A Handbook of Middle English Studies E-Book

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Serie: CTH - Critical Theory Handbooks
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1011

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2013

Beschreibung

A Handbook of Middle English Studies

“This sharp-minded, coherent set of essays both maps and liberates: not only does it map the intellectual territory of contemporary cultural debate; it also liberates the extraordinary texts of later medieval England to move across that contemporary cultural terrain.”
James Simpson, Harvard University

“Marion Turner has skilfully choreographed an exciting ensemble of fresh accounts of the English Middle Ages. We see the period in a new light that shows with compassion and imagination, as well as thoughtful scholarship, how the literature of the past speaks to contemporary preoccupations.”
Ardis Butterfield, Yale University

“Strikingly original: theory-literate and materially-grounded ways of reading Middle English texts.”
David Wallace, University of Pennsylvania

A Handbook of Middle English Studies presents twenty-six original and accessible essays by leading scholars, analyzing the relationship between critical theory and late-medieval literature. The collection offers a range of entry points into the rich field of medieval literary studies, exploring subjects including the depiction of the self and the mind, the literature of conquest, ideas of beauty and aesthetics, and the relationship between place and literature. Topics that have long been central to the field, such as authorship, gender, and race, feature alongside areas only recently coming under critical scrutiny, such as globalization, the environment, and animality. Collectively, the essays demonstrate that the manuscript culture of late medieval literature raises key theoretical issues concerning the relationship between authors, texts, and readers. A Handbook of Middle English Studies models diverse approaches to medieval texts and stakes a claim in debates about topics ranging from class to the canon, from imagination to nationhood, from sexuality to the public sphere.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Series Page

Title Page

Copyright

Dedication

Acknowledgments

Notes on Contributors

Abbreviations

List of Figures

Introduction

Theory and Medieval Literature

Critical Contexts

This Book

Notes

References

Part 1: Selfhood and Community

Chapter 1: Imagination

Mysticism: The Therapon as Inhuman Partner

Rhetoric: Can You Hear Me Now?

Faculty Psychology: Falling to Pieces

Return to Mysticism

The Historical Imagination

Notes

References

Chapter 2: Memory

The Mount of Helicon

Medieval Memory Theory

Ethics and Conduct

Forgetting and the Memories of Others

The Labyrinth

References

Chapter 3: Desire

Note

References

Chapter 4: Gender

“He and He”

Same Old, Same Old

Romancing Butler

Waiting Rooms

What a Drag

Notes

References

Chapter 5: Sexuality

Critical Theory and Sexuality

Sexuality and the Medieval Courtly Vision: The Case of Lydgate's Complaynte of a Lovers Lyfe

Note

References

Chapter 6: Public Interiorities

Notes

References

Chapter 7: Race

Thinking about Race

The Composition of Medieval Race

In Between

Notes

References

Chapter 8: Animality

Critical Animal Studies

The Prioress's Tale

The Nun's Priest's Tale

Conclusion

Note

References

Part 2: Constructing Texts, Constructing Textual History

Chapter 9: Authorship

The Intention of the Author

The Poet as Orator

The Poet as Theologian

The French Connection

The Name and Nature of Poetry

The Death of the Author

Notes

References

Chapter 10: Audience

Audience Power

Patronal Audiences

An Ethnography of Audienceship

Reading Pictures

Audience after the Fact

Conclusion

References

Chapter 11: Manuscript

The Book in Theory

Blanchot and the Absence of the Book

Chaucer's Parliament of Fowls and the Book “Totorn”

The PF as a Book

Note

References

Chapter 12: Material Culture

“The Dream of Scipio”

Pearl as Visionary Artifact

Notes

References

Chapter 13: Genre

The Tragicomedy of “Tragedy”

What Kind of Thing Is Genre?

Evidence of Generic Thinking: Metaforms

Notes

References

Chapter 14: Aesthetics

Medieval Aesthetic Theory

The Peacock and the Lark: Beauty in Piers Plowman

Participation, Cognition, and the Vernacular Poetic Tradition

Notes

References

Chapter 15: Canon Formation

History and the Canon

Disciplinary Reading

Notes

References

Chapter 16: Periodization

Definitions and Problems, I: The Middle Ages

Definitions and Problems, II: Middle English

When Did Middle English End?

“Go, litel boke”: Marking Time in the Early Sixteenth Century

References

Part 3: Politics and Places

Chapter 17: Sovereignty

Sovereignty and Biopolitics in Havelok the Dane

Medieval/Modern and the State of Exception

Notes

References

Chapter 18: Class

Terminology

Calling

Revocation and Use

Apocalyptic Calling in the Late Fourteenth Century

Note

References

Chapter 19: Church

Perceived and Conceived Space: What the Church Betokeneth

Lived Space and Practiced Place in The Book of Margery Kempe

Future Directions: The Church in Cyberspace

Notes

References

Chapter 20: City

Pedestrian Encounters

Urban Vantage Points

Constructing the City: Theorists and Poets

Composite Approaches, Transhistorical and Multilingual

Notes

References

Chapter 21: Margins

Exploration, Civilization, Rule

Quest and Adventure

Vision and Destiny

The Otherworld

Notes

References

Chapter 22: Ecology

Of Plants and Men

Intimacy with Strangers

Notes

References

Chapter 23: Nation

Christian Nationhood

Language, Region and Other Collectives

Critical Nationalism

Heathen Britain/Pagan England

Homonationalism

Note

References

Chapter 24: Language

Culture in Translation

Fictions of Meaning

Multilingualism

Words and the Word

Notes

References

Chapter 25: Postcolonialism

Imagining Conquest

Romance and the Displacement of Crusading

Regarding the Other

Postcolonialism, Orientalism, and Premodernity

Postcolonial Medievalists

How Postcolonial Theory Changes Medieval Literature

How the Middle Ages Changes Postcolonial Theory

Conclusion: Medievalism, Postcolonialism, and Ethics

References

Chapter 26: A Global Middle Ages

Out of Africa Came a Name: Or, How to Read One Word at a Time

A Fantasy from Persia and Syria: How Paradise and a Civilization Are Miniaturized

Global Translatio from Asia, Eurasia, Everywhere: The Buddha's Gift of Many Tongues

Notes

References

Index

Wiley-Blackwell Critical Theory Handbooks

Each volume in the Critical Theory Handbooks series features a collection of newly-commissioned essays exploring the use of contemporary critical theory in the study of a given period, and the ways in which the period serves as a site for interrogating and reframing the practices of modern scholars and theorists. The volumes are organized around a set of key terms that demonstrate the engagement by literary scholars with current critical trends, and aim to increase the visibility of theoretically-oriented and -informed work in literary studies, both within the discipline and to students and scholars in other areas.

Published:

A Handbook of Romanticism Studies

Edited by Joel Faflak and Julia M. Wright

A Handbook of Anglo-Saxon Studies

Edited by Jacqueline Stodnick and Renée R. Trilling

A Handbook of Middle English Studies

Edited by Marion Turner

Forthcoming:

A Handbook of Modernism Studies

Edited by Jean-Michel Rabaté

This edition first published 2013

© 2013 John Wiley & Sons Ltd

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Cover image: Top: medieval scribe pulling a missing verse of Psalm 127 into place, detail from an English Book of Hours, c. 1300, Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, W.102, fol.33v. Below: Gargoyle, Notre Dame, Paris © SuperStock.

Cover design by Nicki Averill Design.

Acknowledgments

Many thanks to all the contributors for embracing this project with such enthusiasm and diligence; your essays have inspired me and changed my mind in all kinds of ways. Thanks also to Emma Bennett, for commissioning the book, to the rest of the team at Wiley-Blackwell, and to the insightful anonymous readers. I want to thank my colleagues and particularly my students at Jesus and Oriel colleges, and at the English Faculty at the University of Oxford. I am also grateful to my parents, David and Sheelagh, and to my friends for their support and interest in my work. Elliot has been, as ever, my greatest support and most astute advisor, always patient, encouraging, and genuinely interested in the project—I'm very grateful for his calm presence in my life. This book gestated and came into being at the same time as my children; much of the work for it was done in the rare occasions when they slept, so this book is for them.

Notes on Contributors

Laura Ashe is University Lecturer at Worcester College, Oxford. Author of Fiction and History in England, 1066–1200 (2007), and coeditor of The Exploitations of Medieval Romance (2010), she is now writing the Oxford English Literary History, vol. 1: 1000–1350.

Anke Bernau is Senior Lecturer in Medieval Literature and Culture at the University of Manchester. She is the author of Virgins: A Cultural History (2007), and is currently working on literariness and forgetting in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

Jessica Brantley is Associate Professor of English at Yale University. She is the author of Reading in the Wilderness: Public Performance and Private Devotion in Late-Medieval England (2007).

Glenn Burger is Professor of English and Medieval Studies at Queens College and the Graduate Center, City University of New York. He is the author of Chaucer's Queer Nation (2003) and is completing a book on conduct literature, titled The Affective Contract.

Jeffrey Jerome Cohen is Professor of English and Director of the Medieval and Early Modern Studies Institute at George Washington University. His research includes the history of monsters, postcolonial theory, hybridity, and the inhuman.

Joyce Coleman teaches in the English Department, University of Oklahoma. Her work on late medieval literary reception, performance, and patronage includes Public Reading and the Reading Public in Late Medieval England and France (2005) and many articles.

Susan Crane is the Parr Professor of English and Comparative Literature at Columbia University. Her books are Insular Romance, Gender and Romance in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, The Performance of Self, and Animal Encounters: Contacts and Concepts in Medieval Britain.

Isabel Davis is Senior Lecturer in the Department of English and Humanities at Birkbeck College, University of London. She has written extensively on gender, sexual ethics, and subjectivity in the late Middle Ages.

Carolyn Dinshaw is Professor of English and of Social and Cultural Analysis at New York University. She is author, most recently, of How Soon Is Now? Medieval Texts, Amateur Readers, and the Queerness of Time (2013).

Aranye Fradenburg is Professor of English at the University of California, Santa Barbara, where she directs a concentration in “Literature and the Mind”; she is also a Clinical Associate with the New Center for Psychoanalysis in Los Angeles.

John M. Ganim is Professor of English at the University of California, Riverside. He is the author of Medievalism and Orientalism: Three Essays on Literature, Architecture and Cultural Identity (2005).

Alexandra Gillespie is Associate Professor of English at the University of Toronto. She is the author of Print Culture and the Medieval Author (2006) and an editor of several volumes on book history.

Vincent Gillespie is J. R. R. Tolkien Professor of English Literature and Language at the University of Oxford, and Executive Secretary of the Early English Text Society. He is interested in medieval literary theory and the psychology of literary response.

Geraldine Heng is Perceval Associate Professor at the University of Texas, Austin. Author of Empire of Magic: Medieval Romance and the Politics of Cultural Fantasy (2003), she is currently completing The Invention of Race in the European Middle Ages.

Jonathan Hsy is Assistant Professor of English at George Washington University. Author of Trading Tongues: Merchants, Multilingualism, and Medieval Literature (forthcoming), he has also published articles on Chaucer, Margery Kempe, mixed-language poetry, sea travel, and medieval disability.

Steven F. Kruger is Professor of English and Medieval Studies at Queens College and the Graduate Center, City University of New York, and author of Dreaming in the Middle Ages (1992), AIDS Narratives (1996), and The Spectral Jew: Conversion and Embodiment in Medieval Europe (2006).

Kathy Lavezzo teaches at the University of Iowa. She authored Angels on the Edge of the World: Geography, Literature, and English Community, 1000–1534 (2006), and edited Imagining a Medieval English Nation (2004).

David Lawton is Professor of English at Washington University at St. Louis. He is editor of New Medieval Literatures and author of many books, including Chaucer's Narrators (1985). He is currently completing a book on voice and space in medieval literature.

Nicola McDonald is Senior Lecturer in the Department of English and Related Literature, University of York. She is the editor of Pulp Fictions of Medieval England (2004) and Medieval Obscenities (2006), and is completing a monograph on Middle English verse romance.

David Matthews is Senior Lecturer in Middle English Literature and Culture at the University of Manchester. He is the author of Writing to the King: Nation, Kingship and Literature in England 1250–1350 (2010).

Robert Mills is Lecturer in Medieval Art at University College London. He is author of Suspended Animation: Pain, Pleasure and Punishment in Medieval Culture (2005), and coeditor of The Monstrous Middle Ages (2003) and Troubled Vision (2004).

Maura Nolan teaches at the University of California at Berkeley. She is the author of John Lydgate and the Making of Public Culture (2005) and is currently finishing a book on John Gower, sensation, and contingency.

Julie Orlemanski is Assistant Professor in the English Department at Boston College. Her essays include “How to Kiss a Leper” in postmedieval, and “Jargon and the Matter of Medicine in Middle English” in the Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies.

Thomas A. Prendergast is Associate Professor of English at the College of Wooster. He is the author of Chaucer's Dead Body: From Corpse to Corpus (2004), and is currently working on a book entitled Medievalism and Its Discontents, with Stephanie Trigg.

Corinne Saunders is Head of the Department of English Studies and Associate Director of the Centre for Medical Humanities at the University of Durham. Her most recent monograph is Magic and the Supernatural in Medieval English Romance (2010).

Elizabeth Scala is Associate Professor in the Department of English at the University of Texas, Austin and one of the editors of Exemplaria. She is currently completing a book on desire in the Canterbury Tales.

Marion Turner is Tutorial Fellow in English at Jesus College, Oxford. She is the author of Chaucerian Conflict: Languages of Antagonism in Late Fourteenth Century London (2007). She is currently editing a volume about literature and medicine and is working on a biography of Chaucer.

Laura Varnam is Lecturer in Old and Middle English Literature at University College, Oxford. She is writing a monograph entitled The Howse of God on Erthe: Sacred Space, Community, and Material Culture in Late Medieval England.

Abbreviations

BD

 Geoffrey Chaucer,

The Book of the Duchess

, in

The Riverside Chaucer: Reissued with a New Foreword by Christopher Cannon

, 3rd edition, ed. Larry Benson. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.

Canterbury Tales

 Geoffrey Chaucer,

The Canterbury Tales

, in

The Riverside Chaucer

. Citations are by fragment and line number.

Confessions

 St Augustine,

Confessions

, trans. Henry Chadwick. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. Citations are by book, chapter, and paragraph.

HF

 Geoffrey Chaucer,

The House of Fame

, in

The Riverside Chaucer

.

Pearl

Pearl

, in

The Poems of the Pearl Manuscript

, 4th edition, ed. Malcolm Andrew and Ronald Waldron. Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2002.

PF

 Geoffrey Chaucer,

The Parliament of Fowls

, in

The Riverside Chaucer

.

PLGW

 Geoffrey Chaucer,

The Prologue to the Legend of Good Women

, in

The Riverside Chaucer

.

PP

 William Langland,

The Vision of Piers Plowman: A Critical Edition of the B Text

, 2nd edition, ed. A. V. C. Schmidt. London: J. M. Dent, 1995.

SGGK

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

, in

The Poems of the Pearl Manuscript

, 4th edition, ed. Andrew and Waldron.

TC

 Geoffrey Chaucer,

Troilus and Criseyde

, in

The Riverside Chaucer

.

List of Figures

10.1

 A monk reading

10.2

 Jean Froissart reading to courtly group

11.1

The Parliament of Fowls

, lines 499–518

12.1

 Crown of an English queen (probably Anne of Bohemia)

12.2

Pearl

: The dreamer asleep

12.3

Pearl

: The dreamer by the stream

12.4

Pearl

: The dreamer talks to the Maiden

12.5

Pearl

: The Heavenly City

19.1

 The Pricke of Conscience, All Saints North Street, York

19.2

 Works of Mercy, All Saints North Street, York

22.1

 Roof boss, Norwich Cathedral cloisters

22.2

 Roof boss, Norwich Cathedral cloisters

Introduction

Marion Turner

There is no neutral or innocent reading of a work of art.

Terry Eagleton

Theory and Medieval Literature

At the end of Chaucer's most experimental and dazzling poem, The House of Fame, in an astonishing literalization of the death of the author, texts (“tydings”) come to life, speak to each other, morph, and construct new identities beyond the control of the person who spoke or wrote them (ll. 2075–2120). The playfulness of this scene, in which texts flaunt their independence in an imaginary and liberated world, is the climax of an exceptionally original poem, where local gossip is as worthy of attention as classical poetry, where authors are exposed as prejudiced readers themselves, where the gendered bias of dominant narratives is foregrounded.1 The poem, in part a meditation on where poetry comes from, what it is, and what it means, tells us that authors do not make poetry in an ivory tower; instead, each text is a bricolage, an opportunist mosaic jumbled together from different points of origin, a tissue of quotations, a place where different sources blend and clash (Barthes 1324).2 Most importantly: it is readers, however unsatisfactory they might be, who make meaning. Monolithic readings, single interpretation, excessive respect for authors, are deadly; to bring life to our readings and our writings we must embrace the diversity of the textual world, and remain open to multiplicity in what we read and what we think. HF itself invites and encourages us to exert pressure on the text from the outside, to be active readers, to think theoretically about the literary text and about how we interpret.

In his earliest surviving narrative poem, The Book of the Duchess (c.1370), Chaucer presents us with an extreme version of a biased reader. The dreamer reads the Ovidian story of Ceyx and Alcyone, a tragic tale in which Alcyone mourns the loss of her husband at sea, is visited by the god of sleep and shown Ceyx's dead body, and then dies herself, wretchedly (ll. 62–214). He does not bother to read the end of the story—in which the lovers are reunited after death. Instead, he focuses on the fact that there is a god of sleep, as he himself is an insomniac, desperate to collapse onto his pillow (ll. 231–269). In a comic parody of a bad reader, the dreamer/narrator ostentatiously reads for himself, only taking that from the story which relates directly to his own experience. On the one hand, this is a warning: we should all try to be more open-minded, to listen to what texts have to say to us rather than remaining locked in our own prejudices. But there is an extent to which this reader shows us what we all inevitably do: each reader brings her or his own interpretation to each text because everyone's personal and literary experiences are different. And even each individual reader changes all the time and finds different things in texts at different moments (the narrator of the BD might read the story in another way on a day when he was not so tired). Hence the same reading can never be duplicated, no one can step into the same river twice. Chaucer shows us this over and over again: the tale-collection conceit allows him to encode similar examples of biased reading through the pilgrims' responses to the Canterbury Tales.

With their overwhelming focus on what we might term Bakhtinian polyphony and Barthesian reader-response, Chaucer's texts obviously open themselves up to diverse modes of interpretation. Other medieval texts are similarly self-conscious and implicitly theoretical: in Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, Gawain is a hilarious and wonderful example of a literary character who knows he is a literary character: when Gawain arrives at Hautdesert, all the inhabitants have been reading romances and Gawain is constantly faced with the challenge of living up to his literary identity. When faced with disappointed comments along the lines of “Are you really Gawain?” “Can you be Gawain?” (e.g. ll. 1293, 1481), rather than asserting his selfhood, he tries hard to be more like the man about whom they have read. The literary playfulness of all these poems encourages us to read theoretically.

But theory does more than respond to the invitations of a text; its position beyond the text is crucial. Theory, in productive relationship with texts, can act as a catalyst, enabling dynamic reading experiences. In the present volume, for example, HF is read alongside modern theories of how we can experience the city, as voyeur and as flâneur (Hsy), and the relationship between the characters in BD is analyzed in terms drawn from neuroscience and psychoanalysis (Fradenburg). The intersubjectivity that Fradenburg discusses at length in her essay on imagination is closely aligned to Dinshaw's discussion of interconnectedness in SGGK, analyzed here in the context of ecocriticism, a very contemporary mode of theory that yields a rich reading of the medieval poem.

This volume makes a distinct intervention in the world of medieval literary studies. Its focus is on the interplay between theory and texts. “Theory” is here taken to mean an articulation of an approach to a text, or of a cultural perspective, taken from outside the object of enquiry. It can be classical, medieval, modern, or postmodern: Aristotle, Augustine, and Dante are theorists just as much as Derrida, Foucault, and Žižek.3 Theory helps us to open texts up and allow them to speak to us; as Paul Strohm puts it, “a text cannot fully reveal itself unless pressured by questions formed somewhere outside its own orbit of assumptions” (xiv). But an encounter between a theory and a text can go further than this; it can be a two-way, transformative process: texts can intervene in theories, prompting us to restructure our approaches, challenging our terms of inquiry. David Lawton's essay in the present volume, for example, reworks Habermas's ideas not only in terms of temporality but also in terms of the nature of the public sphere; Nicola McDonald throws new light on Judith Butler, drag, and performativity as well as on medieval romance; John Ganim explicitly addresses the question of how the Middle Ages changes postcolonial theory. Reading theoretically inspires unpredictable interpretative journeys.

Theory can work in many ways. It can be simply a sophisticated form of doubling, (Derrida 1692).4 As I suggested above, Chaucer was a Barthesian before Barthes; his texts foreground the idea that readers construct texts. One person reads a text about Troy and sees Aeneas as a hero, another sees him as a villain. These two readers—Virgil and Ovid—then construct their own texts which can also be read in myriad ways. (This is what happens in Book I of HF.) Using Barthes's terminology about the dense archaeology of texts and the centrality of the reader in putting a text together (1325–1326) can help to clarify what Chaucer's texts are already suggesting by placing them in a new framework.5 Theory can also expose things that the text or author is trying to suppress. Romance and fabliau, for instance, habitually use the language of love and sexual desire to express personal relationships; reading theories about the exchange of women articulated by thinkers such as Gayle Rubin makes it clear that women in patriarchal societies are less love objects for themselves than pawns in a relationship between men. In romance specifically, however much they talk the talk of true love, women's desire tends conveniently to follow the desire of the father-figure, and thus serves the exchange of women system. Romance texts sometimes occlude this—for instance by making the hero's social position initially unclear—but structurally, the genre demands the maintenance of family, patrimony, and social order. Hence Rimenhild's illicit love for Horn (in the early romance, King Horn) actually serves her father's desires when Horn turns out to be a very desirable son-in-law. And theory can reveal things that the text cannot know, and can open it up in a new historical moment. For instance, in Book 7 of Ancrene Wisse, the lady's body is imagined as a castle, an image which recurs in many medieval texts. In the twentieth century, Jacques Lacan wrote about the persistence of this kind of imagery, discussing how the individual constructs a walled, enclosed identity for himself or herself in opposition to images of the body as fragmented, and in opposition to spatial images of marshes and rubbish tips, which are set against the wholeness and rigidity of the castle (Lacan, in Leitch et al., 1167). He discusses how this imagery functions in the development of identity, and the recurrence of such imagery in dreams and at different stages in mental development. Such theories can be applied in fruitful ways to medieval texts, in ways which help us to understand the fundamental power of the imagery of Ancrene Wisse, and to remember how medieval topography and metaphor continue to inhabit our collective psyche. This is an example too of the mutually illuminating relationship between theory and medieval text: twentieth and twenty-first century ideas about selfhood, love, and the mind are saturated with imagery gleaned from medieval devotional and erotic literature.

Critical Contexts

The place of theory within medieval studies has become nearly unassailable over the last twenty-five years (and also had a significant presence earlier). In 1989, a journal of theory and medieval studies (Exemplaria) was inaugurated; in the first issue, Fradenburg published an article explicitly dealing with the relationship between theory and Chaucer studies;6 in the following year, Paragraph: A Journal of Modern Critical Theory devoted a special issue (13) to medieval literature (Chinca). Now, Exemplaria is published four times a year and the most important journals in the field—such as New Medieval Literatures, Studies in the Age of Chaucer, the Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies, and Speculum—all frequently publish theoretically-oriented work. An exciting new journal, postmedieval, inaugurated in 2010, asserts in its mission statement that it “aims to bring the medieval and modern into productive critical relation”: 2013 issues cover topics such as “Ecomaterialism,” and “The Transcultural Middle Ages.” Important books and special issues of periodicals have overtly addressed the relationship between theory and medieval literature (see, for example, Theory and the Study of Premodernity, special issue of Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 36.1 (2006) (Clark), and Strohm, Theory and the Premodern Text); and there are many books which engage systematically and consistently with particular theoretical approaches, such as gender theories or postcolonialism (Lochrie et al.; Cohen). Major conferences routinely engage with a wide range of theoretical approaches. However, for nonmedievalists, or for those approaching the period for the first time, the connection between theory and medieval literature can be initially opaque. It might seem anachronistic to read medieval texts through the lens of 1960s feminism or twenty-first century theories of sovereignty. To the frustration of medievalists, two pernicious myths continue to bedevil medieval studies: the casual use of the word “medieval” to mean “violent,” “unpleasant,” “what we are not,” and the associated idea that individuality only came into existence around 1600. These misleading and profoundly unhistorical views conspire to construct an idea of medieval texts as somehow fundamentally different to later texts, resistant to the modes of interpretation that effect profitable readings of Shakespeare, or Eliot, or Woolf. If medieval culture was flatter, less complicated, more brutish, than later cultures, its writers and readers conscious of themselves only as members of groups with no understanding of the depths of the self or of conflicted social forces, medieval texts might indeed respond less fully to diverse modes of analysis. But reading medieval literature should expose the falsity of this view of medieval culture.

We might first consider the “popular culture” view of the medieval crystallized in the 1995 film Pulp Fiction, where the phrase “getting medieval” stands for extreme, total violence, and “medieval” thus represents a period dominated by aggressive power relationships. While medievalists have long critiqued the use of “medieval” in the film (Dinshaw), the message bears repeating as the media, cultural commentators, and computer games still routinely use “medieval” as a shorthand for that which is violent, backward, and generally nasty. The power of the rule of law has undoubtedly changed dramatically through and after the medieval period and, in Europe, violence has become less the domain of individuals, and more the province of the state. But the atrocities of twentieth-century European history make clear the folly of labeling the medieval era as more violent, or more intolerant, than other periods. Recently, scholars have drawn attention to the construction of the medieval past as a subaltern inferior to modernity, arguing that commentators routinely employ colonial rhetoric to other the past and to exalt a supposedly enlightened present (as Mills discusses, pace Kathleen Davis (2008), in the present volume). The colonizing of the medieval allows a complacent forgetting of the crimes and inequalities that continue to underpin modernity.

Furthermore, terms such as ‘medieval’ or ‘modern’ are inherently problematic and gloss over the complexities of the period—whatever the “period” might be (see Matthews's essay on Periodization in the present volume). The term “medieval” covers a long period of time and even within any particular historical moment, medieval society was far from monolithic or static. This was not a society exclusively structured by feudalism where everyone stayed in their place, but an era in which mercantilism, market forces, and trade were increasingly important, and where devastating events such as the Black Death were engines for social mobility. As with any period, any statement along the lines of “medieval people did this…” or “the medieval mind was like that…” should be viewed with skepticism.

In academic circles, the parallel misconception about the monolithic Middle Ages has been the idea that subjectivity did not exist until the early modern period. Frequently repeated by some well-respected early modernist critics (and, although diminishing in influence in recent years, this misconception has by no means vanished), the idea that nowhere in English literature do we see an awareness of the gap between interiority and the external until Hamlet is breathtakingly ignorant. In a powerful essay, “A Whisper in the Ear of Early Modernists,” David Aers suggested that this view was maintained by critics who simply had not read much medieval literature and who tended, for instance, to rely on a couple of morality plays as representative of the entirety of medieval literature (190–196). But even the quickest reading of Troilus and Criseyde, for instance, or SGGK, reveals poems profoundly concerned with the nature of the self, and with the difficulty of reconciling that fragmented entity with the expectations of society. And if we go back much further to one of the founding texts of Western culture, St. Augustine's Confessions, we find an extraordinarily powerful depiction of the complex inner self, struggling against the demands of external codes, but fully aware of itself as a conflicted and private entity. Indeed, the tradition of confession, increasingly important after the 4th Lateran Council of 1215, itself encouraged the development of a variety of technologies of selfhood (Cannon, ch. 1). Recent and current work by both medievalists and early modernists—showcased in Cummings and Simpson's edited volume Cultural Reformations, published in 2010—works hard to trouble old preconceptions about what changed in the sixteenth century as academics increasingly have conversations across artificial period divides.

There are two ways in which medieval texts might respond particularly well to theoretical interventions. First, at the heart of much modern theory is the idea of the indeterminacy of the text: the text is not a complete, bounded Work, constructed by an Author-God, but a place of uncertain boundaries, a process going through many versions, changed by editors, the processes of textual production, market forces, and, of course, readers (Barthes, Chartier). These issues are true of writings produced in all eras but they are much more obvious in a manuscript culture, where each manuscript is clearly unique. Moreover, authors circulated early versions of their work, changed their poems when political circumstances changed—as happened with Gower's Confessio amantis, Langland's Piers Plowman, and Chaucer's Prologue to the Legend of Good Women—and reflected on ideas and rewrote their work later in life, as with Julian of Norwich's Revelation of Love. Examining manuscripts reminds us that a poem can never be separated from its material context: there is no ur-Canterbury Tales representing Chaucer's true intent; there are various manuscripts with the tales in different orders, in each of which the scribe has had to make editorial decisions and has undoubtedly at times made mistakes, allowed his pen to slip, lost attention. And indeed, an author's “intent” often changes over time, as the textual history of PP makes particularly clear. The way that medieval books were produced invites us to think theoretically in multiple ways: in the case of The Book of Margery Kempe, for example, do we locate authorship in the person who physically wrote the text (probably a male scribe), or in the person who initially described the experiences (Kempe herself, who also needs to be distinguished from the character bearing her name in the book)?

The second way in which medieval texts have an essential relationship to modern critical theory has been foregrounded in the last few years, as medievalists have pointed out the surprising number of influential twentieth and twenty-first century theorists who began their academic careers as medievalists, and whose modes of thought were profoundly influenced by their medieval training. Much modern theory, in short, has its origins in medieval culture. In The Premodern Condition: Medievalism and the Making of Theory, Holsinger discusses Bataille, Lacan, Bourdieu, Derrida, and Barthes, commenting on their “recurrent fascination, even obsession with the historical period that modernity most consistently abjected” (5).7 And many theorists writing today are similarly dependent on medieval culture: the education and thought of Giorgio Agamben, for instance, is strongly rooted in medieval studies. Medieval literary culture, with its obsession with hermeneutics (the science of interpretation) and with the nature of the author and authority, is of especial interest to theorists; moreover, as Lacan emphasizes in seminar VII, the relations between the genders are still founded in many ways upon the traditions of courtly love that rose to particular prominence in the twelfth century.8

“Theory” has always been a troubled and contested field in literature departments. Critics often talk about the “theory wars” of the 1980s; the late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries have seen the publication of books claiming that theory is over9—although looking at the kind of criticism being produced in journals and books suggests otherwise. Indeed, for many critics, theory is a given, something that grounds their work and no longer needs defense or explicit explanation. But there has also been increased resistance to certain kinds of theory in recent years. An important trend has been the “new formalism” (a kind of antitheory theory), ably discussed by Marjorie Levinson in a 2007 PMLA article. Levinson argues that extreme adherents of new formalism claim that “to contextualize aesthetic experience is to expose its hedonic dimension as an illusion, distraction, or trap.” She characterizes this belief as a version of the old complaint that “analyzing literature destroys the experience of it” (562). This kind of new formalism might be seen as a polarizing response to the neglect of form by new historicism and to the general suspicion and neglect of the aesthetic in late twentieth-century criticism. However, most critics committed to theorized and historicized approaches are far from neglecting issues relating to form. Considering form should not be an optional extra in literary studies, nor a category of analysis separate from others. Analyzing form is at the heart of what literary critics do, and close reading—itself a theory about how to interpret texts—anchors most “theorized” readings (and is central to all the essays in the present volume). Brantley's essay on material culture, for instance, is interested both in physical objects, in things and “thing theory,” and in the specific form of Pearl. The importance of beauty in literature and the wonder-ful aspects of experiencing texts are also coming under increased scrutiny at the moment. But the category of the aesthetic itself has a history, and beauty has a complicated and important relationship to theory, as Nolan makes clear in the present volume in her exploration of aesthetics in PP, drawing on writers as diverse as Aquinas and James Joyce.

Our project—as readers, students, scholars—is multiple: theory helps us to read diversely, to continue to mine texts for what they can tell us about themselves and their cultural moment, and to allow texts to speak to our own contexts and moments. Remaining open to different ways of approaching texts helps us to keep thinking—surely our most urgent imperative.

This Book

The essays in this volume are therefore characterized by diversity. Many draw on classical and medieval theory, and a very wide range of modern theorists are employed: from the established French theorists who rose to prominence in the 1960s to those writing today. Some essays deal with topics familiar to anyone with a glancing understanding of theory—gender, the death of the author, national identity, the city; others with areas only newly coming under theoretical scrutiny—the imagination, globalization, animals, ecology. Some engage issues of particular relevance to medieval culture such as the church, manuscript culture, and multilingual culture; most with issues central to all cultures and literatures: race, desire, audience, sexuality, genre, canon, class, margins. While the volume focuses on Middle English culture, it interrogates the time and place of the later medieval period with essays on periodization and globalization, and many essays bear witness to the impossibility of reading Middle English culture in isolation from texts in other languages, especially Latin and French (see especially the essay on language).10 Several essays also demonstrate the productivity of engaging with literature alongside other cultural artifacts such as visual images (Audience, Material Culture, Ecology) and the value of thinking about texts in dialogue with physical spaces (Church, City, Margins). Essays have varying relationships to theory: one essay—about postcolonialism—explores the history of the concept and whether or not it can be applied to medieval texts; others are primarily grounded in medieval theories (Memory, Aesthetics); others examine how modern theories (of sovereignty, of public interiority and the public sphere) are rooted in specific and misleading ways of reading history and the medieval past. This volume does not try to and could not cover all medieval literature or all theoretical approaches. It aims to include discussion of a wide range of texts, both canonical and obscure, and to model how a variety of different theoretical modes can be deployed in analyzing these texts. It also offers readers a snapshot of what kinds of things are happening in the research community at the moment. Many of the essays are mutually illuminating and speak to similar issues from differing perspectives: manuscript contexts are also explored in essays on genre, on public interiorities, and on desire; sexuality is also discussed in the essay on nation; wonder is a key aspect of the discussions on canon formation and aesthetics.

This book is divided into three parts: the first, on “Selfhood and Community,” comprises chapters which meditate on how the self is imagined and constructed (something that is always done in relationship to others). Some chapters focus on the interior of the self—imagination, desire, memory—and how this interiority is also intersubjective, rather than discrete, an issue that “public interiorities” examines through a different lens. Other chapters focus on the communities that define the self through inclusion and exclusion—these communities can be based around, for instance, gender, race, sexuality, and animality.11 Augustine, with his intense focus on subjectivity, casts a particularly long shadow throughout this section of the book. The second part—“Constructing Texts, Constructing Textual History”—is the most overtly “literary” section. It examines how texts are made—by authors and audiences, using genre and aesthetics, out of manuscripts and materials—and are preserved and valued in the canon and as part of a certain period. Reader response is perhaps the most recurrent theme throughout these essays: authors are themselves readers of sources and genres, and their texts are shaped by readers, some of whom are scribes and editors, or scholars and syllabus designers, determining which texts are widely read, and how they are read. The third part of the book, “Politics and Places”—moves further outwards to large structures, institutions, and places. Chapters focus on key conceptual spaces such as city, church, margins, and nation, consider political aspects of medieval society, such as how languages interacted and the ways in which postcolonialism resonates in medieval texts, examine deep structures of society such as sovereignty and class, and investigate place and politics through the current major critical trends of ecocriticism and globalization.

Despite the extraordinary pressure on the humanities at the moment, in many ways the field has never been stronger, more diverse, or more obviously relevant. Interdisciplinary, theorized work on literature and neuroscience, a growing field at the moment, shows us that reading changes our minds in more than one way. Our behavior can physiologically alter the structure of our brains, as was shown by Maguire et al.'s classic analysis of the brains of London taxi drivers, whose posterior hippocampi (the part of the brain that relates to spatial awareness) were dramatically enlarged as they learnt the complex geography of London's streets. This neuroplasticity makes clear that what we do changes how we think and who we are. Studies of reading and the brain are yielding fascinating results: one recent study demonstrates that sensory metaphors activate the sensory cortex. In other words there is a great deal of overlap between actually touching something and reading a metaphor employing tactile terms. Our brains react differently when we read of someone's “velvet voice,” for example, rather than their “pleasing voice” (Lacey et al.). Other studies even suggest that reading or hearing stories—for young children as well as adults—makes people more empathetic; reading changes how we behave in the world (Oatley et al.). Many medieval dream visions utilize the motif of reading as the catalyst for a psychological journey as the dreamer moves from book to dream. We modern readers too move from book to developing our own inner lives in myriad ways. Stories, images, metaphors, even individual words condition our responses to the world and help us to understand experiences not our own, both literary and otherwise. Reading theoretically and in interdisciplinary ways helps us to connect.

Notes

I am grateful to Anthony Bale, Ardis Butterfield, and Elliot Kendall, for discussions which have informed my thinking while writing this introduction.

1 See Vincent Gillespie's essay in the present volume.

2 For ease of reference, where possible theoretical works are cited from the Norton Anthology (Leitch et al.); this useful introductory volume pays attention to classical and medieval as well as modern theory.

3 Of course, this broad definition of theory runs the risk of flattening out the differences between very diverse thinkers: Jacques Lacan, primarily a psychoanalyst, for instance, was quite a different kind of thinker to Roland Barthes, a literary theorist; the texts of St. Augustine, philosopher and theologian, have a very different relationship to literature to the writings of cultural theorists such as Michel Foucault. But from the point of view of the critic, what these authors have in common is that they can all be used to construct meaning, to pressure the text from outside.

4 Derrida writes that doubling reproduces “the conscious, voluntary, intentional relationship that the writer institutes in his exchanges with the history to which he belongs” and affirms that “reading must not be content with doubling” (1692).

5 Confusingly, Chaucer's intent seems to be to tell us that we cannot discover authorial intent and that readers matter more anyway.

6 This essay (“Criticism, Anti-Semitism, and the Prioress's Tale”) is engaged with in some detail in David Lawton's essay in the present volume.

7 Cole and Smith's more recent volume also makes an important intervention in rewriting the archaeology of modern critical theory.

8 See also Žižek's discussion of courtly love as the origin of film noir's femme fatale, and his analysis of the film The Crying Game in the terms of courtly love (Žižek 2420–2427).

9 However, books that suggest we are somehow beyond the age of theory are not uniform in their perspective; Eagleton's After Theory, for instance, is certainly not arguing that we abandon the attempt to think theoretically (2, 221).

10 Texts written in languages other than English are not routinely quoted in the original in this volume, except where reading the text in the original is particularly important for understanding the points that contributors are making. Middle English texts are not usually translated, except where contributors have thought it necessary to do so to clarify meaning for those readers relatively new to Middle English.

11 Unfortunately, a commissioned essay on Disability could not be completed for inclusion in this Handbook, for reasons beyond the contributor's control.

References

Aers, David. “A Whisper in the Ear of Early Modernists; or, Reflections on Literary Critics Writing the History of the Subject.” In David Aers (ed.), Culture and History, 1350–1600: Essays on English Communities, Identities, and Writings (pp. 177–202). New York: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1992.

Barthes, Roland. “The Death of the Author.” In Vincent B. Leitch et al. (eds), The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, 2nd edn (pp. 1322–1326). New York: Norton, 2010.

Cannon, Christopher. Middle English Literature: A Cultural History. Cambridge: Polity, 2008.

Chartier, Roger. “Texts, Printing, Readings.” In Lynn Hunt (ed.), The New Cultural History (pp. 154–175). Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989.

Chinca, Mark (ed.). Displacement and Recognition. Special Issue on Medieval Literature. Paragraph: A Journal of Modern Critical Theory 13.2 (1990).

Clark, Elizabeth A. (ed.). Theory and the Study of Premodernity. Special issue of Journal of Medieval and Early Modern Studies 36.1 (2006).

Cohen, Jeffrey Jerome (ed.). The Postcolonial Middle Ages. Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000.

Cole, Andrew and D. Vance Smith (eds). The Legitimacy of the Middle Ages: On the Unwritten History of Theory. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010.

Cummings, Brian and James Simpson. Cultural Reformations: Medieval and Renaissance in Literary History. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.

Davis, Kathleen. Periodization and Sovereignty: How Ideas of Feudalism and Secularization Govern the Politics of Time. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2008.

Derrida, Jacques. “Of Grammatology.” In Vincent B. Leitch et al. (eds), The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, 2nd edn (pp. 1688–1697). New York: Norton, 2010.

Dinshaw, Carolyn. Getting Medieval: Sexualities and Communities, Pre- and Postmodern. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1999.

Eagleton, Terry. Literary Theory: An Introduction, 2nd edn. Oxford: Blackwell, 1996.

Eagleton, Terry. After Theory. London: Penguin, 2003.

Fradenburg, Louise O. (Aranye). “Criticism, Anti-Semitism, and the Prioress's Tale.” Exemplaria 1.1 (1989): 69–115.

Holsinger, Bruce. The Premodern Condition: Medievalism and the Making of Theory. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.

Lacan, Jacques. “Seminar VII.” In Jacques Alain-Miller (ed.), The Seminar of Jacques Lacan: The Ethics of Psychoanalysis, trans. Dennis Porter. London: Norton, 1997.

Lacan, Jacques. “The Mirror Stage as Formative of the Function of the I as Revealed in Psychoanalytic Experience.” In Vincent B. Leitch et al. (eds), The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, 2nd edn (pp. 1163–1169). New York: Norton, 2010.

Lacey, Simon, Randall Stilla, and K. Sathian. “Metaphorically Feeling: Comprehending Textural Metaphors Activates Somatosensory Cortex.” Brain and Language 120.3 (2012): 416–421.

Leitch, Vincent B., William Cain, Laurie Finke, Barbara Johnson, and John McGowan (eds). The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, 2nd edn. New York: Norton, 2010.

Levinson, Marjorie. “What is New Formalism?” PMLA 122.2 (2007): 558–569.

Lochrie, Karma, Peggy McCracken, and James A. Schultz, Constructing Medieval Sexuality. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1997.

Maguire, E. A., D. G. Gadian, I. S. Johnsrude, C. D. Good, J. Ashburner, R. S. Frackowiak, and C. D. Frith. “Navigation-Related Structural Change in the Hippocampi of Taxi Drivers.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97.8 (2000): 4398–4403.

Oatley, K., R. A. Mar, and M. Djikic. “The Psychology of Fiction: Present and Future.” In Isabel Jaén and Julian Jacques Simon (eds), Cognitive Literary Studies: Current Themes and New Directions (pp. 235–249). Austin: University of Texas Press, 2012.

Rubin, Gayle. “The Traffic in Women: Notes on the Political Economy of Sex.” In Rayna R. Reiter (ed.), Toward an Anthropology of Women (pp. 157–210). New York: Monthly Review Press, 1975.

Strohm Paul. Theory and the Premodern Text. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 2000.

Žižek, Slavoj. “Courtly Love, or, Woman as Thing.” In Vincent B. Leitch et al. (eds), The Norton Anthology of Theory and Criticism, 2nd edn (pp. 2407–2427). New York: Norton, 2010.

Part 1

Selfhood and Community

Chapter 1

Imagination

Aranye Fradenburg

Imagynacion is a might thorow the whiche we portray alle ymages of absent and present thinges.

The Cloud of Unknowing

Two things cannot be rightly put together without a third; there must be some bond of union between them.

Plato, Timaeus

According to conventional wisdom, medieval understandings of the imagination lack imagination by comparison with Hamlet's “king of infinite space” and the Romantic sublime. It would take centuries, so the old story goes, for Coleridge's Biographia Literaria to elevate the imagination to the status of “the living Power and prime agent of all human perception.”1 But this narrative has problems. The dependence of thought on perception and imagination was axiomatic for premodern writers: the mind retained sense impressions in the form of images that could be further abstracted into concepts and propositions.2 Experiences and things did not enter the mind directly; “but the images of the perceived objects are available to the thought recalling them” (Augustine, Confessions, X.viii (13)). But while the insubstantiality of images was often lamented, it was by no means simply lamentable. It gave images their plasticity. The imagination had “thirdness”; it formed links between different kinds of mental phenomena.3 Without this plasticity the mind could not learn, hope, decide, and plan; it could not anticipate a future time. Augustine thought it marvelous: “I [can] combine with past events images of various things, whether experienced directly or believed on the basis of what I have experienced; and on this basis I reason about future actions and events and hopes, and again think of all these things in the present” (X.viii (14)). Not only did the imagination play a significant role in the process of thought; it was a sine qua non of our ontology, especially the qualities and dimensions of our sentience. It had a crucial role to play in our salvation and God's providential order.

Nicolette Zeeman describes Langland's allegorical character Ymaginatyf as a “capacious inner sense,” “a distinctive inclusiveness, with…inbuilt, etymological allusions to images, imaginative functions, and ‘seeing,’ as well as to hypothetical and speculative forms of cogitation” (84).4 The generosity of this conception does not lag much behind Coleridge's “living Power and prime agent.” True, Coleridge's further specification of the secondary imagination as “a repetition in the finite mind of the eternal act of creation in the infinite I AM” would have sounded a bit heterodox to premodern ears; and Piers Plowman is chiefly about psychological travail and the threat posed to salvation by the limitations of human understanding—a concern regarded by some scholars as consistent with the distressed fourteenth century's interest in negative theology and accompanying critiques of knowledge (Utz 129–130). Capacious though Ymaginatyf may be, Langland's poem is full of false starts and frustration. The Romantic imagination suffers little from frustration; however tiny the human figure standing on the verge of the abyss, its mind contains the very thing (the “eternal act of creation”) that seems to outstrip it. Arguably, the medieval imagination only translates “ineffable and therefore unknown forms of sentience” into truth tolerable by the human mind (S. Langer 39); it transmits divinity, rather than secreting it. But the notion of composition as re-creation of Creation was known to the Middle Ages; “high medieval authors…sometimes…stylize[d] themselves as werltgot (i.e., Lord of the fictional world created by them)” (Utz 131). Exceptionalist understandings of the imagination have a very long, if erratic, history. But even humbler notions of the imagination gave it reach; the medieval imagination mediated between different kinds of minds, powers, and worlds, between the past and the present, here and there. If not divine creativity, it was divine connectivity, responsible for extraordinary states of mind. How could we know God without solitary contemplation of the “ymages of…absent thinges”?

Humanist and new-critical histories of art commonly assign the values of preservation, craftsmanship, and communal experience to the Middle Ages, and creativity, inspiration and individual experience to the Renaissance or the nineteenth century. Ullrich Langer, for example, argues that medieval poets “celebrated the survival of human culture, not its original reinvention by an individual” (22; Utz 129). It is true that medieval poets often saw themselves as “makars” (makers), but no one doubted that prophetic dreams and visions were mediated by the imagination. And the cosmological deterritorializations of Bernardus Silvestris or Dante Alighieri, the summa-style expansiveness of the Roman de la Rose, the historical sweep of Laamon's Brut, are hardly modest efforts. Translatio did not simply preserve the past; it made it new again. But the point of this essay is not to reverse the charges on presentism's timor mortis. It is to explore the interdependence of individual and community, and the consequences thereof for our understanding of the richness and complexity of medieval understandings of the imagination.

There are, of course, different cultural and historical articulations of this interdependence, and we ought to attend to them. But we should also take care not to overstate the salience of these differences, or neglect common elements. Tradition grows, and creativity emerges, from networks constituted by intersecting histories. The “I,” like its mutually constitutive webs of relationships, is a unique combination of genetic potentialities, traditions, and experiences, many of which are also parts of other such combinations. The psychoanalytic term “intersubjectivity” designates this paradoxical dependence of subjective experience on relationality. The theory of “mentalization” also builds on the idea that we come to understand our “own” minds only by interacting with the minds of others (Fonagy et al.). Subjectivity is a process that occurs when relationships beckon to, and thereby help to design, the minds of those linked thereby. The social bond, that is to say, depends on feelings of understanding and being understood. Relationality is not groupthink; it enables self-process. However much they may have longed to soar like skylarks and wander lonely as clouds, Romantic writers always had to grapple with the embeddedness of imaginative activity in relationships, with family, friends, lovers, books, “nature” (Carlson). Indeed, in Frankenstein, the temptations of aloneness lead to disaster. Contemporary neuroscience, moreover, confirms the importance of relationality to imaginative process. Nancy Andreasen, for example, argues that “genius” emerges within and from the very communities whose patient labors and inside-the-box innovations might seem incapable of predicting it.

William Dunbar's “Lament for the Makars” is both an ambitious poetic genealogy and a melancholy catalog of memory-images of dead or dying predecessors, to which “facultie” he is linked by fear: “timor mortis conturbat me,” “the fear of death confounds me.” Death has taken all his “brethren”; and since he is himself a maker, “On forse I man [Death's] nyxt pray be” (l. 95). Does Dunbar present himself as the therapon, the companion/survivor who addresses us when we are in the state “in which there is no other to respond” but him? In the end, only the therapon's loyalty matters; since he will not run away from us, or put us away, or leave us for dead, only his interlocution can restore our “freedom of speech” (Davoine and Gaudillière 209–210). But perhaps Dunbar is not the therapon but the subject maddened by fear, who has no others left to respond to him. Or perhaps we can't distinguish the one from the other. This is intersubjectivity in the form of identification: “He has tane Roull of Aberdene,/ And gentill Roull of Corstorphin/ Two bettir fallowis did no man se” (ll. 77–79). Dunbar already knew what Freud would later argue, that we learn of our own death only through the death of the other, that such knowledge as we have of the solitary experience of dying is ironically relational. If Dunbar's catalog is a humble medieval registration of creaturely vulnerability, it is also, gravely, singularizing: the commonness of death does not make it any less traumatic; it is when we feel the hand that has touched so many other shoulders touch our own that we are at once singled out, and subject(ed) to the law of nature.

The imagination's role in processing the transformations necessary to life and death is repeatedly foregrounded in medieval narrative, certainly as important a “source” for medieval conceptions of the imagination as are treatises on the soul or on dreams (Kolve). The dream-vision genre in particular—a long-attested form, but explosively popular in the fourteenth century—has attracted much attention from critics interested in medieval ideas about the imagination (Lynch). In Chaucer's dream-vision poem The Book of the Duchess, the apparently obtuse narrator—a therapon of the order of Sancho Panza—questions the melancholic Man in Black about the latter's lamentably lost “queen,” White. The two sift through the images of White stored in the Man in Black's memory, but the narrator doesn't understand how she was lost until the Man in Black finally exclaims, “She ys ded!” (l. 1309). But who is this mysterious Man in Black anyway? Is he John of Gaunt, whose duchess, Blanche, died in the course of the 1368 plague? Then again, the Man in Black says “y am sorwe, and sorwe ys y” (l. 597). Does he stand for an emotion? Is he an allegorical figure? Or is he (also) a reprise of the brooding noblemen in Chaucer's French sources? Perhaps he is part of the narrator's own melancholic mind—a figment of his “sorwful ymagynacioun” (l. 14)? But how does that help, since the narrator is, by his own account, a “mased thyng” (l. 12), uncertain of his circumstances and the nature of his being. Ontological indeterminacy once again accompanies the work of the imagination.

Melancholy wounds our sentience, our (feeling of) aliveness. We know that our lives have happened to us, but we cannot claim them or even feel that we have experienced them. We can't tell whether we are alive or dead. If we shelter the images of lost objects inside our minds, we also take on their deadness. As courtly love knew, when existence is a doubtful matter, the smallest, most delicate of responses—a look, a shift in tone, a ring carelessly left behind—can call us back to a conviction of aliveness. The therapon is therefore a signifying fool (cf. the garrulity of both the narrator and Pandarus in Troilus and Criseyde). He embodies the responsiveness that calls us back to aliveness, and the promise, the oath of loyalty, implicit therein. How can “I” be dead if I can hear the friendly commentary of a “third” who is neither the lost object that walks now with her back to me, nor the ruined “I” that follows her? Sometimes epiphany is a flash of intersubjectivity, when what needs to be said can finally be said.

In BD, of course, epiphany is equivocal. Arguably, the poem's ending illustrates the problem of “other minds” (Austen) as much as it illustrates the dependence of understanding on the social link. But the narrator and the Man in Black have accompanied