Wireless Power Transmission for Sustainable Electronics E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 628

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2020

Beschreibung

Provides a collection of works produced by COST Action IC1301 with the goal of achieving significant advances in the field of wireless power transmission This book constitutes together information from COST Action IC1301, a group of academic and industry experts seeking to align research efforts in the field of wireless power transmission (WPT). It begins with a discussion of backscatter as a solution for Internet of Things (IoT) devices and goes on to describe ambient backscattering sensors that use FM broadcasting for low cost and low power wireless applications. The book also explores localization of passive RFID tags and augmented tags using nonlinearities of RFID chips. It concludes with a review of methods of electromagnetic characterization of textile materials for the development of wearable antennas. Wireless Power Transmission for Sustainable Electronics: COST WiPE - IC1301 covers textile-supported wireless energy transfer, and reviews methods for the electromagnetic characterization of textile materials for the development of wearable antennas. It also looks at: backscatter RFID sensor systems for remote health monitoring; simultaneous localization (of robots and objects) and mapping (SLAM); autonomous system of wireless power distribution for static and moving nodes of wireless sensor networks; and more. * Presents techniques for smart beam-forming for "on demand" wireless power transmission (WPT) * Discusses RF and microwave energy harvesting for space applications * Describes miniaturized RFID transponders for object identification and sensing Wireless Power Transmission for Sustainable Electronics: COST WiPE - IC1301 is an excellent book for both graduate students and industry engineers involved in wireless communications and power transfer, and sustainable materials for those fields.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

List of Figures

List of Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgments

1 Textile‐Supported Wireless Energy Transfer

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Textile‐Coated Single‐Wire Transmission Line

1.3 Textile‐Integrated Components

1.4 In‐Vehicle Wireless Energy Transfer

1.5 Summary

References

2 A Review of Methods for the Electromagnetic Characterization of Textile Materials for the Development of Wearable Antennas

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Electromagnetic Properties of Materials

2.3 Dielectric Characterization Methods Applied to Textile Materials and Leather: A Survey

2.4 Some Factors that Affect the Measurement of Dielectric Properties of Textiles

2.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

3 Smart Beamforming Techniques for “On Demand” WPT

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Basics of Time‐modulated Arrays

3.3 Nonlinear/Full‐Wave Co‐simulation of TMAS

3.4 Two‐Step Agile WPT Strategy

3.5 Simulation Results

3.6 Measured Results

3.7 TMA Architecture for Fundamental Pattern Steering

3.8 Conclusion

References

4 Backscatter a Solution for IoT Devices

4.1 Backscatter Basics

4.2 An IoT‐Complete Sensor with Backscatter Capabilities

4.3 The Power Availability for These Sensors

4.4 Characterization of High‐Order Modulation Backscatter Systems

References

5 Ambient FM Backscattering Low‐Cost and Low‐Power Wireless RFID Applications

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Ambient Backscattering

5.3 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

6 Backscatter RFID Sensor System for Remote Health Monitoring

6.1 Introduction

6.2 On‐Body System

6.3 Radio Channel

6.4 System Performance

6.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

References

7 Robotics Meets RFID for Simultaneous Localization (of Robots and Objects) and Mapping (SLAM) – A Joined Problem

7.1 Scope

7.2 Introduction

7.3 Localization of RFID Tags – Prior Art

7.4 A Brief Introduction in SLAM/Localization Techniques

7.5 Prototype – Experimental Results

7.6 Discussion

Acknowledgments

References

8 From Identification to Sensing: Augmented RFID Tags

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Generic RFID Communication Chain

8.3 RFID Sensor Tags: Examples from Literature or Commercially Available

8.4 Comparison of Different Types of RFID Temperature Sensors

8.5 Conclusion

References

9 Autonomous System of Wireless Power Distribution for Static and Moving Nodes of Wireless Sensor Networks

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Data Routing in WSN Based on Multiple Spanning Trees Concept

9.3 WPT System for 2D Distributed WSN

9.4 WPT System for 3D Distributed WSN

9.5 Locating System and Electromagnetic Power Supply for WSN in 3D Space

9.6 Summary

References

10 Smartphone Reception of Microwatt, Meter to Kilometer Range Backscatter Resistive/Capacitive Sensors with Ambient FM Remodulation and Selection Diversity

10.1 Introduction

10.2 Operating Principle

10.3 Impact of Noise

10.4 Occupied Bandwidth

10.5 Ambient Selection Diversity

10.6 Analog Tag Implementation

10.7 Performance Characterization

10.8 Conclusions

10.9 Bandwidth of

10.10 Expectation of the Absolute Value of a Gaussian R.V

10.11 Probability of Outage Under Ambient Selection Diversity

Acknowledgment

References

Notes

11 Design of an ULP‐ULV RF‐Powered CMOS Front‐End for Low‐Rate Autonomous Sensors

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Characterization of the Technology

11.3 Ultra‐Low Power and Ultra‐Low Voltage RF‐Powered Transceiver for Autonomous Sensors

11.4 Experimental Results

11.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

References

12 Rectenna Optimization Guidelines for Ambient Electromagnetic Energy Harvesting

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Rectennas Under Low Input Powers

12.3 The Chance of Collecting Ambient Electromagnetic Energy with a Specific Antenna

12.4 Conclusion

References

Index

End User License Agreement

List of Tables

Chapter 2

Table 2.1 Relative permittivity of different type of materials.

Table 2.2 Summary of resonant methods to characterize textile materials and leat...

Table 2.3 Summary of nonresonant methods to characterize textile materials and l...

Table 2.4 Summary of the advantages and drawbacks of resonant and nonresonant me...

Chapter 4

Table 4.1 EVM results for different values of input power.

Table 4.2 EVM results for different distances.

Chapter 5

Table 5.1 Tag power characteristics.

Table 5.2 Tag current consumption.

Chapter 6

Table 6.1 Material parameters for muscle, skin (dry), and fat (average infiltrat...

Table 6.2

L

ist of body postures performed during the channel measurement 44

.

Table 6.3

T

emporal mean of antenna matching for all four on‐body links (stomach‐b...

Table 6.4 Outage probabilities for a gain threshold of

FTh = − 47 dB.

...

Table 6.5 Outage probabilities for a gain threshold of

FTh = − 70 dB.

...

Table 6.6 Outage probabilities for a gain threshold of

BTh = − 118 dB

...

Table 6.7 Outage probabilities for a gain threshold of

BTh = − 124 dB.

...

Chapter 7

Table 7.1. Localization error, applying the “holographic” algorithm for the six ...

Chapter 8

Table 8.1 RFID chip sensitivity and read range for ETSI regulation during the pa...

Table 8.2 RFID IC's with extra functionalities.

Table 8.3 Summary of RFID sensor types.

Table 8.4 Comparison between examples found in literature.

Table 8.5 Comparison between temperature sensing RFID tags.

Chapter 10

Table 10.1 Overall power consumption and 555 frequency offset.

Chapter 11

Table 11.1 Technological parameters.

Table 11.2

V

A

for the PMOS transistor.

Chapter 12

Table 12.1 Ambient power densities measurements.

Table 12.2 Polarization mismatch.

Table 12.3 Polarization mismatch over time in a Rayleigh propagation environment...

List of Illustrations

Chapter 1

Figure 1.1 On‐surface wireless energy transfer: replacing dipole antenna by mo...

Figure 1.2 (a) Conventional upholstery from a car. (b) Knitted fabric SINTEX T...

Figure 1.3 Wireless energy transfer. From bottom: wave in free space, wave abo...

Figure 1.4 Dependence of transmission on the distance between antennas. (a) 60...

Figure 1.5 Wireless energy distribution by single‐wire transmission line at 8 ...

Figure 1.6 Wave‐guiding channel inside a periodic structure: penetration of en...

Figure 1.7 Substrate integrated waveguide.

Figure 1.8 (a) Textile integrated waveguide fabricated from a self‐adhesive co...

Figure 1.9 (a) Numerical simulation of the reference transmission line. (b) Fr...

Figure 1.10 (a) SIW for experimental characterization of conductive threads. (...

Figure 1.11 Multi‐layer coaxial‐to‐TIW and coaxial‐to‐microstrip transitions.

Figure 1.12 (a) Frequency responses of reflection and transmission coefficient...

Figure 1.13 (a) Frequency responses of textile‐integrated microwave filter: si...

Figure 1.14 Glass‐laminate panels used for fixing the textile substrate. By th...

Figure 1.15 Textile‐integrated slot loop antennas.

Figure 1.16 Frequency response of reflection coefficient at the input of texti...

Figure 1.17 Textile‐integrated slot loop antennas for vehicular applications [...

Figure 1.18 Frequency response of reflection coefficient at the input of texti...

Figure 1.19 Directivity patterns of textile‐integrated slot loop antenna for v...

Figure 1.20 Measurements in the airplane Evektor VUT 100. (a) Transmit antenna...

Figure 1.21 Frequency response of transmission between printed slot ring anten...

Figure 1.22 Textile‐integrated four‐element antenna array [20]. Screen‐printin...

Figure 1.23 Radiation patterns of the antenna array; right‐hand circular polar...

Figure 1.24 Textile‐integrated slot loop antenna for the 24 GHz ISM band. (a) ...

Figure 1.25 Textile‐integrated slot loop antenna for the 24 GHz ISM band [21]....

Figure 1.26 Radiation patterns of textile‐integrated slot loop antenna for the...

Chapter 2

Figure 2.1 Layout of microstrip patch antenna: (a) front view and (b) cross se...

Figure 2.2 Basic setup for surface resistance and surface resistivity measurem...

Figure 2.3 Cavity perturbation (a) original cavity (b) perturbed cavity after ...

Figure 2.4 Types of microstrip resonators: (a) straight ribbon resonator, (b) ...

Figure 2.5 Dielectric characterization procedure through the microstrip patch ...

Figure 2.6 Agilent 85070E dielectric measurement probe kit.

Figure 2.7 Setup of the parallel plate dielectric characterization method.

Figure 2.8 Setup of the free space method.

Figure 2.9 Types of transmission lines: (a) microstrip, (b) stripline, (c) cop...

Chapter 3

Figure 3.1 Block scheme of a WPT link with the involved power contributions.

Figure 3.2 Detail of the wireless link with the involved power contributions.

Figure 3.3 Schematic representation of a linear

n

A

‐element TMA.

Figure 3.4 Examples of periodical switches excitation sequences, modulating th...

Figure 3.5 Two‐step WPT procedure exploiting a linear TMA. (a) First step: tag...

Figure 3.6 Switches driving sequences of a two‐element array for localization ...

Figure 3.7 Fixed Σ and steerable Δ patterns of an ideal array of two isotropic...

Figure 3.8 Ideal full exploitation of a 16‐dipole TMA sideband radiation, when...

Figure 3.9 Layouts and dimensions (in mm) of planar two‐element TMAs with: (a)...

Figure 3.10 MPR plots of the planar two‐element TMAs with

λ

/2‐spaced mono...

Figure 3.11 (a) Layout and dimensions (in mm) of planar two‐patch TMA; (b) cor...

Figure 3.12 (a) Equally and (b) unequally spaced arrays of 16 planar monopoles...

Figure 3.13 Switches control pattern for the 16‐dipole arrays of Figure 4.12.

Figure 3.14 Radiation patterns at the fundamental (solid line) and at the two ...

Figure 3.15 Far‐field envelopes at 1 m‐distance, in correspondence of the thre...

Figure 3.16 Effects of the input RF power level on the radiation pattern at th...

Figure 3.17 2.45 GHz prototype of a two‐monopole TMA, with lines dimensions (l...

Figure 3.18 Pulse waveforms measured at the microprocessor output ports, for t...

Figure 3.19 Measured fundamental and first sideband harmonics spectra, radiate...

Figure 3.20 Measured Σ (at fundamental) and Δ radiation patterns (at first sid...

Figure 3.21 (a) 4‐patch TMA architecture @ 5.8 GHz able to control the phase o...

Figure 3.22 TMA layout for precise localization purposes: a standard antenna (...

Figure 3.23 Switches on‐sequences for a phase‐shift

ψ

equal to (a) 30°; (...

Figure 3.24 Steering performance of the fundamental radiation pattern by chang...

Figure 3.25 Switch control sequences for the two‐element TMA of Figure 3.22 fo...

Figure 3.26 Σ (solid line) and Δ (dashed line) patterns identical steering for...

Figure 3.27 MPR peaks provided by the two‐element TMA of Figure 3.22 (with

D

 =...

Figure 3.28 Layout of an nine‐element linear TMA for energy‐aware WPT with the...

Chapter 4

Figure 4.1 Passive RFID system overview.

Figure 4.2 Block diagram of the system based on backscattering with WPT.

Figure 4.3 Photograph of implemented system with backscatter modulator combine...

Figure 4.4 16‐QAM backscatter modulation scheme. (a) Design of 16‐QAM backscat...

Figure 4.5 Photograph of the proposed system, composed by a 16‐QAM modulator a...

Figure 4.6 Block diagram of the implemented system.

Figure 4.7 Developed PCB.

Figure 4.8 Code diagram.

Figure 4.9 Digital output.

Figure 4.10 Antennas and RF‐DC converter adaptation.

Figure 4.11 Final setup.

Figure 4.12 Transmitted power versus maximum distance.

Figure 4.13 Representation of the proposed wireless power transfer system.

Figure 4.14 Transmitter block diagram including the backscattering transceiver...

Figure 4.15 Basic beamforming block. (a) IQ modulator. (b) Representation in t...

Figure 4.16 Representation of the planar 4 × 4 wireless power microstrip anten...

Figure 4.17 Radiation patterns in the azimuth plane measured after calibration...

Figure 4.18 Receiving device schematic composed by two antennas, an RF to dc c...

Figure 4.19 Measured relationship between

f

m

and the available RF input power

Figure 4.20 Measured LED dc power consumption when the backscattering circuit ...

Figure 4.21 Measured backscattered frequency modulation (

f

m

) for each beam dir...

Figure 4.22 Radiation patterns used by the transmitter to sequentially light u...

Figure 4.23 Block diagram of the implemented system.

Figure 4.24 Backscatter modulator characterization system setup.

Figure 4.25 Block diagram of the implemented system with antennas.

Figure 4.26 Backscatter modulator characterization system setup with antennas.

Figure 4.27 LabVIEW application.

Figure 4.28 LabVIEW application flowchart.

Figure 4.29 (a) 16‐QAM, (b) 32‐QAM, and (c) 64‐QAM results and the respective ...

Figure 4.30 First calibration plane and second calibration plane.

Chapter 5

Figure 5.1 Deployment of ambient backscattering in smart agriculture applicati...

Figure 5.2 Bistatic backscatter principle. The emitter transmits a carrier sig...

Figure 5.3 Backscatter radio principle: an RF transistor alternates the termin...

Figure 5.4 The tag modulates the backscattered signal by changing the load con...

Figure 5.5 Baseband spectrum of an FM audio station. The signal contains left ...

Figure 5.6 The first proposed tag prototype comprises of an MSP430 development...

Figure 5.7 (a) The proof‐of‐concept 4‐PAM tag consists of an MCU and an RF fro...

Figure 5.8 (a) Fabricated RF front‐end prototype board. (b) Smith chart with m...

Figure 5.9 (a) FM0 encoding, the boundaries of the bits must always be differe...

Figure 5.10 Time domain backscatter packet signals, (a) oscilloscope measureme...

Figure 5.11 The 4‐PAM symbols. Three thresholds are calculated for the decisio...

Figure 5.12 USB software defined radio receiver and telescopic monopole antenn...

Figure 5.13 (A) Flow chart of the real‐time receiver algorithm for binary modu...

Figure 5.14 Received packet signal. (a) Signal after squared absolute operatio...

Figure 5.15 (a) FM radio deployment near Edinburgh (UK). The BBC 95.8 MHz stat...

Figure 5.16 Indoor experimental setup. The tag with the FM antenna was set in ...

Figure 5.17 (a) Measured packet error rate (PER) versus the tag‐receiver dista...

Figure 5.18 (a) Oscilloscope measurement of the time‐domain backscatter packet...

Chapter 6

Figure 6.1 On‐body RFID system: the sensor tag on the female's back is represe...

Figure 6.2 Relative permittivity,

ε

r

, of muscle, skin, fat, and two‐third...

Figure 6.3 Electric conductivity,

σ

, of muscle, skin, fat, and two‐third ...

Figure 6.4: HFSS model for the channel computation of the stomach‐chest link: ...

Figure 6.5 On‐body monopole antennas resonant at

900 MHz

(b) and

2.45 GHz

...

Figure 6.6 On‐body patch antennas resonant at

900 MHz

(b) and

2.45 GHz

...

Figure 6.7 Link budget of the backscatter radio channel.

Figure 6.8 Measurement setup: the reflection and transmission properties of th...

Figure 6.9 Simulated and measured magnitudes of scattering parameters (

∣S11∣

...

Figure 6.10 Simulated and measured magnitudes of scattering parameters (

∣S11∣

...

Figure 6.11 Measured magnitudes of reflection coefficients of the reader and t...

Figure 6.12 Measured magnitudes of reflection coefficients of the reader and t...

Figure 6.13 Measured magnitudes of reflection coefficients of the reader and t...

Figure 6.14 Measured magnitudes of reflection coefficients of the reader and t...

Figure 6.15 Measured magnitudes of the channel transfer function

∣S21∣

...

Figure 6.16 CDF of the channel gain

|

S

21

|

2

for all four on‐body links using th...

Figure 6.17 Outage probability

P

F

versus gain threshold

F

Th

of the stomach‐bac...

Figure 6.18Figure 6.18 Outage probability

P

F

versus gain threshold

F

Th

of the ...

Figure 6.19Figure 6.19 Outage probability

P

F

versus gain threshold

F

Th

of the ...

Figure 6.20 Outage probability

P

F

versus gain threshold

F

Th

of the stomach‐hea...

Figure 6.21 Outage probability

P

B

versus gain threshold

B

Th

of the stomach‐bac...

Figure 6.22 Outage probability

P

B

versus gain threshold

B

Th

of the stomach‐che...

Figure 6.23 Outage probability

P

B

versus gain threshold

B

Th

of the stomach‐wri...

Figure 6.24 Outage probability

P

B

versus gain threshold

B

Th

of the stomach‐hea...

Chapter 7

Figure 7.1 “Impinj R420” RFID reader.

Figure 7.2 RFID tags.

Figure 7.3 UHF RFID antennas.

Figure 7.4 Tracking of passengers and luggage in an airport.

Figure 7.5 Tracking of goods in a warehouse.

Figure 7.6 Tracking of cargo in a harbor.

Figure 7.7 Tracking of books in a library.

Figure 7.8 Tracking of products in retail.

Figure 7.9 Track

i

ng of animals in livestock units.

Figure 7.10 An obstructed case, where an RFID‐reader measures the reflected pa...

Figure 7.11 Phase measurement at two antennas connected to a monostatic RFID r...

Figure 7.12 AOA estimation region for different antenna spacing

L

.

Figure 7.13 OGM produced by CRSM SLAM.

Figure 7.14 AMCL (http://wiki.ros.org/amcl) algorithm in ROS – particles dispe...

Figure 7.15 AMCL algorithm in player – ambiguity due to symmetry.

Figure 7.16 Loop closing problem in SLAM.

Figure 7.17 Loss of reference at a long corridor in a scan‐matching SLAM.

Figure 7.18 Nonlinearity error introduced by robot slippage and/or SLAM algori...

Figure 7.19 Total loss of robot pose and map reference.

Figure 7.20 (a) Photo of the RFID‐equipped robot, during measurements (with di...

Figure 7.21 OGM of the Microwaves laboratory, ECE, utilizing Cartographer as S...

Figure 7.22 Estimated path of the robot (gray), actual locations of RFID tags ...

Figure 7.23 Measured phase and power for one of the tags, as the robot moves i...

Figure 7.24 Measured phase and power for a tag.

Figure 7.25 E‐dimensional plot of the holographic metric, applied for a given ...

Figure 7.26 Measured versus best “matched” phase for the “holographic” localiz...

Figure 7.27[[dot]] Under blocking conditions, few measurements were collected ...

Figure 7.28 Estimated versus actual location of RFID tags for the 20 cm/s read...

Chapter 8

Figure 8.1 RFID market growth forecast.

Figure 8.2 Description of the classification format. Each Latin number represe...

Figure 8.3 RFID sensor types: (a) internal type and (b) external type.

Figure 8.4 Architecture of an RFID reader.

Figure 8.5 External type RFID temperature sensor.

Figure 8.6 Internal type RFID temperature sensor.

Figure 8.7 Chipless gas sensor.

Figure 8.8 RFID light sensing tag.

Figure 8.9 Threshold temperature RFID sensor tag.

Figure 8.10 Meat‐quality sensing RFID tags.

Figure 8.11 Temperature sensor from RFMicron.

Figure 8.12 Temperature and pressure sensing tag from Farsens.

Chapter 9

Figure 9.1 Priority connection between nodes. Node n

0

is a data sender. If nod...

Figure 9.2 (a–c) Three exemplary spanning tress, with disjointed set of edges ...

Figure 9.3 Routing in proposed WSN network in case of (a) failure of one node,...

Figure 9.4 View of main window of network simulator. Nodes are indicated with ...

Figure 9.5 Example of multi‐tree (two trees) topology calculated for redundant...

Figure 9.6 Comparison of percentage of packets lost for proposed routing algor...

Figure 9.7 Block diagram of 3D WPT system used for powering WSN nodes.

Figure 9.8 Block diagram of 4 × 4 Butler matrix.

Figure 9.9 Generation of equiphase wave front using equal phase differences be...

Figure 9.10 Rectifier with Villard‐bridge‐based voltage multiplier [16].

Figure 9.11 Microwave switch and power amplifiers to switch Butler matrix inpu...

Figure 9.12 2.45 GHz Butler matrix connected to 4 × 1 microstrip patch antenna...

Figure 9.13 Radiation patterns of 4 × 1 patch antenna connected to Butler matr...

Figure 9.14 Manufactured 2 × 2 antenna array.

Figure 9.15 Radiation patterns of manufactured 2 × 2 antenna array.

Figure 9.16 Components used in receiving parts of WPT system. Rectifier (b) is...

Figure 9.17 Final experimental setup of WPT system.

Figure 9.18 Results of charging experiment with low tilt beams (outer inputs o...

Figure 9.19 Results of charging experiment with high tilt beams (outer inputs ...

Figure 9.20 Schematic diagram of algorithm.

Figure 9.21 Highly directional planar Yagi–Uda antenna for 2.45 GHz.

Figure 9.22 Rectifier with WSN node.

Figure 9.23 Autonomous WPT system realized for supplying power to WSN nodes di...

Figure 9.24 Result of 2D charging experiment.

Figure 9.25 (a) Four antenna arrays placed in tetrahedral configuration. (b) A...

Figure 9.26 A simplified block diagram of the WPT system for 3D powering WSN n...

Figure 9.27 Block diagram of 3D WPT system used for powering WSN nodes.

Figure 9.28 Structure of 2 × 2 patch antenna array.

Figure 9.29 Typical radiation patterns with microstrip patches supplied by pha...

Figure 9.30 Block diagram of beam switching circuit for 2 × 2 patch antenna ar...

Figure 9.31 Exemplary board including SP2T switches and hybrid couplers requir...

Figure 9.32 Tracking and data exchange system with indication of rotation plan...

Figure 9.33 Block diagram of the tracking system. The total of four receivers ...

Figure 9.34 Back of rotatory platform including receivers and stepper motors.

Figure 9.35 View of PCB receiver including pads for LNA, two SAW filters, two ...

Figure 9.36 Radiation pattern and structure of quadrifilar helix antenna (a) a...

Figure 9.37 Antenna directivity with marked valid region of radiation pattern ...

Figure 9.38 3D chart showing angles of tracking system during sounding rocket ...

Figure 9.39 3D visualizations of (a) tracking and data exchange system for sou...

Chapter 10

Figure 10.1 Remodulation with backscatter and selection diversity.

Figure 10.2 Qualitative illustration of the convolutions involved in calculati...

Figure 10.3 Probability of outage according to Eq. (10.54) when

Θ

RF

corre...

Figure 10.4 Maximizing sensor's audio output level.

Figure 10.5 Tag implementation.

Figure 10.6 Experimental setup using solar panel as power supply.

Figure 10.7 Measured spectrum of smartphone audio output; the tag sensing capa...

Figure 10.8 Output SINR versus input SNR for two different tag maximum deviati...

Figure 10.9 Output SINR versus input SNR for two different tag maximum deviati...

Figure 10.10 Output SINR versus tag maximum frequency deviation

Δfmax = ksw ma

...

Figure 10.11 Outdoor performance, for two different radio stations. Average po...

Figure 10.12 Simulated (a) and numerically evaluated (b), single‐sided spectru...

Figure 10.13 Tag is simultaneously illuminated by multiple stations, each offe...

Chapter 11

Figure 11.1 Block diagram of a WSN node.

Figure 11.2 Block diagram of the developed system. The driver's enable transis...

Figure 11.3 Flow diagram of the developed system.

Figure 11.4 Curves (NMOS)

g

m

/

I

D

versus ID/(

W

/

L

) for (

W

/

L

) = 10 μm/10 μm, (

W

/

L

)...

Figure 11.5 Curves (PMOS)

g

m

/

I

D

versus ID/(

W

/

L

) for (

W

/

L

) = 10 μm/10 μm, (

W

/

L

)...

Figure 11.6

g

m

/

I

D

versus

V

GS

for (

W

/

L

) = 10 μm/10 μm, (

W

/

L

) = 1 μm/1 μm, (

W

/

L

)...

Figure 11.7 Simulation setup for obtaining

C

OX

. (a) NMOS and (b) PMOS transist...

Figure 11.8 NMOS: μ

C

OX

versus

V

GS

for (

W

/

L

) = 10 μm/10 μm, (

W

/

L

) = 1 μm/1 μm, ...

Figure 11.9 PMOS: μ

C

OX

versus

V

GS

for (

W

/

L

) = 10 μm/10 μm, (

W

/

L

) = 1 μm/1 μm, ...

Figure 11.10 Simulation setup for obtaining

V

A

. (a) NMOS and (b) PMOS transist...

Figure 11.11

V

A

versus length for NMOS and PMOS transistors.

Figure 11.12 Simplified block diagram of the PM and the RX.

Figure 11.13 Dickson charge pump cell for RF signals.

Figure 11.14 Topology of the implemented diodes.

Figure 11.15 Topology of the implemented DLAST diode.

Figure 11.16 Charge and discharge of the external capacitor

C

EXT

.

Figure 11.17 Schematic of the

V

REF

circuit.

Figure 11.18 Schematic of the COMP1.

Figure 11.19 Schematic of the

I

REF

circuit.

Figure 11.20 Schematic of the COMP2.

Figure 11.21 Control unit behavior.

Figure 11.22 Layout of the control unit.

Figure 11.23 Schematic of the VCO.

Figure 11.24 Simplified schematic of the driver.

Figure 11.25 Simulation of the PA.

Figure 11.26 Schematic of the PA.

Figure 11.27 Layout of the chip.

Figure 11.28 Charge and transmission of the chip.

Chapter 12

Figure 12.1 Block diagram of a rectenna for low‐power energy harvesting.

Figure 12.2 Harvestable power density (nW/cm

2

) given as a function of the RF p...

Figure 12.3 Most common rectifier topologies: (a) single series diode, (b) sin...

Figure 12.4 State‐of‐the‐art of the efficiency (%) of some rectifiers (with ma...

Figure 12.5 Theoretical reflection coefficient of an ideal single serial diode...

Figure 12.6 Theoretical matching efficiency as a function of the power match f...

Figure 12.7 (a) Rectenna array with DC combination. (b) Antenna array with a b...

Figure 12.8 Directional radiation pattern with solid angle Ω of a (a) single a...

Figure 12.9 Harvesting capability (π %.sr) (12.35) of state‐of‐the‐art rectenn...

Guide

Cover

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Wireless Power Transmission for Sustainable Electronics

COST WiPE ‐ IC1301

Edited byNuno Borges CarvalhoInstituto de TelecomunicacoesAveiroPO

Apostolos GeorgiadisHeriot‐Watt UniversityEdinburghUK

Copyright

This edition first published 2020

© 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data

Names: Carvalho, Nuno Borges, editor. | Georgiadis, Apostolos, editor. |

 COST WiPE–IC1301 (Project)

Title: Wireless power transmission for sustainable electronics : COST

 WiPE–IC1301 / Nuno Borges Carvalho, Instituto de Telecomunicações,

 Universidade de Aveiro, Apostolos Georgiadis, Heriot‐Watt University,

 Edinburgh, UK.

Description: First edition. | Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2020.

 | Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identifiers: LCCN 2019041400 (print) | LCCN 2019041401 (ebook) | ISBN

 9781119578543 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119578499 (adobe pdf) | ISBN

 9781119578574 (epub)

Subjects: LCSH: Wireless power transmission. | Electronic apparatus and

 appliances–Power supply. | Green electronics.

Classification: LCC TK3088 .W635 2020 (print) | LCC TK3088 (ebook) | DDC

 621.319–dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019041400

LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019041401

Cover design by Wiley

Cover image: © Jobalou/Getty Images

List of Figures

Figure 1.1

On‐surface wireless energy transfer: replacing dipole antenna by monopole one

Figure 1.2

(a) Conventional upholstery from a car. (b) Knitted fabric SINTEX T2–3D 041

Figure 1.3

Wireless energy transfer. From bottom: wave in free space, wave above conductive plate, wave in conventional upholstery, and wave in 3D knitted fabric

Figure 1.4

Dependence of transmission on the distance between antennas. (a) 60 GHz, (b) 8 GHz

Figure 1.5

Wireless energy distribution by single‐wire transmission line at 8 GHz

Figure 1.6

Wave‐guiding channel inside a periodic structure: penetration of energy to transversal directions depending on the number of vias

Figure 1.7

Substrate integrated waveguide. Source: Adapted from Wu et al. 2003 [11]

Figure 1.8

(a) Textile integrated waveguide fabricated from a self‐adhesive copper foil, and (b) screen‐printed one. Source: Adapted form Cupal et al. 2018 [12]

Figure 1.9

(a) Numerical simulation of the reference transmission line. (b) Frequency response of the transmission coefficient

S

21

and the reflection coefficient

S

11

Figure 1.10

(a) SIW for experimental characterization of conductive threads. (b) Frequency responses of transmission coefficient for different threads

Figure 1.11

Multi‐layer coaxial‐to‐TIW and coaxial‐to‐microstrip transitions

Figure 1.12

(a) Frequency responses of reflection and transmission coefficients of coaxial‐to‐TIW transition and (b) coaxial‐to‐microstrip transition

Figure 1.13

(a) Frequency responses of textile‐integrated microwave filter: simulation and (b) measurement

Figure 1.14

Glass‐laminate panels used for fixing the textile substrate. By the courtesy of EVEKTOR. Source: Adapted from Cupal et al. 2018 [12]

Figure 1.15

Textile‐integrated slot loop antennas. Source: Based on data from Hubálek et al. 2016 [17]

Figure 1.16

Frequency response of reflection coefficient at the input of textile‐integrated slot antenna

Figure 1.17

Textile‐integrated slot loop antennas for vehicular applications [18]. (a) Self‐adhesive copper foil, (b) printing on plastic film, (c) printing on textile

Figure 1.18

Frequency response of reflection coefficient at the input of textile‐integrated, slot loop antennas for vehicular applications [18]

Figure 1.19

Directivity patterns of textile‐integrated slot loop antenna for vehicular applications [18] in vertical plane (a) and horizontal plane (b). Source: Based on data from Špůrek et al. 2016 [18]

Figure 1.20

Measurements in the airplane Evektor VUT 100. (a) Transmit antenna on roof, (b) receive antenna on seat. Source: Based on data from Raida et al. 2016 [19]

Figure 1.21

Frequency response of transmission between printed slot ring antenna on roof and reference antenna on seat. Source: Based on data from Raida et al. 2016 [19]

Figure 1.22

Textile‐integrated four‐element antenna array [20]. Screen‐printing on plastic film

Figure 1.23

Radiation patterns of the antenna array; right‐hand circular polarization. Source: Based on data from Špůrek et al. 2017 [20]

Figure 1.24

Textile‐integrated slot loop antenna for the 24 GHz ISM band. (a) Schematics, (b) manufactured prototype. Source: Based on data from Cupal and Raida 2017 [21]

Figure 1.25

Textile‐integrated slot loop antenna for the 24 GHz ISM band [21]. Frequency response of reflection coefficient (a) and axial ratio (b). Source: Based on data from Cupal and Raida 2017 [21]

Figure 1.26

Radiation patterns of textile‐integrated slot loop antenna for the 24 GHz ISM band [21]. (a) the

yz

plane, (b) the

xz

plane. Source: Based on data from Cupal and Raida 2017 [21]

Figure 2.1

Layout of microstrip patch antenna: (a) front view and (b) cross section

Figure 2.2

Basic setup for surface resistance and surface resistivity measurement. Source: Adapted from ASTM Standards 1999 [35]

Figure 2.3

Cavity perturbation (a) original cavity (b) perturbed cavity after the material insertion.

E

1

and

H

1

are the electric and magnetic fields, respectively;

ε

1

and

μ

1

are the permittivity and permeability of the cavity;

V

c

is the volume of the cavity;

ε

2

and

μ

2

are the permittivity and permeability of the material; and

V

s

is the volume of the sample. Source: Adapted from Chen et al. 2004 [28]

Figure 2.4

Types of microstrip resonators: (a) straight ribbon resonator, (b) circular resonator, and (c) ring resonator, where

l

is the length of straight ribbon resonator;

r

is the radius of the circular resonator; and

r

1

and

r

2

are the inner and outer radius of the resonator ring, respectively. Source: Adapted from Chen et al. 2004 [28]

Figure 2.5

Dielectric characterization procedure through the microstrip patch sensor

Figure 2.6

Agilent 85070E dielectric measurement probe kit

Figure 2.7

Setup of the parallel plate dielectric characterization method. Source: Adapted from Lesnikowski 2012 [76]

Figure 2.8

Setup of the free space method. Source: Adapted from Bakar et al. 2014 [80]

Figure 2.9

Types of transmission lines: (a) microstrip, (b) stripline, (c) coplanar waveguide, and (d) coplanar waveguide with ground plane, where

h

and

t

are the thickness of the dielectric and conductive materials, respectively;

w

is the length of the line, and

g

is the gap between the line and the ground plane in coplanar lines;

W

gnd

is the length of the ground plane, respectively. Source: Adapted from Chen et al. 2004 [28]

Figure 3.1

Block scheme of a WPT link with the involved power contributions

Figure 3.2

Detail of the wireless link with the involved power contributions

Figure 3.3

Schematic representation of a linear

n

A

‐element TMA. Source: Masotti and Costanzo 2017 [23]. Reproduced with permission of IEEE

Figure 3.4

Examples of periodical switches excitation sequences, modulating the RF carrier waveforms, for three different switching patterns. Source: Masotti et al. 2016 [22]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.5

Two‐step WPT procedure exploiting a linear TMA. (a) First step: tags localization; (b) Second step: power transmission to the previously detected tags. Source: Masotti et al. 2016 [22]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.6

Switches driving sequences of a two‐element array for localization purposes:

d

is the pulse shape design parameter, for Δ pattern steering. Source: Masotti et al. 2016 [22]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.7

Fixed Σ and steerable Δ patterns of an ideal array of two isotropic elements (a) with spacing

λ

/2 and (b) with spacing

λ

/8, as a function of

d

. Source: Masotti et al. 2016 [22]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.8

Ideal full exploitation of a 16‐dipole TMA sideband radiation, when considering up to the sixth harmonic, for multiple tags powering. Source: Masotti et al. [22]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.9

Layouts and dimensions (in mm) of planar two‐element TMAs with: (a)

λ

/2‐spaced monopoles, (b)

λ

/8‐spaced monopoles. (c,d) Corresponding Σ and Δ radiation patterns for different

d

values. Source: Masotti et al. 2016 [22] Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.10

MPR plots of the planar two‐element TMAs with

λ

/2‐spaced monopoles by varying

d

[22]

Figure 3.11

(a) Layout and dimensions (in mm) of planar two‐patch TMA; (b) corresponding Σ and Δ radiation patterns for different

d

values. Source: Masotti et al. 2016 [22]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.12

(a) Equally and (b) unequally spaced arrays of 16 planar monopoles. Source: Masotti et al. 2016 [22]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.13

Switches control pattern for the 16‐dipole arrays of Figure 4.12. Source: Poli et al. 2011 [21]

Figure 3.14

Radiation patterns at the fundamental (solid line) and at the two first symmetrical sideband harmonics (dashed lines) due to the excitation of Figure 3.13: (a) for the equally spaced and (b) unequally spaced arrays of Figure 3.12. Source: Masotti et al. 2016 [22]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.15

Far‐field envelopes at 1 m‐distance, in correspondence of the three radiation maxima of Figure 3.14a. Source: Masotti et al. 2016 [22]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.16

Effects of the input RF power level on the radiation pattern at the fundamental frequency of the array of Figure 3.12a under the excitation of Figure 3.13

Figure 3.17

2.45 GHz prototype of a two‐monopole TMA, with lines dimensions (length/width) in mm. Source: Masotti et al. 2016 [22]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.18

Pulse waveforms measured at the microprocessor output ports, for two

d

values: (a)

d

 = 0% and (b)

d

 = 32%. Source: Masotti et al. 2016 [22]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.19

Measured fundamental and first sideband harmonics spectra, radiated in two different directions: (a)

θ

 = 0°, (b)

θ

 = 45°. Corresponding predicted patterns with highlighted Σ and Δ values for: (c)

θ

 = 0°, (d)

θ

 = 45°, for

d

 = 0%, 32%. Source: Masotti et al. 2016 [22]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.20

Measured Σ (at fundamental) and Δ radiation patterns (at first sideband harmonics) for

d

 = 0%, 32%. Source: Masotti et al. [22]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.21

(a) 4‐patch TMA architecture @ 5.8 GHz able to control the phase of the radiated far‐field at the carrier frequency (dimension in mm); (b) vectorial combination of two neighboring antennas far‐field to obtain the desired phase

ψ

. Source: Masotti 2017 [29]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.22

TMA layout for precise localization purposes: a standard antenna (no. 5) forms a two‐element array with the multiantenna architecture of Figure 3.21a. Source: Masotti 2017 [29]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.23

Switches on‐sequences for a phase‐shift

ψ

equal to (a) 30°; (b) 60°; and (c) 120° in the far‐field radiated by the two‐element array of Figure 4.22. Source: Masotti 2017 [29]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.24

Steering performance of the fundamental radiation pattern by changing the phase‐shift between the two‐element TMA of Figure 3.22 when

D

 = 

λ

. Source: Masotti 2017 [29]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.25

Switch control sequences for the two‐element TMA of Figure 3.22 for identical steering of both the Σ and Δ patterns at the fundamental and first sideband harmonic, respectively, for

ψ

: (a) 0°; (b) 30°; and (c) 60°. Source: Masotti 2017 [29]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.26

Σ (solid line) and Δ (dashed line) patterns identical steering for the two‐element TMA of Figure 3.22 (with

D

 = 

λ

) at the fundamental and first sideband harmonic, respectively. Source: Masotti 2017 [29]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.27

MPR peaks provided by the two‐element TMA of Figure 3.22 (with

D

 = 

λ

). Source: Masotti 2017 [29]. Reproduced with pemrission of IEEE

Figure 3.28

Layout of an nine‐element linear TMA for energy‐aware WPT with the inner one given by the layout of Figure 3.21a

Figure 4.1

Passive RFID system overview. Source: Adapted from Skolnik 2001 [1]

Figure 4.2

Block diagram of the system based on backscattering with WPT. Source: Correia et al. 2016 [8]. Reproduced with permission of IEEE

Figure 4.3

Photograph of implemented system with backscatter modulator combined with wireless power transmission (WPT). Source: Pereira et al. 2017 [10].

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/17/10/2268

. Licensed under CC BY 4.0

Figure 4.4

16‐QAM backscatter modulation scheme. (a) Design of 16‐QAM backscatter modulator. (b) Photograph of the 16‐QAM backscatter circuit. Source: Correia et al. 2017 [11]. Reproduced with permission of IEEE

Figure 4.5

Photograph of the proposed system, composed by a 16‐QAM modulator and a rectifier. Substrate for the transmission lines is Astra MT77, thickness = 0.762 mm,

ε

r

 = 3.0, and tan 

δ

 = 0.0017. Source: Correia and Carvalho 2017 [12]. Reproduced with permission of IEEE

Figure 4.6

Block diagram of the implemented system. Source: Pereira et al. 2017 [10].

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/17/10/2268

. Licensed under CC BY 4.0

Figure 4.7

Developed PCB. Source: Pereira et al. 2017 [10].

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/17/10/2268

. Licensed under CC BY 4.0

Figure 4.8

Code diagram. Source: Pereira et al. 2017 [10].

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/17/10/2268

. Licensed under CC BY 4.0

Figure 4.9

Digital output. Source: Pereira et al. 2017 [10].

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/17/10/2268

. Licensed under CC BY 4.0

Figure 4.10

Antennas and RF‐DC converter adaptation. Source: Pereira et al. 2017 [10].

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/17/10/2268

. Licensed under CC BY 4.0

Figure 4.11

Final setup. Source: Pereira et al. 2017 [10].

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/17/10/2268

. Licensed under CC BY 4.0

Figure 4.12

Transmitted power versus maximum distance. Source: Pereira et al. 2017 [10].

https://www.mdpi.com/1424-8220/17/10/2268

. Licensed under CC BY 4.0

Figure 4.13

Representation of the proposed wireless power transfer system. Source: Belo et al. 2018 [19]. Reproduced with permission of IEEE

Figure 4.14

Transmitter block diagram including the backscattering transceiver module. Source: Belo et al. 2019 [18]. Reproduced with permission of IEEE

Figure 4.15

Basic beamforming block. (a) IQ modulator. (b) Representation in the IQ plane

Figure 4.16

Representation of the planar 4 × 4 wireless power microstrip antenna array with its configurable states and the pilot signal transmit/receive antennas. Source: Belo et al. 2019 [18]. Reproduced with permission of IEEE

Figure 4.17

Radiation patterns in the azimuth plane measured after calibration. All radiation patterns are normalized to the maximum of the broadside direction of state 1, [1]

Figure 4.18

Receiving device schematic composed by two antennas, an RF to dc converter, a ring oscillator, and a switching transistor [1]

Figure 4.19

Measured relationship between

f

m

and the available RF input power

P

(in,RF)

for the prototyped device (

g

function), [1]

Figure 4.20

Measured LED dc power consumption when the backscattering circuit is not attached and when it is attached with and without limiting diode, [1]

Figure 4.21

Measured backscattered frequency modulation (

f

m

) for each beam direction when there are three receivers present ready to be powered up, [1]

Figure 4.22

Radiation patterns used by the transmitter to sequentially light up the LEDs with the power required to keep them with a reasonable brightness, [1]. Source: Adapted from Skolnik 2001 [1]

Figure 4.23

Block diagram of the implemented system. Source: Jordäo et al. 2018 [26]. Reproduced with permission of IEEE

Figure 4.24

Backscatter modulator characterization system setup. Source: Jordäo et al. 2018 [26]. Reproduced with permission of IEEE

Figure 4.25

Block diagram of the implemented system with antennas

Figure 4.26

Backscatter modulator characterization system setup with antennas

Figure 4.27

LabVIEW application. Source: Jordäo et al. 2018 [26]. Reproduced with permission of IEEE

Figure 4.28

LabVIEW application flowchart. Source: Jordäo et al. 2018 [26]. Reproduced with permission of IEEE

Figure 4.29

(a) 16‐QAM, (b) 32‐QAM, and (c) 64‐QAM results and the respective EVM values. Source: Jordäo et al. 2018 [26]. Reproduced with permission of IEEE

Figure 4.30

First calibration plane and second calibration plane

Figure 5.1

Deployment of ambient backscattering in smart agriculture applications. The differential temperature (

T

leaf

 − 

T

air

) is measured by the tag‐sensor and is transmitted back to an SDR receiver

Figure 5.2

Bistatic backscatter principle. The emitter transmits a carrier signal, and the tag reflects a small amount of the approaching signal back to the reader

Figure 5.3

Backscatter radio principle: an RF transistor alternates the termination loads

Z

i

of the antenna corresponding to different reflection coefficients

Γ

i

. Four reflection coefficients (

n

 = 4) could create a four‐pulse amplitude modulation (4‐PAM), and two reflection coefficients (

n

 = 2) could create a binary modulation (OOK)

Figure 5.4

The tag modulates the backscattered signal by changing the load connected to its antenna terminals resulting in a

Γ

i

change between two or four values (states). (a) The binary modulation requires two‐state antenna

Γ

i

parameters on a Smith chart. (b) Smith chart with required 4‐PAM antenna

Γ

i

parameters

Figure 5.5

Baseband spectrum of an FM audio station. The signal contains left (L) and right (R) channel information for monophonic and stereo reception

Figure 5.6

The first proposed tag prototype comprises of an MSP430 development board connected with RF front‐end board. The RF front‐end consists of the ADG902 RF switch and was fabricated using inkjet printing technology on a paper substrate. An MCU digital output pin was connected with the control signal of the RF switch (B). The operation power of RF front‐end was supplied by the MCU development board, and the hole system was supplied by an embedded super capacitor for duty cycle operation

Figure 5.7

(a) The proof‐of‐concept 4‐PAM tag consists of an MCU and an RF front‐end (transistor and antenna). An ADC collects data from integrated sensors, and a DAC generates the appropriate gate voltages of the 4‐PAM modulation. (b) The fabricated tag prototype with the RF front‐end board. The tag is powered by a solar panel

Figure 5.8

(a) Fabricated RF front‐end prototype board. (b) Smith chart with measured reflection coefficient values for four different voltage levels at the gate of transistor. The

P

in

was fixed at −20 dBm for frequencies 87.5–108 MHz

Figure 5.9

(a) FM0 encoding, the boundaries of the bits must always be different. (b) FM0 decoding technique, after shifting by

T

symbol

, receiver need to detect only two possible pulse shapes (line square or dash line square)

Figure 5.10

Time domain backscatter packet signals, (a) oscilloscope measurement of transmitted rectangular pulses, (b) received packet pulses at

T

symbol

 = 10 ms, and (c) received packet pulses at

T

symbol

 = 1 ms

Figure 5.11

The 4‐PAM symbols. Three thresholds are calculated for the decision

Figure 5.12

USB software defined radio receiver and telescopic monopole antenna for FM signals reception

Figure 5.13

(A) Flow chart of the real‐time receiver algorithm for binary modulation. (B) Received signal including a data packet. (a) Squared absolute value signal. (b) Received signal after matched filtering for a symbol period,

T

symbol

 = 1 ms

Figure 5.14

Received packet signal. (a) Signal after squared absolute operation. (b) Signal after matched filtering for

T

symbol

 = 5.4 ms

Figure 5.15

(a) FM radio deployment near Edinburgh (UK). The BBC 95.8 MHz station was selected for experimentation. The FM transmitter was 34.5 km away from our lab, and its transmission power was 250 kW. (b) The power of the FM station carrier signal was measured next to the tag antenna in the lab at −51 dBm

Figure 5.16

Indoor experimental setup. The tag with the FM antenna was set in a vertical position, and the receiver was tuned at the most powerful FM station. For communication experiments, the receiver antenna was placed at a maximum of 5 m away

Figure 5.17

(a) Measured packet error rate (PER) versus the tag‐receiver distance for 0.5, 1, and 2.5 kBps. (b) Measured bit error rate (BER) versus the tag‐receiver distance for 0.5, 1, and 2.5 kbps

Figure 5.18

(a) Oscilloscope measurement of the time‐domain backscatter packet at the gate of the transistor. Voltage levels correspond to the 4‐PAM symbols. (b) Received packet after matched filtering. A good agreement with left picture is observed and the respective symbols can be detected using nearest neighbor method

Figure 6.1

On‐body RFID system: the sensor tag on the female's back is represented by the orange circle

Figure 6.2

Relative permittivity,

ε

r

, of muscle, skin, fat, and two‐third muscle equivalent tissues versus frequency

Figure 6.3

Electric conductivity,

σ

, of muscle, skin, fat, and two‐third muscle equivalent tissues versus frequency

Figure 6.4

HFSS model for the channel computation of the stomach‐chest link: monopole antennas operating at

900 MHz

are attached to the human trunk. The length of the line of sight path is

30 cm

Figure 6.5

On‐body monopole antennas resonant at

900 MHz

(b) and

2.45 GHz

(a)

Figure 6.6

On‐body patch antennas resonant at

900 MHz

(b) and

2.45 GHz

(a)

Figure 6.7

Link budget of the backscatter radio channel

Figure 6.8

Measurement setup: the reflection and transmission properties of the on‐body antennas are analyzed by means of a VNA

Figure 6.9

Simulated and measured magnitudes of scattering parameters (

∣

S

11

∣

,

∣

S

12

∣

,

∣

S

21

∣

, and

∣

S

22

∣

) in decibel versus frequency of the stomach‐back link in a standing, upright position (measurement at

t

 = 15 s

)

Figure 6.10

Simulated and measured magnitudes of scattering parameters (

∣

S

11

∣

,

∣

S

12

∣

,

∣

S

21

∣

, and

∣S

22

∣

) in decibel versus frequency of the stomach‐chest link in a standing, upright position (measurement at

t

 = 15 s

)

Figure 6.11

Measured magnitudes of reflection coefficients of the reader and tag monopole antennas

∣

S

11

∣

and

∣

S

22

∣

in decibel versus stationary (0–280 seconds) and moving (280–360 seconds) body postures over time at

900 MHz

: each posture is held

20 s

econds

Figure 6.12

Measured magnitudes of reflection coefficients of the reader and tag monopole antennas

∣

S

11

∣

and

∣

S

22

∣

in decibel versus stationary (0–280 seconds) and moving (280–360 seconds) body postures over time at

2.45 GHz

: Each posture is held

20 seconds

Figure 6.13

Measured magnitudes of reflection coefficients of the reader and tag patch antennas

∣

S

11

∣

and

∣

S

22

∣

in decibel versus stationary (0–280 seconds) and moving (280–360 seconds) body postures over time at

900 MHz

: Each posture is held

20 s

econds

Figure 6.14

Measured magnitudes of reflection coefficients of the reader and tag patch antennas

∣

S

11

∣

and

∣

S

22

∣

in decibel versus stationary (0–280 seconds) and moving (280–360 seconds) body postures over time at

2.45 GHz

: Each posture is held

20 s

econds

Figure 6.15

Measured magnitudes of the channel transfer function

∣S

21

∣

in decibel for all four on‐body links using the

900 MHz

monopoles versus stationary (0–280 seconds) and moving (280–360 seconds) body postures over time: Each posture is held

20 s

Figure 6.16

CDF of the channel gain

|

S

21

|

2

for all four on‐body links using the

900 MHz

monopoles

Figure 6.17

Outage probability

P

F

versus gain threshold

F

Th

of the stomach‐back forward link

Figure 6.18

Outage probability

P

F

versus gain threshold

F

Th

of the stomach‐chest forward link

Figure 6.19

Outage probability

P

F

versus gain threshold

F

Th

of the stomach‐wrist forward link

Figure 6.20

Outage probability

P

F

versus gain threshold

F

Th

of the stomach‐head forward link

Figure 6.21

Outage probability

P

B

versus gain threshold

B

Th

of the stomach‐back backward link

Figure 6.22

Outage probability

P

B

versus gain threshold

B

Th

of the stomach‐chest backward link

Figure 6.23

Outage probability

P

B

versus gain threshold

B

Th

of the stomach‐wrist backward link

Figure 6.24

Outage probability

P

B

versus gain threshold

B

Th

of the stomach‐head backward link

Figure 7.1

“Impinj R420” RFID reader

Figure 7.2

RFID tags

Figure 7.3

UHF RFID antennas

Figure 7.4

Tracking of passengers and luggage in an airport. Source:

https://pixabay.com/photos/airport-gate-flight-1659008/

Figure 7.5

Tracking of goods in a warehouse. Source:

https://pixabay.com/photos/forklift-warehouse-machine-worker-835340/

Figure 7.6

Tracking of cargo in a harbor. Source:

https://pixabay.com/photos/business-cargo-containers-crate-1845350/

Figure 7.7

Tracking of books in a library. Source:

https://pixabay.com/photos/books-library-read-shelves-shelf-1617327/

Figure 7.8

Tracking of products in retail. Source:

https://pixabay.com/photos/store-clothing-shop-bouique-984393/

Figure 7.9

Track

i

ng of animals in livestock units. Source:

https://pixabay.com/photos/cow-allg%C3%A4u-cows-ruminant-2788835/

Figure 7.10

An obstructed case, where an RFID‐reader measures the reflected path (LOS stands for Line‐Of‐Sight)

Figure 7.11

Phase measurement at two antennas connected to a monostatic RFID reader

Figure 7.12

AOA estimation region for different antenna spacing

L

Figure 7.13

OGM produced by CRSM SLAM

Figure 7.14

AMCL (

http://wiki.ros.org/amcl

) algorithm in ROS – particles dispersion

Figure 7.15

AMCL algorithm in player – ambiguity due to symmetry

Figure 7.16

Loop closing problem in SLAM

Figure 7.17

Loss of reference at a long corridor in a scan‐matching SLAM

Figure 7.18

Nonlinearity error introduced by robot slippage and/or SLAM algorithm

Figure 7.19

Total loss of robot pose and map reference

Figure 7.20

(a) Photo of the RFID‐equipped robot, during measurements (with dielectrics placed on top of RFID tags). (b) Photo of the RFID‐equipped robot, during measurements (unobstructed measurements). (c) The tags are attached to a long millimeter paper on top of a bench. During some of the measurements, dielectric materials are placed on top of some of the tags, blocking the LOS path

Figure 7.21

OGM of the Microwaves laboratory, ECE, utilizing Cartographer as SLAM algorithm

Figure 7.22

Estimated path of the robot (gray), actual locations of RFID tags (“

x

”) and geometry of the environment

Figure 7.23

Measured phase and power for one of the tags, as the robot moves in the room. The locations of the robot are shown in the bottom plot

Figure 7.24

Measured phase and power for a tag

Figure 7.25

E‐dimensional plot of the holographic metric, applied for a given tag

Figure 7.26

Measured versus best “matched” phase for the “holographic” localization method

Figure 7.27

Under blocking conditions, few measurements were collected for some of the tags, which resulted in large localization error

Figure 7.28

Estimated versus actual location of RFID tags for the 20 cm/s reader speed

Figure 8.1

RFID market growth forecast. Source:

Statista.org

Figure 8.2

Description of the classification format. Each Latin number represents a part of communication between an RFID reader and an RFID sensor tag

Figure 8.3

RFID sensor types: (a) internal type and (b) external type

Figure 8.4

Architecture of an RFID reader

Figure 8.5

External type RFID temperature sensor. Source: Adapted from [33]

Figure 8.6

Internal type RFID temperature sensor. Source: Adapted from [33]

Figure 8.7

Chipless gas sensor. Source: Adapted from [34]

Figure 8.8

RFID light sensing tag. Source: Adapted from [35]

Figure 8.9

Threshold temperature RFID sensor tag. Source: Adapted from [36]

Figure 8.10

Meat‐quality sensing RFID tags. Source: Adapted from [36]

Figure 8.11

Temperature sensor from RFMicron. Source: Adapted from [37]

Figure 8.12

Temperature and pressure sensing tag from Farsens. Source: Adapted from [38]

Figure 9.1

Priority connection between nodes. Node n

0

is a data sender. If node n

3

is accessible (highest priority), data is sent exclusively to it. If node n

3

is not accessible, data is sent exclusively to node n

2

and so on

Figure 9.2

(a–c) Three exemplary spanning tress, with disjointed set of edges – connections between WSN nodes. (a) Spanning tree with highest priority. (b) Spanning tree with secondary priority. (c) Spanning tree with lowest priority. (d) Proposed WSN topology. Small light gray circles – WSN nodes sending and routing data, small not coloured circle – WSN nodes sending data only, large circle – data sink

Figure 9.3

Routing in proposed WSN network in case of (a) failure of one node, (b) failure of two nodes, and (c) failure of three nodes. Small light gray circles – WSN nodes sending and routing data, small not coloured circle – WSN nodes sending data only, large circle – data sink

Figure 9.4

View of main window of network simulator. Nodes are indicated with circles (large circle in upper left corner – coordinator, small dark gray circle – routers, small light gray circle – end nodes; operation modes defined in accordance with routing tables)

Figure 9.5

Example of multi‐tree (two trees) topology calculated for redundant network operation. Alternative path is provided for each node. Network statistics can be seen (ok – packet delivered to coordinator, errRet – packet delayed, and errNoCon – packet not delivered)

Figure 9.6

Comparison of percentage of packets lost for proposed routing algorithm, and routing based on ZigBee protocol. Series are presented for 10, 20, and 30 network nodes configured using ZigBee algorithm (ZB) and spanning tree algorithm (ST route)

Figure 9.7

Block diagram of 3D WPT system used for powering WSN nodes

Figure 9.8

Block diagram of 4 × 4 Butler matrix

Figure 9.9

Generation of equiphase wave front using equal phase differences between Butler

matrix outputs (Power distribution network) resulting in tilt of radiation pattern

Figure 9.10

Rectifier with Villard‐bridge‐based voltage multiplier [16]

Figure 9.11

Microwave switch and power amplifiers to switch Butler matrix inputs and provide suitable power level for wireless powering

Figure 9.12

2.45 GHz Butler matrix connected to 4 × 1 microstrip patch antenna array

Figure 9.13

Radiation patterns of 4 × 1 patch antenna connected to Butler matrix. Inputs are labeled in accordance with Figure 9.8

Figure 9.14

Manufactured 2 × 2 antenna array

Figure 9.15

Radiation patterns of manufactured 2 × 2 antenna array

Figure 9.16

Components used in receiving parts of WPT system. Rectifier (b) is placed on bottom layer of WSN node PCB (a)

Figure 9.17

Final experimental setup of WPT system

Figure 9.18

Results of charging experiment with low tilt beams (outer inputs of Butler matrix)

Figure 9.19

Results of charging experiment with high tilt beams (outer inputs of Butler matrix)

Figure 9.20

Schematic diagram of algorithm

Figure 9.21

Highly directional planar Yagi–Uda antenna for 2.45 GHz

Figure 9.22

Rectifier with WSN node

Figure 9.23

Autonomous WPT system realized for supplying power to WSN nodes distributed in space

Figure 9.24

Result of 2D charging experiment

Figure 9.25

(a) Four antenna arrays placed in tetrahedral configuration. (b) All possible radiation directions

Figure 9.26

A simplified block diagram of the WPT system for 3D powering WSN nodes

Figure 9.27

Block diagram of 3D WPT system used for powering WSN nodes