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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Serie: Blackwell History of the World
- Sprache: Englisch
Provides an all-encompassing look at the history of Russia, Central Asia, and Mongolia Beginning with the breakup of the Mongol Empire in the mid-thirteenth century, Volume II of this comprehensive work covers the remarkable history of "Inner Eurasia," from 1260 up to modern times, completing the story begun in Volume I. Volume II describes how agriculture spread through Inner Eurasia, providing the foundations for new agricultural states, including the Russian Empire. It focuses on the idea of "mobilization"--the distinctive ways in which elite groups mobilized resources from their populations, and how those methods were shaped by the region's distinctive ecology, which differed greatly from that of "Outer Eurasia," the southern half of Eurasia and the part of Eurasia most studied by historians. This work also examines how fossil fuels created a bonanza of energy that helped shape the history of the Communist world during much of the twentieth century. Filled with figures, maps, and tables to help give readers a fuller understanding of what has transpired over 750 years in this distinctive world region, A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia: Volume II: Inner Eurasia from the Mongol Empire to Today, 1260-2000 is a magisterial but accessible account of this area's past, that will offer readers new insights into the history of an often misunderstood part of the world. * Situates the histories of Russia, Central Asia, and Mongolia within the larger narrative of world history * Concentrates on the idea of Inner Eurasia as a coherent ecological and geographical zone * Focuses on the powerful ways in which the region's geography shaped its history * Places great emphasis on how "mobilization" played a major part in the development of the regions * Offers a distinctive interpretation of modernity that highlights the importance of fossil fuels * Offers new ways of understanding the Soviet era A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia: Volume II is an ideal book for general audiences and for use in undergraduate and graduate courses in world history. The Blackwell History of the World Series The goal of this ambitious series is to provide an accessible source of knowledge about the entire human past, for every curious person in every part of the world. It will comprise some two dozen volumes, of which some provide synoptic views of the history of particular regions while others consider the world as a whole during a particular period of time. The volumes are narrative in form, giving balanced attention to social and cultural history (in the broadest sense) as well as to institutional development and political change. Each provides a systematic account of a very large subject, but they are also both imaginative and interpretative. The Series is intended to be accessible to the widest possible readership, and the accessibility of its volumes is matched by the style of presentation and production.
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A HISTORY OFRUSSIA,CENTRAL ASIA AND MONGOLIA
VOLUME II: INNER EURASIA FROM THEMONGOL EMPIRE TO TODAY, 1260–2000
DAVID CHRISTIAN
This edition first published 2018
© 2018 David Christian
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of David Christian to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Christian, David, 1946–
A history of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia / David Christian.
p. cm. – (Blackwell History of the world)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Contents: v. 1. Inner Eurasia from prehistory to the Mongol Empire
ISBN 978-0-631-18321-1 (hbk : alk. paper). ISBN 978-0-631-20814-3 (pbk : alk. paper)
v. 2. Inner Eurasia from the Mongol Empire to Today, 1260-2000
ISBN 978-0-631-21038-2 (hbk : alk. paper). ISBN 978-0-631-21039-9 (pbk : alk. paper)
1. Former Soviet republics–History. 2. Mongolia–History. 3. Sinkiang Uighur
Autonomous Region (China)–History I. Title. II. Series.
DK40 .C49 1998
950–dc21 98–3677
Cover image: Heritage Image Partnership Ltd / Alamy Stock Photo
Cover design by Wiley
CONTENTS
List of Maps
Series Editor's Preface
Acknowledgments
Preface: The Idea of Inner Eurasia
PART I INNER EURASIA IN THE AGRARIAN ERA: 1260–1850
1 Inner Eurasia in the Late Thirteenth Century: The Mongol Empire at its Height
The World in 1250
Karakorum: The Mongol Empire at its Apogee, and a Puzzle
Some Rules of Mobilization in Inner Eurasia
The Final Years of the Mongol Empire
Notes
References
2 1260–1350: Unraveling and the Building of New Polities
The Breakup of the Unified Mongol Empire: 1260
The Left Wing: Mongolia and Yuan China
The Center: Central Asia and Xinjiang
The West and the Golden Horde
Conclusion
Notes
References
3 1350–1500: Central and Eastern Inner Eurasia
The Crisis of the Mid-Fourteenth Century and the Fragmentation of the Golden Horde
Central Asia and Timur
Mobilization in the Kazakh and Mongolian Steppes
Notes
References
4 1350–1500: Western Inner Eurasia
Picking the Bones of the Golden Horde
Pastoralist Successor States
The West: Agrarian Successor States and the Agrarian Smychka
Notes
References
5 1500–1600: Pastoralist and Oasis Societies of Inner Eurasia
The First Global World System
Mongolia in the Sixteenth Century
The Kazakh Steppes
Oasis Polities of Central Asia and the Tarim Basin
The Pontic Steppes
Notes
References
6 1500–1600: Agrarian Societies West of the Volga
Outer Eurasian or Borderland Polities
Muscovy in the Sixteenth Century
Notes
References
7 1600–1750: A Tipping Point: Building a Russian Empire
Global Processes and Impacts: The Little Ice Age and Globalization
Breakdown and Recovery of the Muscovite Mobilization Machine
Renovating the Mobilization Machine in the Seventeenth Century
Expansion in the Seventeenth Century
The Early Eighteenth Century: The Russian Empire as a Great Power
Expansion in the Early Eighteenth Century
Notes
References
8 1600–1750: A Tipping Point: Central and Eastern Inner Eurasia between Russia and China
Muscovite Expansion into Siberia and First Contacts with China
Mongolia: Qing Hegemony and the Defeat of the Zunghar Empire
Central Inner Eurasia: The Urals and the Kazakh Steppes
Notes
References
9 1750–1850: Evolution and Expansion of the Russian Empire
Introduction: Global Processes and Impacts
Reunifying Inner Eurasia
The Russian Heartland: A Mobilizational Plateau
Notes
References
PART II INNER EURASIA IN THE ERA OF FOSSIL FUELS: 1850–2000
10 1850–1914: The Heartland: Continued Expansion and the Shock of Industrialization
A New Energy Regime: The Fossil Fuels Revolution
The Fossil Fuels Revolution in Inner Eurasia: New Challenges and Possibilities
The Imperial Heartland: 1850–1900
Destabilization and Restabilization: 1900–1914
Notes
References
11 1750–1900: Beyond the Heartlands: Inner Eurasian Empires, Russian and Chinese
Introduction
The Changing Nature of Russian Empire Building
The Kazakh Steppes
Transoxiana
Russia in Siberia and the Far East
China's Inner Eurasian Empire
Conclusions
Notes
References
12 1914–1921: Unraveling and Rebuilding
Introduction
War: 1914–February 1917
1917: February to October
A Contest to Build a New Order: Civil War, 1918–1921
Conclusion: The Return of the Past
Notes
References
13 1921–1930: New Paths to Modernity
Introduction: The Soviet Union in the 1920s: Alternative Futures
The New Economic Policy
Building a New Mobilization Machine
Notes
References
14 1930–1950: The Stalinist Industrialization Drive and the Test of War
Introduction
The Left Turn and Collectivization: 1929–
Industrialization and the Building of a New Military Apparatus
The Stalinist Mobilizational Machine
Benefits and Costs: Mobilization v. Efficiency
The “Great Patriotic War” and its Aftermath: 1941–1953
After the War: 1945–1953
Conclusions
Notes
References
15 1900–1950: Central and Eastern Inner Eurasia
Beyond the Heartland
Central Inner Eurasia: Kazakhstan and Transoxiana
Siberia, 1900–1950
The Former Chinese Zone: Mongolia and Xinjiang (Western Central Asia)
Conclusions: The Early Twentieth Century in Eastern Inner Eurasia
Notes
References
16 1950–1991: The Heartland: A Plateau, Decline, and Collapse
Introduction: Global Processes
The Soviet Heartland, 1953–1991: A Mobilizational Plateau
Perestroika and Collapse: 1985–1991
Notes
References
17 1950–1991: Beyond the Heartlands: Central and Eastern Inner Eurasia in the Second Half of the Twentieth Century
Kazakhstan and Central Asia
Siberia
Mongolia
Xinjiang within a Reviving Chinese Empire
Notes
References
18 1991–2000: Building New States: General Trends and the Russian Federation
Introduction: After the Breakup: The World and Inner Eurasia
The Challenge
Some General Trends
The Russian Federation: A Diminished Heartland
Stability and a Return to Centralist Traditions
Notes
References
19 1991–2000: Building New States: Beyond the Heartlands
The Slavic Republics: Ukraine and Belarus
Kazakhstan, Central Asia, and Azerbaijan: 1991–2000
Xinjiang
Mongolia, 1985–2000: Reform and Independence
Notes
References
Epilogue: After 2000: The End of Inner Eurasia?
Chronology
Index
EULA
List of Tables
Preface: The Idea of Inner Eurasia
Table 0.1
14
Table 14.1
16
Table 16.1
Table 16.2
18
Table 18.1
Table 18.2
Table 18.3a, b
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface: The Idea of Inner Eurasia
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LIST OF MAPS
0.1 Inner and Outer Eurasia
0.2 Interiority and low rainfall
0.3 Northerliness and low agricultural productivity
0.4 Generally lower agricultural productivity than Outer Eurasia means low population density
0.5 Major regions of Inner Eurasia
1.1 Abu-Lughod map of Afro-Eurasian trade circuits prior to 1500
1.2 The zone of ecological symbiosis
2.1 The Mongol Empire at its height in 1250
2.2 The Chagatay khanate in 1331
2.3 The Golden Horde during the reign of Khan Ozbeg (1313–1341)
6.1 Territorial expansion of Muscovy to 1598
6.2 Muscovy’s southern frontier at the end of the sixteenth century
7.1 Muscovite expansion into Ukraine
7.2 The Belgorod line in the mid-seventeenth century
8.1 Russian conquest of Siberia along riverways
8.2 Russian expansion in Bashkiria and the Kazakh steppes, eighteenth century
11.1 Russian conquest of Central Asia
11.2 Central Asia after Russian conquest
17.1 Google Earth map of Mongolia
17.2 Google Earth map of Xinjiang
18.1 Google Earth map of the Russian Federation
19.1 Google Earth map of Ukraine
19.2 Google Earth map of Belarus
19.3 Google Earth map of Kazakhstan
19.4 Google Earth map of Transoxiana
SERIES EDITOR'S PREFACE
There is nothing new in the attempt to grasp history as a whole. To understand how humanity began and how it has come to its present condition is one of the oldest and most universal of human needs, expressed in the religious and philosophical systems of every civilization. But only in the last few decades has it begun to appear both necessary and possible to meet that need by means of a rational and systematic appraisal of current historical knowledge. Until the middle of the nineteenth century history itself was generally treated as a subordinate branch of other fields of thought and learning – of literature, rhetoric, law, philosophy, or religion. When historians began at that time to establish its independence as a field of scholarship in its own right, with its own subject matter and its own rules and methods, they made it in practice not the attempt to achieve a comprehensive account of the human past, but the history of western Europe and of the societies created by European expansion and colonization. In laying the scholarly foundations of their discipline they also reinforced the Enlightenment's belief in the advance of “civilization” (and, more recently, of “western civilization”), and made it in this form, with relatively minor regional variations, the basis of the teaching of history almost everywhere for most of the twentieth century. Research and teaching of the histories of other parts of the world developed mainly in the context of area studies like those of ancient Greece and Rome, rooted in philology, and conducted through the exposition of the canonical texts of their respective languages.
While those approaches prevailed world history as such remained largely the province of thinkers and writers principally interested in constructing theoretical or metaphysical systems. Only towards the end of the twentieth century did the community of academic historians begin to recognize it as a proper and even urgent field for the application of their particular knowledge and skills. The inadequacy of the traditional parameters of the discipline is now widely acknowledged, and the sense is growing that a world facing a common future of headlong and potentially catastrophic transformation needs its common history. The realization of such a history has been delayed, however, by simple ignorance on the one hand – for the history of enormous stretches of space and time has until very recently been known not at all, or so patchily and superficially as not to be worth revisiting – and on the other by the lack of a widely acceptable basis upon which to organize and discuss what is nevertheless the enormous and enormously diverse knowledge that we have.
The first of those obstacles is now being rapidly overcome. There is almost no part of the world or period of its history that is not the object of energetic and sophisticated investigation by archaeologists and historians. The expansion of the horizons of academic history since the 1980s has been dramatic. The quality and quantity of historical research and writing have risen exponentially in each decade, and the advances have been most spectacular in some of the areas previously most neglected. The academics have not failed to share the results of their labors. Reliable and accessible, often brilliant, accounts are now readily available of regions, periods, and topics that even 20 years ago were obscure to everyone but a handful of specialists. In particular, collaborative publication, in the form of volumes or sets of volumes in which teams of authors set forth, in more or less detail, their expert and up-to-date conclusions in the field of their research, has been a natural and necessary response to the growth of knowledge. Only in that way can non-specialists, at any level, be kept even approximately in touch with the constantly accelerating accumulation of information about the past.
Yet the amelioration of one problem exacerbates the other. It is truer than it has ever been that knowledge is growing and perspectives multiplying more quickly than they can be assimilated and recorded in synthetic form. We can now describe a great many more trees in a great deal more detail than we could before. It does not always follow that we have a better view of the wood. Collaboration has many strengths, but clarity, still less originality of vision, is rarely foremost among them. History acquires shape, structure, relevance – becomes, in the fashionable catchphrase, something for thinking with – by advancing and debating new suggestions about what past societies were like, how they worked and why they changed over long periods of time, how they resembled and why they differed from other societies at other times and in other parts of the world, and how they interacted with one another. Such insights, like the sympathetic understanding without which the past is dead, are almost always born of individual creativity and imagination. That is why each volume in this series embodies the work and vision of a single author. Synthesis on such a scale demands learning, resolution, and, not least, intellectual and professional courage of no ordinary degree. We have been singularly fortunate in finding scholars of great distinction who are willing to undertake it.
There is a wealth of ways in which world history can be written. The oldest and simplest view, that it is best understood as the history of contacts between peoples previously isolated from one another, from which (as some think) all change arises, is now seen to be capable of application since the earliest times. An influential alternative focuses on the tendency of economic exchange to create self-sufficient but ever expanding “worlds” which sustain successive systems of power and culture. Another seeks to understand the differences between societies and cultures, and therefore the particular character of each, by comparing the ways in which their values, social relationships, and structures of power have developed. The rapidly developing field of ecological history returns to a very ancient tradition of seeing interaction with the physical environment, and with other animals, at the center of the human predicament, while insisting that its understanding demands an approach which is culturally, chronologically, and geographically comprehensive. More recently still “Big History,” led by a contributor to this series, has begun to show how human history can be integrated with that not only of the natural, but of the cosmic environment, and better understood in consequence.
The Blackwell History of the World seeks not to embody any single approach, but to support them all, as it will use them all, by providing a modern, comprehensive, and accessible account of the entire human past. Each volume offers a substantial overview of a portion of world history large enough to permit, and indeed demand, the reappraisal of customary boundaries of regions, periods, and topics, and in doing so reflects the idiosyncrasies of its sources and its subjects, as well as the vision and judgment of its author. The series as a whole combines the indispensable narratives of very long-term regional development with global surveys of developments across the world, and of interaction between regions and what they have experienced in common, or visited upon one another, at particular times. Together these volumes will provide a framework in which the history of every part of the world can be viewed, and a basis upon which most aspects of human activity can be compared across both time and space. A frame offers perspective. Comparison implies respect for difference. That is the beginning of what the past has to offer the future.
R. I. Moore
SERIES EDITOR'S ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The editor is grateful to all the contributors for advice and assistance on the design and contents of the series as a whole, as well as on individual volumes. Both editor and contributors wish to place on record, individually and collectively, their thanks to John Davey, formerly of Blackwell Publishing, without whose vision and enthusiasm the series could not have been initiated, and to his successor Tessa Harvey, without whose energy, skill, and diplomacy, sustained over many years, it could not have been realized.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This book has been very long in the writing, and I have accumulated many debts as I have written it. While working on it, I had positions in history departments at Macquarie University and San Diego State University, and I want to thank both departments and universities for providing friendly and collegial environments, for granting periods of sabbatical leave, and for financial support during research trips and trips to conferences. Colleagues in both universities offered innumerable suggestions, ideas, insights, and references. I also want to thank librarians at both universities for their help in finding and ordering books. I spent productive periods of research leave at the Kluge Institute of the Library of Congress, the National Humanities Center in North Carolina, the library of the School of Slavonic and Eastern European Studies and the British Library in London, the Russian State Library (former Lenin Library) in Moscow, the Widener Library at Harvard, the University of Sydney, and the Australian National University in Canberra. I also received a generous grant from the Australian Research Council in 2010; that gave me the time, travel, and resources needed to finish this huge project.
I owe too many debts to too many colleagues to list all individually, but I do want to thank some whose conversations over the years have provided unexpected and valuable insights. They include (in alphabetical order) Tom Allsen, Richard Bosworth, Terry Burke, Nick Doumanis, Ross Dunn, Sheila Fitzpatrick, Steven Fortescue, Graeme Gill, Geoffrey Hosking, Sasha Pavkovic, Daniel Waugh, Stephen Wheatcroft, and many, many others.
Bob Moore commissioned this entire project, and has kept a kindly eye on it over a much longer period than I care to remember. He has been immensely patient, supportive, and encouraging. I grew up in Nigeria, where my first, and perhaps best, teacher was my mother, Carol. Chardi, Joshua, and Emily have put up with this project, and the absences and research trips it involved, over many years, with love and generosity. I owe my family an immense debt for their love and support. I also want to thank my extremely able and conscientious research assistants, Mandy Kretzschmar and Lana Nadj, who helped with bibliographical research and ensured some consistency in the spelling of words and names in many different languages. My editors at Wiley Blackwell, Haze Humbert, Fiona Screen, and Brigitte Lee Messenger, did a superb job of ensuring stylistic consistency in a complex manuscript.
I alone am responsible for remaining errors of fact, emphasis, and logic, and for not managing to cover all of the rich scholarship on the vast territory traversed by this book.
