resource Descriptions of the high frequency asymptotic behaviour of turbulence spectra and the Mann turbulence model have been added.

Chapters 3 and 4: Aerodynamics of horizontal axis wind turbines The contents of Chapters 3 and 4 of the first edition have been rearranged so that the fundamentals are covered in Chapter 3 and more advanced subjects are explored in Chapter 4. Some material on field-testing and performance measurement has been omitted to make space for a survey of wind turbine aerofoils and new sections on dynamic stall and computational fluid dynamics.

Chapter 5: Design loads for horizontal axis wind turbines The description of IEC load cases has been brought up to date and a new section on the extrapolation of extreme loads from simulations added. The size of the `example' wind turbine has been doubled to 80 m, in order to be more representative of the current generation of turbines.

Chapter 6: Conceptual design of horizontal axis wind turbines The initial sections on choice of machine size, rating and number of blades have been substantially revised, making use of the NREL cost model. Variable speed operation is considered in greater depth. The section on tower stiffness has been expanded to compare tower excitation at rotational frequency and blade passing frequency.

Chapter 7: Component design New rules for designing towers against buckling are described and a section on foundation rotational stiffness has been added.

Chapter 8: The Controller Individual blade pitch control is examined in greater depth.

Chapter 9: Wind turbine installations and wind farms A survey of recent research on the impact of turbines on birds has been added.

Chapter 10: Electrical systems New sections covering (a) Grid Code requirements for the connection of large wind farms to transmission networks and (b) the impact of wind farms on generation systems have been added.

Acknowledgements for First Edition

A large number of individuals have assisted the authors in a variety of ways in the preparation of this work. In particular, however, we would like to thank David Infield for providing some of the content of Chapter 4, David Quarton for scrutinising and commenting on Chapter 5, Mark Hancock, Martin Ansell and Colin Anderson for supplying information and guidance on blade material properties reported in Chapter 7, and Ray Hicks for insights into gear design. Thanks are also due to Roger Haines and Steve Gilkes for illuminating discussions on yaw drive design and braking philosophy, respectively, and to James Shawler for assistance and discussions about Chapter 3.

We have made extensive use of ETSU and Ris publications and record our thanks to these organisations for making documents available to us free of charge and sanctioning the reproduction of some of the material therein.

While acknowledging the help we have received from the organisations and individuals referred to above, the responsibility for the work is ours alone, so corrections and/or constructive criticisms would be welcome.

Extracts from British Standards reproduced with the permission of the British Standards Institution under licence number 2001/SK0281. Complete Standards are available from BSI Customer Services. (Tel [phone]).

Acknowledgements for Second Edition

The second edition benefited greatly from the continuing help and support provided by many who had assisted in the first edition. However, the authors are also grateful to the many individuals not involved in the first edition who provided advice and expertise for the second, especially in relation to the new offshore chapter. In particular the authors wish to acknowledge the contribution of Rose King to the discussion of offshore electric systems, based on her PhD thesis, and of Tim Camp to the discussion of offshore support structure loading. Thanks are also due to Bieshoy Awad for the drawings of electrical generator systems, Rebecca Barthelmie and Wolfgang Schlez for advice on offshore wake effects, Joe Phillips for his contribution to the offshore wind resource, Sven Eric Thor for provision of insights and illustrations from the Lillgrund wind farm, Marc Seidel for information on jacket structures, Jan Wienke for discussion of breaking wave loads and Ben Hendricks for his input on turbine costs in relation to size.

In addition, several individuals took on the onerous task of scrutinising sections of the draft text. The authors are particularly grateful to Tim Camp for examining the sections on design loading, on- and offshore, Colin Morgan for providing useful comments on the sections dealing with support structures and Graeme McCann for vetting sections on the extrapolation of extreme loads from simulations and monopile fatigue analysis in the frequency domain. Nevertheless, responsibility for any errors remains with the authors. (In this connection, thanks are due to those who have pointed out errors in the first edition).

Tony Burton would also like to record his thanks to Martin Kuhn and Wim Bierbooms for providing copies of their PhD theses – entitled respectively ‘Dynamics and design optimisation of offshore wind energy conversion systems’ and ‘Constrained stochastic simulation of wind gusts for wind turbine design’ – both of which proved invaluable in the preparation of this work.

Figures C1 and C2 – Co-ordinate Systems

Figure C1 Co-ordinate System for Blade Loads, Positions and Deflections (rotates with blade)

Figure C2 Fixed Co-ordinate System for Hub Loads and Deflections, and Positions with Respect to Hub

2

The wind resource

2.1 The nature of the wind