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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
- Sprache: Englisch
Fully illustrated and accessible reference covering the background, current state, and future opportunities for wind energy development
Wind Energy Landscape presents a comprehensive treatment of wind energy history, principles, and techniques as well as environmental, health, aesthetic, social, and political impacts. Focusing primarily on the European and North American markets with additional reviews from Asia, this book enables readers to gain a practical overview and understanding of modern wind energy, supported by in-depth case studies throughout.
Fully illustrated with maps, satellite images, drawings, and photographs taken on the ground or via kite aerial photography, this book disproves many myths about wind energy—such as by demonstrating that wind farms may exist in rural land or offshore settings with minimal impacts—and promotes the radical-middle approach for integrated and evolving energy resources in which wind power has come to play a prominent role. The authors suggest that wind power in global energy development should be given prominent treatment, particularly for renewable, non-polluting energy sources.
Wind Energy Landscape discusses topics including:
- History of wind energy electricity generation through the late 19th and 20th centuries
- Environmental and aesthetic issues, including impacts on wildlife such as birds and bats as well as visibility and turbine noise
- Public policy for wind energy, covering subsidies, financial and import-export incentives, feed-in tariffs, local-content requirements, and R&D investments
- Energy production and consumption of wind energy in comparison to nuclear energy, solar energy, and hydro and tidal energy, as well as fossil fuels including coal, oil, and natural gases
Bridging the gap between advanced engineering and popular books, Wind Energy Land-scape is an essential reference on the subject for students in introductory courses on electrical, mechanical, and aerodynamic engineering, engineers working with renewable and sustainable energy, and public policy makers.
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Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
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Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
Wind Energy Preface
Emergence of Wind Energy
Role of Wind Energy
Building Sustainable Energy Futures
References
Acknowledgments
1 History of Wind Energy
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Traditional Windmills—European and American
1.3 Generating Electricity—Late 1800s to Mid‐1900s
1.4 Generating Electricity—Late 1900s
1.5 Wind Energy—Early Twenty‐First Century
1.6 Summary
References
2 Windscape Methodology
2.1 What Is the Windscape?
2.2 Geospatial Analysis
2.3 Remote Sensing
2.4 Maps and GIS
2.5 Economic, Social Science, and Environmental Methods and Techniques
2.6 Summary
References
3 Converting Wind into Electricity
3.1 Atmosphere and Wind
3.2 Wind Power and Energy
3.3 Turbine Efficiency and Capacity
3.4 Electricity Grid and Interconnection
3.5 Integration of Wind Energy
3.6 Summary
References
4 Public Policy for Wind Energy
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Wind‐Energy Policy Measures
4.3 Land‐Use Decisions and Siting Policies
4.4 Summary
References
5 Environmental and Aesthetic Issues
5.1 Introduction and Risks
5.2 Wildlife—Birds
5.3 Wildlife—Bats
5.4 Visibility
5.5 Noise
5.6 Summary
References
6 Europe and Asia
6.1 Eurasian Overview
6.2 Denmark
6.3 Faroe Islands
6.4 Poland
6.5 India’s Wind Geography
6.6 Summary
References
7 North American Case Studies
7.1 Introduction to the United States and Canada
7.2 Kansas
7.3 Southeastern Colorado
7.4 Offshore New England
7.5 Saskatchewan, Canada
7.6 Summary
References
8 Energy Production and Consumption
8.1 Overview
8.2 Fossil Fuels
8.3 Nuclear Energy
8.4 Wind Energy
8.5 Summary
References
9 Ideal Energy
9.1 Radical Middle
9.2 Metals
9.3 Wind Turbines and Health
9.4 Energy in Transition
9.5 Energy Gap
9.6 Summary
References
10 Windscape Summary and Conclusion
10.1 Wind‐Industry Origins
10.2 Windscape
10.3 Wind and Other Energy Sources
10.4 Future of Wind Energy
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1.1 Beaufort wind scale for categories 0–10 in relation to wi...
Table 1.2 Efficiency of Danish wind turbines for harnessing potenti...
Table 1.3 Top 12 countries for wind‐energy generating capacity incl...
Table 1.4 Top 10 wind‐turbine companies generating capacity supplie...
Chapter 2
Table 2.1 The civilian U.S. National Imagery Interpretability Ratin...
Chapter 3
Table 3.1 Standard atmospheric conditions for temperature, pressure...
Table 3.2 Terrain cover features and typical roughness exponent (
α
...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1 Renewable energy tariff zones in China, as reported in Gi...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1 Common sound loudness values in decibels (dB).
Chapter 7
Table 7.1 Top 12 U.S. states for installed wind capacity as of firs...
Table 7.2 Growth of typical turbine characteristics in Kansas wind ...
Chapter 8
Table 8.1 Annual per‐capita consumption of electricity for the top ...
Table 8.2 Change in U.S. electric industry power plants by main ene...
Table 8.3 Top 10 countries for CO
2
emissions, given in billions of ...
Table 8.4 Top 10 countries and world total for generation of electr...
List of Illustrations
Wind Energy Preface
Figure P1 Traditional Dutch‐style windmill at Trönningenäs, Halland...
Figure P2 Typical windscape on the High Plains in southwestern Kans...
Figure P3 Wind turbines on Ascension Island, an isolated space‐comm...
Figure P4 Recharging a Renault EV minivan for local delivery servic...
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1 Sketch of traditional Chinese windmill for pumping wate...
Figure 1.2 Egeby Stubmølle (post mill) was built in 1787. The mill...
Figure 1.3 Klostermøllen near Vestervig in northwestern Jutland, D...
Figure 1.4 Close‐up view of windmill wheel, Greek island of Mykono...
Figure 1.5 Aarsdale Mølle, a smock, Dutch‐style windmill on the is...
Figure 1.6 Old Dutch Mill in Wamego, Kansas. The stone‐tower mill ...
Figure 1.7 Side view of restored Raymond vaneless windmill at Linc...
Figure 1.8 Baker Monitor W Series, back‐geared, self‐oiling windmi...
Figure 1.9 Jasper Windmills, an open‐air exhibit in southwestern M...
Figure 1.10 Jacobs wind turbines in Hawaii circa 1989.
Figure 1.11 Allgaier–Hütter StGW‐34 model, two‐bladed, 100 kW win...
Figure 1.12 Økær 5‐m‐long fiberglass blades on a 22 kW Smedemeste...
Figure 1.13 Schematic diagram to scale of NASA Mod‐series wind tu...
Figure 1.14 NASA Mod_0 wind turbine at Plum Brook Station, Sandus...
Figure 1.15 U.S. Windpower turbines at Paterson Pass in the Altam...
Figure 1.16 Overview of the Patterson Pass wind farm which was co...
Figure 1.17 Vindeby turbine preserved and displayed in the Danish...
Figure 1.18 Pair of Tacke turbines at Swarzewo, northern Poland, ...
Figure 1.19 Gray County Wind Farm, built in 2001, was the first l...
Figure 1.20 Spearville Project, built in 2006, is equipped with G...
Figure 1.21 Turbine‐blade logistics in Kansas. (A) Highway transp...
Figure 1.22 EHN turbines harvest wind energy on a prominent ridge...
Figure 1.23 Middelgrunden wind farm in the Øresund strait between...
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 Wind farms east of San Francisco Bay, California. (A) P...
Figure 2.2 Fog blankets part of the San Joaquin Valley of central ...
Figure 2.3 Portion of a digital orthophoto quadrangle (DOQ) derive...
Figure 2.4 Shaded‐relief digital elevation model for the Gray Coun...
Figure 2.5 Permanent meteorological tower in the Flat Ridge Wind F...
Figure 2.6 Spring Valley Wind Project in eastern Nevada feeds elec...
Figure 2.7 Electrical infrastructure for wind farms in Kansas. (A)...
Figure 2.8 Combined GIS datasets for the wind resource of Kansas. ...
Figure 2.9 Wind farms along I‐70 highway on the High Plains in eas...
Figure 2.10 Ramme Dige is a well‐known archaeological site in wes...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 Global sea‐surface temperature for the period July 1984...
Figure 3.2 Schematic diagram of global atmospheric circulation. H:...
Figure 3.3 GE Wind turbines and transmission line in the Pioneer W...
Figure 3.4 Tall buildings, towers, and numerous trees reduce avera...
Figure 3.5 Wind blowing from left to right around the grain elevat...
Figure 3.6 Vestas V90‐1.8 MW turbines of the Caney River Wind Proj...
Figure 3.7 Adjacent active and rotating turbines face in different...
Figure 3.8 Vestas V120‐2.2 MW turbines have a rotor diameter of 12...
Figure 3.9 NedWind 40/500 two‐bladed turbines. Rotor diameter is 4...
Figure 3.10 Gaia‐Wind small turbine near Heltborg, northwestern D...
Figure 3.11 Comparison of rotor diameter, tip‐speed ratio (
λ
Figure 3.12 Final assembly of Turbowinds T600‐48 mid‐sized turbin...
Figure 3.13 Vestas V100‐1.8 MW turbines were erected in 2012 in t...
Figure 3.14 Overview of the Lamar Light and Power wind turbines s...
Figure 3.15 Small turbines are tested at the Nordic Folkecenter f...
Figure 3.16 Turbines not operating in low‐wind conditions. Turbin...
Figure 3.17 Super electrical grid using 765 kV AC transmission li...
Figure 3.18 Three sets of high‐voltage electricity transmission l...
Figure 3.19 Electricity transmission regional groups (RG) for wes...
Figure 3.20 Sunpower solar‐energy facility in the San Luis Valley...
Figure 3.21 Double set of overhead AC transmission lines near Age...
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 Cumulative total installed wind‐energy capacity (MW) fo...
Figure 4.2 Cumulative total installed wind‐energy capacity (MW) by...
Figure 4.3 Total wind‐energy generation in top 10 states in the Un...
Figure 4.4 Test station for large turbines at Høvsøre on the weste...
Figure 4.5 Turbines on the southwestern coast of Sweden at Falkenb...
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 Wild daisies and clover bloom in this hay field within ...
Figure 5.2 These turbines stand in a field of tallgrass prairie th...
Figure 5.3 Bald eagle (
Haliaeetus leucocephalus
) in flight over La...
Figure 5.4 Rolling Hills wind farm. (Left) GE Wind 1.5 MW turbines...
Figure 5.5 Top of the World wind farm went online in 2010 with 110...
Figure 5.6 Communication towers kill several millions of birds eve...
Figure 5.7 Eastern red bat (
Lasiurus borealis
) with three pups. No...
Figure 5.8 Large turbines next to the heavily traveled E6/E20 moto...
Figure 5.9 Wind turbines on the edge of Göteborg harbor with the V...
Figure 5.10 Interstate highway I‐10 passes through the middle of ...
Figure 5.11 Turbines near the Danube River in eastern Austria. Th...
Figure 5.12 GE Wind 2.82‐127 turbines of the Sunflower wind proje...
Figure 5.13 Protest sign on US highway 50 in Marion County, east‐...
Figure 5.14 The large turbine on left is just over 1,000 feet (30...
Figure 5.15 Serrated trailing edge on blade for Vestas turbine. N...
Figure 5.16 Unmuffled, gas‐powered engine pumping groundwater fro...
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 Denmark and surrounding land and sea areas. Selected on...
Figure 6.2 Udbyneder wind farm looking east toward the Kattegat (s...
Figure 6.3 Ramme wind farm looking toward the northeast in the rur...
Figure 6.4 Array of solar panels (dark gray) partly surrounds turb...
Figure 6.5 Solar‐energy photovoltaic (PV) array for generating ele...
Figure 6.6 Overview of the Baltic Sea, beach, dunes, and forest lo...
Figure 6.7 Typical landscape in the Faroe Islands. Village of Viða...
Figure 6.8 Portion of the Húsahagi and Tórshavn wind farms on the ...
Figure 6.9 Electric substation in the Húsahagi wind‐energy park be...
Figure 6.10 Reconstructed windmill near Czarnków, west‐central Po...
Figure 6.11 Satellite image of the Margonin (M) vicinity, west‐ce...
Figure 6.12 Older turbines present within the Radwanki‐Margonin w...
Figure 6.13 Typical agricultural scene in the gently undulating t...
Figure 6.14 Gamesa G90/2000 turbines in the Radwanki‐Margonin win...
Figure 6.15 Bituminous coal stockpile in preparation for winter h...
Figure 6.16 Looking to the southeast over the village of Radwanki...
Figure 6.17 Typical wind turbine in India. This appears to be an ...
Figure 6.18 Indian states cumulative installed wind capacity as o...
Figure 6.19 Bada bagh, a burial ground for royal families, in the...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 Landscape regions of Kansas. Region limits are sharp an...
Figure 7.2 Marshall Wind Energy complex in the Glacial Hills of no...
Figure 7.3 Eastern end of the Meridian Way Project. Note the weath...
Figure 7.4 Courtship display by greater prairie‐chickens (
Tympanuc
...
Figure 7.5 Flat Ridge Wind Farm. Original Clipper C96 turbines sta...
Figure 7.6 Clipper C96 turbines of the Flat Ridge Wind Farm with a...
Figure 7.7 Electricity grid infrastructure under construction in K...
Figure 7.8 Two working pump jacks and oil storage tank in the El D...
Figure 7.9 BNSF Railway coal train at Las Animas in southeastern C...
Figure 7.10 GE Wind turbines in the Peak View Wind farm on the ed...
Figure 7.11 Vestas V100 turbine under construction for the Busch ...
Figure 7.12 North Rattlesnake Butte (left) stands in the middle o...
Figure 7.13 Transmission line in the Busch Ranch wind farm collec...
Figure 7.14 Turbines appear to be quite close behind this farmste...
Figure 7.15 Pronghorn (
Antilocapra americana
) are commonly seen o...
Figure 7.16 Offshore wind‐energy resource for the eastern United ...
Figure 7.17 Increasing size and generating capacity of land‐based...
Figure 7.18 Aerial view of the Block Island Project that includes...
Figure 7.19 Sketch map of southwestern Saskatchewan and adjacent ...
Figure 7.20 Vestas V80‐1.8 MW turbines positioned in wheat fields...
Figure 7.21 Electrical substation and transmission lines to left ...
Figure 7.22 Overview of turbines scattered across the agricultura...
Figure 7.23 SaskPower, Coteau Creek Hydroelectric Station. Lake D...
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Portion of a Japanese geothermal plant at Yamagawa that...
Figure 8.2 (Left) Open‐pit mega‐mine in eastern Germany as seen in...
Figure 8.3 Trains pulled by diesel locomotives transport coal from...
Figure 8.4 Oil‐well drilling rig operating in the Uinta Basin of n...
Figure 8.5 Chart of long‐term trend in atmospheric CO
2
at Mauna Lo...
Figure 8.6 Typical fast‐charging station for two electric vehicles...
Figure 8.7 Active, open‐pit, uranium mine located in central Texas...
Figure 8.8 Electrical substation and transmission line that serve ...
Figure 8.9 Pumped‐water energy storage at Kinzua Dam and Allegheny...
Figure 8.10 Electrical substation and transmission line (on left)...
Chapter 9
Figure 9.1 Vestas V120‐2.0 MW turbine in the Blazing Star I wind f...
Figure 9.2 Nickel–iron meteorite from Muonianalusta, northern Swed...
Figure 9.3 Native copper vein in a matrix of greenstone and quartz...
Figure 9.4 Lithium ore minerals found in pegmatites. (Left) Spodum...
Figure 9.5 Bingham Canyon mine, Utah, United States, as seen in 20...
Figure 9.6 Open‐pit coal mines in North America. (Left) Highvale c...
Figure 9.7 OMV plant that processes so‐called sour gas from the Sc...
Figure 9.8 Early, relatively small Vestas turbine on the island of...
Figure 9.9 Vestas V80‐1.8 MW turbines of the Centennial Wind Power...
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Østofte Mølle, a traditional post mill located on the...
Figure 10.2 Restored Dempster Vaneless No. 4 windmill from early ...
Figure 10.3 Micon wind turbine of 1990s vintage operating near Ag...
Figure 10.4 GE Wind 2.8‐MW turbines stand in agricultural fields ...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Series Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
About the Authors
Wind Energy Preface
Acknowledgments
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
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Wind Energy Landscape
Principles, Techniques, History
James S. Aber and Susan E. W. Aber
Emporia State University, Kansas, USA
Firooza Pavri
University of Southern Maine, USA
Copyright © 2026 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.
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About the Authors
Susan E. W. Aber is a Halstead, Kansas native, and James S. Aber was born and raised in Kansas City, Missouri. Since meeting as students at the University of Kansas and marrying, they have resided most of their adult years in Emporia, Kansas. JSA received his undergraduate degree from Binghamton University, New York, and a PhD in Geology from the University of Kansas. He is a Distinguished Professor Emeritus at Emporia State University. His specialties include glaciation, wetlands, tectonics, and remote sensing. SEWA received her undergraduate degree in geology from the University of Kansas and a PhD in Library and Information Management from Emporia State University. She is faculty emerita at San José State University, California. She has expertise in mineralogy, gemstones, and maps and GIS for librarians. They have wide‐ranging experiences and have conducted field research across the United States, Canada, and several countries in northern and central Europe. Both have conducted considerable research about general geology, glaciation, wetlands, and wind energy. They are partners for kite aerial photography and have published many scientific articles and several scholarly and popular books.
Firooza Pavri, PhD, is Professor of Geography and Associate Dean at the Edmund S. Muskie School of Public Service, University of Southern Maine (USM), USA. Prior to joining USM, she lived in the Midwest and received her MA in Geography & Planning from the University of Toledo and her PhD in Geography from the Ohio State University. Professor Pavri’s teaching and research are in the field of environmental geography, with a focus on society–environment interactions, natural resource and energy policy, sustainable development, and geospatial technologies, including satellite imaging. Over the years, her research projects and field sites have included locations in the United States, Greenland, Iceland, and India.
Wind Energy Preface
The radical middle is where the solution to ourenergy challenges lies (Tinker 2013, p. 8).
Emergence of Wind Energy
People have harnessed the power in the wind since ancient times. Sailing, traditional windmills, and kites are just a few common examples found around the world. From the twelfth century until the early 1900s, in fact, traditional windmills provided significant motive power for grinding grain, pumping water, running small machines, and performing myriad mechanical tasks in many locales (Fig. P1). The Industrial Revolution stimulated development of new forms of energy derived mainly from fossil fuels along with widespread generation and use of electricity for diverse applications in modern society.
Coupled with rapid growth of human population, energy production and consumption increased even more quickly during the twentieth century in order to raise living standards and health for billions of people. Most people believed that cheap energy from coal, oil, gas, and uranium would fuel the future at low cost with trivial environmental consequences and minimal risks. While this situation appears naive in the twenty‐first century, it seemed quite reasonable in the past. However, the era of low‐cost energy is just a distant memory, environmental issues have come to the forefront, and risks of fossil and nuclear fuels are now recurring themes.
The use of wind power for generating electrical energy has grown phenomenally during the past half century from negligible in the 1970s to more than 1,000 gigawatts (GW) capacity today (GWEC 2024). With this rapid growth came recognition of the windscape, which is the combination of local climate and geography, environmental and ecological conditions, economic incentives and public policies, human land use and infrastructure, as well as historical and cultural expectations associated with harnessing wind power (Aber et al. 2015). Such an integrated approach to assessing the wind‐energy sector would allow for a full accounting of its costs and benefits and enable more efficient long‐term planning strategies (Fig. P2).
Figure P1 Traditional Dutch‐style windmill at Trönningenäs, Halland, southwestern Sweden. The windmill dates from 1899; it has been fully restored and remains functional. When in operation, cloth sails cover the wooden frameworks of blades.
Figure P2 Typical windscape on the High Plains in southwestern Kansas. Mixed agricultural land use and GE Wind 1.5 MW turbines in the original Spearville wind farm that went online in 2006. The nearest turbine stands less than 200 m from the farmstead (on left). Such close spacing is generally not allowed in newer wind farms. Kite aerial photograph with Unruh and Leiker (2008).
Role of Wind Energy
Wind energy has emerged from an uncertain niche industry to become an important component of national energy policies in many developed and developing countries. The case for increased wind power is based on several issues.
Cost of fossil fuel—The supply and pricing of fossil fuels (oil, gas, coal) have been highly volatile since the 1970s. The long‐term trend is for higher prices, but with wide market swings depending on slight imbalances in supply and demand.
Dependence on foreign sources—Mass transfer of wealth to foreign sources of fuel is a severe economic drain, and uncertainty of supply for political or economic reasons jeopardizes national security for many developed and developing countries.
Greenhouse gas emissions—Producing and burning fossil fuels emit large volumes of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Coal is the worst offender in this regard, and coal‐fired power plants are the major sources of electricity in many parts of the world.
Homo sapiens are transforming the Earth through vast land conversions, immense use of minerals and fossil fuels, intense water consumption, and exploitation of many other non‐renewable land and marine resources. This development has been costly for the natural environment. Human activity is largely uncontrolled; most decisions are made for immediate individual survival, gain, or comfort rather than the greater good of society or long‐term environmental sustainability of the world. Nonetheless, increased generation and delivery of electricity are key ingredients for economic development and human quality of life.
In the future, wind energy undoubtedly will play a critical role in the mix of renewable energy sources for countries with substantial natural wind resources and the necessary technological infrastructure and support policies. In well‐developed, relatively small, homogeneous countries such as Denmark, Sweden, Ireland, and Portugal, wind energy could meet up to half of total electrical needs. For larger countries, such as China, India, and the United States, wind energy could reach 20–30% of total generating capacity, but probably not much more is realistically feasible given their diverse geographic, demographic, and economic conditions. For all countries, capacity‐resource generation based on fossil and nuclear fuels will be necessary for the foreseeable future to meet increasing baseload and peak‐load electricity demand.
Building Sustainable Energy Futures
The Merriam‐Webster definition of the term sustainable refers to the ability to last or continue for a long time. The term’s more commonplace usage in policy and science harks back to its introduction in the United Nations’‐commissioned Brundtland Report on Environment and Development, which argued for a new approach toward economic growth and development (Brundtland 1987). Sustainable development recognizes the critical interactions between natural and social systems that links human well‐being with an environmentally conscious approach to economic development, and that, above all, focuses on meeting the needs of current and future generations.
The ubiquitous use of the term sustainability today suggests not only a deep resonance with the public, but more importantly the education of a generation since its introduction. Moreover, the now generally accepted interdisciplinary academic field of sustainability science provides the framework for a more rigorous and problem‐driven, science‐based study of general ideas encapsulated within the term (Kates et al. 2001; Clark and Dickson 2003; Clark 2007).
The global recognition of the role of conventional fossil fuels and greenhouse gas emissions in human‐induced climate change has prompted a strong push for the use of alternative, more benign and renewable, sources of energy, of which wind energy has become a major resource (Aber et al. 2015). Energy demand will continue to increase as such countries as China, India, and Brazil fuel their social and economic development goals. Even with calls for a sustainable path to development, the reality for these and other developing nations is to meet the current needs of their citizens. Even so, alternatives to the current energy system do exist and are now being pursued to varying extents by countries across the globe (Fig. P3). Countries also recognize the distinct local advantages of investing in renewables for regional economic growth (Lewis and Wiser 2007). Not only does it help improve energy access and security, in the long run it may also help reduce the dependency on fossil fuels.
A multi‐pronged strategy, the so‐called radical middle, could help secure a country’s energy future (Tinker 2013). Energy productivity may be enhanced through promoting conservation, securing efficiencies in manufacturing, transportation, and household use. At the same time, however, a pronounced shift to renewable sources such as wind energy, where appropriate, should also be emphasized in order to provide for a balanced and sustainable energy portfolio that exploits the strengths of each type of energy resource.
At present, the wind‐energy sector requires long‐term governmental commitments through the implementation of appropriate policies, the availability of financing, and the creation of markets, among other factors (Dincer 2011). In the near term, strategic investments in research and development, infrastructure, and implementation also would be needed. The rapid expansion of wind energy in many countries provides evidence of such policies contributing to both regional development strategies as well as overarching goals for renewable energy production (Fig. P4).
Figure P3 Wind turbines on Ascension Island, an isolated space‐command and air‐force site in the South Atlantic midway between Africa and South America.
Lance Chung/Wikimedia Commons/Public Domain.
Figure P4 Recharging a Renault EV minivan for local delivery service in Aarhus, Denmark. A scene that is increasingly common around the world.
References
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Brundtland, G.H. 1987. Our common future. World commission on environment and development. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Sustainable Development.
https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/5987our‐common‐future.pdf
Clark, W. 2007. Sustainability science: A room of its own.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science
104, p. 1737–1738.
Clark, W. and Dickson, N. 2003. Sustainability science: The emerging research program.
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100(14), p. 8059–8061.
Dincer, F. 2011. The analysis on wind energy electricity generation status, potential and policies in the world.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews
15, p. 5135–5142.
GWEC. (2024). GWEC global wind report 2024. Global Wind Energy Council.
https://www.gwec.net/reports/globalwindreport
Kates, R., Clark, W., Corell, R., Hall, J.M., Jaeger, C., Lowe, I., McCarthy, J., Schellnhuber, H., Bolin, B., Dickson, N., Faucheux, S., Gallopin, G., Grubler, A., Huntley, B., Jager, J., Jodha, N., Kasperson, R., Mabogunje, A., Matson, P. and Mooney, H. 2001. Sustainability science.
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Lewis, J.I. and Wiser, R.H. 2007. Fostering a renewable energy technology industry: An international comparison of wind industry policy support mechanisms.
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Acknowledgments
Many individuals contributed to the preparation and completion of this endeavor. Without their help this book hardly would have been possible. In particular, we wish to thank Fred Anderson, Gayla Corley, J.T. Elder, Tim Esser, Maria Górska‐Zabielska, Preben Jensen, Susan Kelly, Dave Leiker, Holger Lykke‐Andersen, Irene Marzolff, Chris Pettit, Jan Piotrowski, Jill Schramm, Jim Schubert, C. Shepherd, Megan Sprague, Cheryl Unruh, and Elmer Værge.
Financial support was provided by institutional grants from Emporia State University, Kansas; San José State University, California; and the University of Southern Maine in the United States.
Unless otherwise noted, all photographs, images, and diagrams were created by the authors.
1History of Wind Energy
The fast growing world‐wide wind industry is basically using the concept developed in Denmark from 1975 to 1979
(Maegaard 2009, p. 51).
1.1 Introduction
People have utilized the wind to power various types of devices and vessels since the dawn of civilization. Primary applications prior to the twentieth century were pumping water, grinding grain, and sailing ships. In all cases, some type of airfoil is utilized to capture the kinetic energy of the wind and convert that energy into some kind of mechanical action that produces work useful for human activities. Various rigid or soft wings, blades, sails, chutes, vanes, fins, and tails serve to generate lift and to provide stability.
Sailing was and continues to be the most widespread use of wind power in nearly all countries and cultures around the globe. The original scale for wind speed was devised for this purpose in 1805 by Sir Francis Beaufort of the British Royal Navy (Table 1.1). Although modified for other units, this wind scale remains the global standard.
Windmills of many types and sizes are ubiquitous around the world primarily for pumping water, grinding grain, sawing wood, and running diverse machinery. Windmills may have been used in Persia as early as the seventh century and likely by the tenth century AD (Beedell 1975; Musgrove 2010). These were somewhat similar to waterwheels turned on side, so the wheel rotates horizontally on a vertical axle. The Chinese likewise have used horizontal windmills since at least the thirteenth century (Fig. 1.1).
Table 1.1 Beaufort wind scale for categories 0–10 in relation to wind energy.
Aber et al. (2015).
Rank
Wind
*
Beaufort
Surface effects
Wind energy
knots
m/s
km/h
mph
0
<1
0.5
1.8
1.2
Calm
Smoke rises straight up, sea and lake mirror‐like surface
Turbines shut off
1
1–3
1.5
5.4
3.5
Light air
Smoke drifts, wind cannot be felt, smooth water surface
Turbines shut off
2
4–6
3.0
10.8
6.9
Light breeze
Wind felt on face, leaves rustle, ripples on water surface
Minimal
3
7–10
5.1
18.0
11.5
Gentle breeze
Leaves and twigs flutter, small flags extended, small waves
Moderate
4
11–16
8.2
29.1
18.4
Moderate breeze
Wind raises dust, branches move, small waves, numerous whitecaps
Good
5
17–21
10.7
38.2
24.2
Fresh breeze
Small trees sway, many whitecaps, some spray
Good
6
22–27
13.9
49.1
31.1
Strong breeze
Branches move, lines whistle, whitecaps everywhere
Excellent
7
28–33
17.0
60.1
38.0
Near Gale
Whole trees moving, resistance felt walking against wind
Excellent
8
34–40
20.6
72.8
46.0
Gale
Large trees move, walking difficult, large waves, howling sound
Excellent
9
41–47
24.2
85.5
54.1
Strong gale
Slight structural damage occurs, slate blows off roofs
Dangerous
10
48–55
28.3
100.1
63.3
Storm
Trees broken or uprooted, considerable structural damage
Turbines shut off
Range of wind speed (*) for each category given in knots (nautical miles per hour); equivalent upper limit for each category also given in meters per second (m/s), kilometers per hour (km/h), and miles per hour (mph). Wind energy is indicated for operation of large, modern wind turbines.
Figure 1.1 Sketch of traditional Chinese windmill for pumping water.
Carl von Canstein / Wikimedia Commons / CC BY‐SA 3.0.
1.2 Traditional Windmills—European and American
Traditional windmills first came to Europe around 1100 and spread from France to other regions (Thorndahl 2005). The earliest written reports date from 1180 in France and 1185 in England, and the oldest illustration comes from 1270 (Beedell 1975). In all cases, these were so‐called post mills (Fig. 1.2). The sails rotate on a wheel in a near‐vertical position on a near‐horizontal axle, and the whole body may be turned on a central post to face the wind in any direction. This arrangement is clearly quite different from Persian or Chinese windmills, which suggests the European windmill was an independent innovation.
From this beginning, European windmills developed into much larger and more complex devices including tower, smock, and polder mills. During the next several centuries tens of thousands of windmills were constructed across Europe, and the technology was exported to America and elsewhere. The era of windmills lasted until the early twentieth century, some eight centuries, which is a remarkable achievement for any human technology (Fig. 1.3).
All traditional European windmills operate on the same basic principles. The sails of the wheel face into the wind and act much like ship sails or airplane wings. The common sail consists of cloth stretched over a wooden framework that is inclined at an angle (pitch) to the plane of the wheel. The pitch of the sail causes it to drive forward and, thus, turn the wheel. In early windmills, the sails were set at a fixed pitch of ~20° (Beedell 1975). However, the outer tip of the sail travels much faster than the inner portion. It was discovered that pitch could be twisted along the sail to take advantage of this. The so‐called weathered sails have pitch ~20° in their inner portions and flatten to pitch of only ~5° toward their tips.
Figure 1.2 Egeby Stubmølle (post mill) was built in 1787. The mill is rotated manually with the long tail pole (to right). It is no longer in service, but has been restored and functional since 1999. Island of Bornholm, Denmark.
Figure 1.3 Klostermøllen near Vestervig in northwestern Jutland, Denmark. A typical Dutch‐style windmill; it was built in 1860 and continued in service until 1960. The mill was restored to its original state in the late 1980s. Further restorations were necessary after storm and lightning damages.
The rate of rotation for practical work is typically 12–15 revolutions per minute (rpm) or one full rotation every four to five seconds at wind speeds of 4–10 m/s (see Table 1.1). More rapid rotation could lead to structural damage to the windmill. Hence, some means are necessary to control excessive speed in strong wind (>15 m/s). This may be accomplished in several ways. The simplest way with early post mills was to rotate the sails parallel to the wind. A mechanical brake was soon added that allowed the miller to slow and stop the wheel with one sail in the six o'clock (downward) position. The cloth cover then could be reefed (folded back) to reduce its surface area (Fig. 1.4). This had to be done for all sails to accommodate the wind speed, a laborious process that might be repeated several times during the day to adjust for changing wind conditions.
Beginning in the late eighteenth century, spring sails and patent sails were developed with shutters or flaps that were adjusted automatically using springs or weights to govern the rate of rotation (Beedell 1975). The so‐called flap‐shutter blades allowed the miller to adjust easily for variable wind speed and to turn the mill on and off at will. Another important innovation was the fantail. Positioned on the back side, the fantail is mounted vertically at right angle to the main wheel. When the wind shifts to one side, the fantail begins to spin, and it drives a mechanism that turns the mill cap automatically into the wind again.
Figure 1.4 Close‐up view of windmill wheel, Greek island of Mykonos in the Aegean Sea. The canvas sails are mostly reefed to reduce rotation speed. The earliest of these windmills date from the 1500s. Note the elaborate construction with braces and stays to reinforce the wheel. Similar windmills are known from other countries, such as Portugal (Autocar 1961). This technique was repeated on Danish wind turbines in the mid‐twentieth century.
Photo by R.K. Aber.
Fantails and flap‐shutter blades represent the ultimate development of traditional European windmills by the turn of the twentieth century (Fig. 1.5). Typical mills of this type utilize only about 6% of potential wind energy (Thorndahl 2005). Such mills had an average power output of ~10 kilowatts (kW) with a maximum up to 40 kW (Musgrove 2010). At 10 kW, the mill was equivalent to the muscle power of 150–200 people.
Traditional European‐style windmills also were built across the United States and Canada. A general impression is that such windmills were common only along the eastern seaboard, but they were actually quite numerous from coast to coast (Fig. 1.6). While European‐style windmills were common, American windmill innovation took a completely different direction beginning in the mid‐1800s. The prototype multi‐bladed windmill was invented by Daniel Halladay in 1854 at Ellington, Connecticut (Baker 1985). Rapid development of diverse designs by many companies followed immediately.
Figure 1.5 Aarsdale Mølle, a smock, Dutch‐style windmill on the island of Bornholm, Denmark. (Left) Flap shutters in closed position and blades turning in counterclockwise direction, (Right) flap shutters in open position and blades not turning. Note variation in pitch along length of blades and the fantail on back side of mill. This mill was built in 1877, and the original sail blades were replaced with flap‐shutter blades in 1919–1921. The mill still operates today, although not on a regular basis.
Figure 1.6 Old Dutch Mill in Wamego, Kansas. The stone‐tower mill was built in 1879 by a Dutch immigrant, J.B. Schonhoff, and used for grinding wheat and corn. The mill was taken down and rebuilt in Wamego in 1925 as a historical monument. The sail frames are non‐functional decorative structures.
Figure 1.7 Side view of restored Raymond vaneless windmill at Lincoln County Museum, Kansas. The W counterbalance arm points into the wind, and the blade sections are tilted in the downwind direction. The counterweight (C) controls the tilt of the blades; shown here in a position for strong wind. This model was among the most common vaneless windmills across the U.S. Midwest and Great Plains in the late 1800s and early 1900s (Baker 1985).
The early windmills were mostly of the sectional‐wheel type in which sets of closely spaced blades fold backward as wind speed increases, thereby controlling the rate of rotation. Some type of spring or counterweight governs the tilt of the blades. Some designs employed a large tail vane to point the bladed wheel into the wind; others were vaneless (Fig. 1.7). The main alternative to sectional wheels is the solid wheel in which all the blades are held rigidly and do not fold. Rate of wheel rotation is governed in various ways with a side vane, offset vane, or off‐centered wheel.
Many variations of both sectional‐ and solid‐wheel windmills were manufactured during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Early versions were made largely of wood with wheel diameters typically in the range 2–9 m and giant windmills up to 18 m in diameter (Baker 1985). The superiority of steel began with systematic experiments in 1882–1883 by Thomas Perry at the U.S. Wind Engine and Pump Company in Batavia, Illinois. Based on thousands of tests, he devised the now‐familiar wind wheel (wind rose) with curved steel blades set at a specific angle within a rim that offered minimal resistance to the wind (Fig. 1.8). This wheel proved far more efficient than existing wooden wheels. Perry joined forces with LaVerne Noyes to form the Aermotor Company in 1888, which in relatively short time became the largest and best‐known maker of American windmills.
In contrast to European windmills, American windmills have many blades in their wheels, at least a dozen to >100 blades in some models. According to Musgrove (2010), the number of blades has little effect on the power output, for the power in the wind flowing through the rotor can be efficiently intercepted using any number of blades (p. 53–54). However, the number of blades does influence torque and minimum wind speed needed to start the wheel turning. More blades result in a higher starting torque at low wind speed, which is particularly useful for operating reciprocating water pumps. Aermotor and similar geared windmills could pump water at wind speeds as low as 2 m/s (Baker 1985).
Currie Windmills
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, windmills in Kansas pumped groundwater for railroad steam locomotives and small towns as well as thousands of farms and ranches. Most windmill manufacturers were located in states to the east, but as many as 50 companies may have built windmills in Kansas (KHS 2014). The Currie windmill was among the best known and long lived from the 1880s to 1950s, manufactured first at Manhattan, then Topeka from around 1900 until the late 1940s, and finally at Salina.
Currie windmills had a reputation for durability. The wind‐rose wheels came in three sizes of 6‐, 8‐, and 10‐foot diameters. Bearings were hard wood, a steel band encircled the wheel blades, and the tail vane was large and distinctive. Currie windmills were exceptionally low in cost and became known as the poor man's windmill (KHS 2014). They were quite common in Kansas as well as many other states. Currie windmills are preserved in several museums today, and the tradition continues with modern mini‐Currie windmills made for garden displays and weathervanes.
Historic farmstead of D.R. Beckstrom, who moved to Greeley County in westernmost Kansas in 1892 (C. Shepherd, pers. com. 2023). The Currie windmill has a large wheel with 30 blades. Notice the wooden water barrels at the bottom. The mill presumably dates from the 1890s, as it appears to show Manhattan as the manufacturing city. Undated image obtained from the Horace Greeley Museum in Tribune.
The success of the American windmill was exported and copied widely in other countries, particularly Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, India, Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa, Uruguay, and Venezuela, to name a few. Large windmills of the Halladay type were designed, built, and installed in Denmark by N.J. Poulsen in the 1870–1880s (Christensen 2009). By 1930, as many as six million American windmills had been built (Musgrove 2010). However, the Great Depression of the 1930s was a blow that many windmill companies could not survive, and American windmills reached a low ebb in the mid‐twentieth century.
Figure 1.8 Baker Monitor W Series, back‐geared, self‐oiling windmill restored at Lakin, Kansas. The wheel has 15 fixed, curved steel blades. The distinctive vertical vane was introduced around 1940 and continued to be made into the 1960s. Note the bladed wheel is slightly off centered; as wind speed increases the wheel tends to turn toward the vane, thus regulating the rate of wheel rotation. As wind speed decreases, a governor spring pulls the wheel to face the wind again (Baker 1985).
This situation turned around with sharp increases in energy costs beginning in the 1970s and since. Water‐pumping windmills once again became common for both new equipment and maintaining older models in service. Also restoring antique windmills became popular (Fig. 1.9). The long‐term success of the American windmill is due to several factors, most importantly American windmills are self‐regulated and run autonomously with minimal human attention (Baker 1985).
1.3 Generating Electricity—Late 1800s to Mid‐1900s
Electricity is ubiquitous in the modern world; so much so, that we take it for granted nearly everywhere. We simply “plug in” to the wall socket, put batteries into our portable devices, or connect the car to a fast‐charging station. Yet widespread availability and use of electricity are hardly more than a century old. The concept of utilizing the wind to generate electricity goes back at least to the 1860s. For example, several successful efforts were made by Prof. James Blyth of Anderson’s College (now Strathclyde University), Scotland, in 1887–1914, and in the United States by Charles Brush of Cleveland, Ohio, in 1888–1908 (Price 2005; Musgrove 2010).
Figure 1.9 Jasper Windmills, an open‐air exhibit in southwestern Minnesota, restores and displays antique windmills from the United States and several other countries including some rare and unusual types.
The most important of these early efforts with long‐term significance took place in southwestern Denmark under the leadership of Poul la Cour (1846–1908). A scientist, teacher, and inventor, he obtained governmental support to build an electricity‐generating windmill at Askov in 1891. A second, larger windmill was constructed in 1897, on the basis of extensive experiments in a wind tunnel he designed. La Cour formulated many of the basic tenets of modern wind power, and his protégé, Johannes Juuls, innovated the basic concepts of modern wind turbines half a century later.
The period 1900–1920 is known as the first “golden age” of wind energy in Denmark (Christensen and Thorndahl 2012). By the end of World War I, approximately one‐quarter of rural Danish power stations relied on wind turbines of the la Cour type. When la Cour’s 1897 Askov windmill was destroyed by fire in 1929, it was replaced with a Lykkegaard model that had a decidedly modern look—four metal‐covered blades mounted on a steel‐truss tower (Musgrove 2010).
World War I stimulated rapid aeronautical developments for wings and propellers. These concepts were applied soon to Danish wind turbines in the form of the Agricco windmill, which proved to be considerably more efficient than traditional windmills or Lykkegaard turbines (Table 1.2). However, ready availability of imported oil and coal following World War I lessened the demand for wind power; production of the Agricco ended in Denmark in 1926, and manufacturing rights were sold to a Dutch company that continued production a few more years (Christensen 2008).
