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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
AN INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
Explore a fascinating introductory treatment of the principles of behavior analysis written by three leading voices in the field
An Introduction to Behavior Analysis delivers an engaging and comprehensive introduction to the concepts and applications for graduate students of behavior analysis. Written from the ground up to capture and hold student interest, the book keeps its focus on practical issues.
The book offers readers sound analyses of Pavlovian and operant learning, reinforcement and punishment, motivation and stimulus control, language and rule-following, decision-making and clinical behavior analysis. With fully up to date empirical research references and theoretical content, An Introduction to Behavior Analysis thoroughly justifies every principle it describes with empirical support and explicitly points out where more data are required.
The text encourages students to analyze their own experiences and some foundational findings in the field in a way that minimizes jargon and maximizes engagement. Readers will also benefit from the inclusion of:
Perfect for students taking their first course in behavior analysis or behavior modification, An Introduction to Behavior Analysis will also earn a place in the libraries of students pursuing certification through the Behavior Analysis Certification Board or taking courses in the applied psychological sciences.
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AN INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
GREGORY J. MADDENDEREK D. REEDFLORENCE D. DIGENNARO REED
This edition first published 2021
© 2021 John Wiley & Sons Ltd
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by law. Advice on how to obtain permission to reuse material from this title is available at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
The right of Gregory J. Madden, Derek D. Reed and Florence D. DiGennaro Reed to be identified as the author(s) of this work has been asserted in accordance with law.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Madden, Gregory J. (Gregory Jude), author. | Reed, Derek D., author. | DiGennaro Reed, Florence D., author.
Title: An introduction to behavior analysis / Gregory J. Madden, Derek D. Reed, Florence D. DiGennaro Reed.
Description: Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, [2021] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020046783 (print) | LCCN 2020046784 (ebook) | ISBN 9781119126539 (hardback) | ISBN 9781119126553 (pdf) | ISBN 9781119126546 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Behavioral assessment.
Classification: LCC BF176.5 .M34 2021 (print) | LCC BF176.5 (ebook) | DDC 150.28/7--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020046783
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020046784
Cover image: © Shaunl / Getty Images
Cover design by Wiley
Set in 10/12pt Minion Pro by Integra Software Services, Pondicherry, India
Table of Contents
Cover
Title page
Copyright
Preface
Chapter 1: An Introduction to Behavior Analysis
What Is Behavior?
What Is Behavior Analysis?
The Goals of Behavior Analysis
The First Goal of Behavior Analysis
The Second Goal of Behavior Analysis
Demand More of Your Science
Reading Quiz 1
The Assumptions of Behavior Analysis
Assumption #1: Behavior is determined
Mentalistic Explanations of Behavior
I’m Not Buying It. I Determine My Own Behavior
Assumption #2: The scientific method is a valid way to reveal the determinants of behavior
Reading Quiz 2
Scientific Method
Reading Quiz 3
What Are the Determinants of Behavior?
Nature
Nurture
Behavioral Epigenetics
The Activities of Behavior Analysts
The Experimental Analysis of Behavior
Applied Behavior Analysis
Behavioral Service Delivery
Extra Box 1: Dimensions of Applied Behavior Analysis
Organizational Behavior Management
Summary
Reading Quiz 4
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions
Notes
References
Chapter 2: Understanding Behavioral Research
Variables
Correlation vs Causation
Experiments
Three Components of a Behavioral Experiment
Reading Quiz 1
Measuring Behavior
Behavioral Definitions
Observable and Objective
Refining the Behavioral Definition
Social Validity of the Behavioral Definition
Finalizing the Behavioral Definition
Interobserver Agreement (IOA)
What IOA Is Not
Reading Quiz 2
Dimensions of Behavior
Frequency
Latency
Duration
Magnitude
Four Direct-Observation Methods
Outcome Recording
When to Use Outcome Recording
Calculating IOA When Using Outcome Recording
Event Recording
When to Use Event Recording
Calculating IOA When Using Event Recording
Interval Recording
When to Use Interval Recording
Calculating IOA When Using Partial- or Whole-Interval Recording
Duration Recording
When to Use Duration Recording
Calculating IOA When Using Duration Recording
Reading Quiz 3
Summary
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions
Note
References
Chapter 3: Experimental Designs in Behavior Analysis
Group Experimental Designs
Single-Subject Experimental Designs
Internal Validity of Single-Subject Experimental Designs
Four Types of Single-Subject Experimental Designs
Comparison (A-B) Design
Reversal (A-B-A) Design
Alternating-Treatments Designs
Multiple-Baseline Designs
Defining Features of Single-Subject Designs
Three Kinds of Replication
Reading Quiz 1
Did Behavior Change?
Two Patterns of Behavior Change
What Makes a Change Convincing?
Guidelines for Conducting the Visual Analysis
What Is Responsible for the Change
Reading Quiz 2
Supplementing the Visual Analysis with Inferential Statistics
Summary
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions
Notes
References
Chapter 4: Phylogenetic Behavior and Pavlovian Learning
Phylogenetically Selected Behavior
Reflex Learning – Habituation
The “Nature and Nurture” Answer to the “Nature vs Nurture” Debate
Elicited or Evoked?
Reading Quiz 1
Pavlovian Learning
A Simple Pavlovian Conditioning Procedure
Pavlovian Conditioning of Emotions
Pavlovian Fear Conditioning
The Little Albert Experiment
What Became of Little Albert?
Fear Conditioning and Posttraumatic Stress Disorder
Reading Quiz 2
What Is Learned During Pavlovian Conditioning?
Three Things Learned During Pavlovian Conditioning
Principles of Effective Pavlovian Conditioning
Applying these principles to PTSD
Reading Quiz 3
Generalization
Pavlovian Extinction-Based Therapy
Graduated Exposure Therapy
Spontaneous Recovery
Extra Box 1: Posttraumatic Stress Disorder in Military Veterans
Reading Quiz 4
Pavlovian Conditioning in Everyday Life
Taste-Aversion Learning
Advertising
Summary
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions
Notes
References
Chapter 5: Operant Learning I: Reinforcement
Operant Behavior
Reading Quiz 1
Response–Consequence Contingencies
Learning Response–Consequence Contingencies
Noncontingent Consequences
Superstitious Behavior
Reading Quiz 2
Changing Behavior with Contingent Consequences
Extra Box 1: Noncontingent Consequences in North Korea
Reinforcers, Reinforcement, and Rewards
Reading Quiz 3
The Discovery of Reinforcement
How to Tell If a Consequence Functions as a Reinforcer
From Puzzle Boxes to Skinner Boxes
Reading Quiz 4
Response Variability: Exploring and Exploiting
Extra Box 2: Add Some Variability to Your Life
The Generic Nature of Operant Behavior
Not Every Consequence Functions as a Reinforcer
Reading Quiz 5
Reinforcement in Social Media and Video Games
Games for Good
Summary
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions and Questions Posed in Table 5.2
Notes
References
Chapter 6: Operant Learning II: Positive and Negative Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement
Positive Reinforcement in the Lab
Negative Reinforcement
Negative Reinforcement – Escape (SRE−)
Negative Reinforcement – Escape (SRE−) in the Lab
Negative Reinforcement – Avoidance (SRA−)
Negative Reinforcement – Avoidance (SRA−) in the Lab
Extra Box 1: What Is the Consequence in SRA−?
Reading Quiz 1
Positive or Negative Reinforcement: Is There Really a Difference?
Reason 1: Heuristics
Reason 2: Loss Aversion
Reason 3: Preference for Positive Reinforcement
Using Reinforcement to Positively Influence Behavior
Reinforcement in the Workplace
Three Objections to Reinforcement
Objection 1: Intrinsic Motivation
Objection 2: Performance-Inhibiting Properties of Reinforcement
Creativity
Choking Under Pressure
Objection 3: Cheating
Reading Quiz 2
Theories of Reinforcement
The Response Strengthening Theory of Reinforcement
The Information Theory of Reinforcement
Evaluating the Theories
Reading Quiz 3
Summary
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions
References
Chapter 7: Extinction and Differential Reinforcement
Operant Extinction Following Positive Reinforcement
Operant Extinction Following Negative Reinforcement (Escape Extinction)
How Quickly Will Operant Extinction Work?
Rate of Reinforcement Prior to Extinction
Motivation
Spontaneous Recovery of Operant Behavior
Reading Quiz 1
Extra Box 1: How Extinction Informs Theories of Reinforcement
Other Effects of Extinction
Extinction-Induced Emotional Behavior
Extinction Burst
Extinction-Induced Variability
Extinction-Induced Resurgence
We Tried It at Home
Reading Quiz 2
Using Extinction to Positively Influence Behavior
Functional Analysis of Behavior
Functional Analysis of Self-Injurious Behavior
Differential Reinforcement
Differential Reinforcement of Problem Behavior
How to Effectively Use Differential Reinforcement
Differentially Reinforcing Response Topography
Differentially Reinforcing Rate of Operant Behavior
Reading Quiz 3
Summary
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions
Note
References
Chapter 8: Primary and Conditioned Reinforcement and Shaping
Primary Reinforcers
Conditioned Reinforcers
Pavlovian Learning and Conditioned Reinforcers
Verbal Learning and Conditioned Reinforcers
The Token Economy
Reading Quiz 1
Arranging Effective Conditioned Reinforcers
Extra Box 1: Conditioned Reinforcers in Zoos
Clicker Training with Humans
Reading Quiz 2
Shaping
Extra Box 2: Shaping Animal Behavior on the Farm
Shaping Human Behavior
Shaping and Flow
Principles of Effective Shaping
Try It at Home: The Shaping Game
Reading Quiz 3
Automating Shaping: Percentile Schedules of Reinforcement
Summary
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions
Notes
References
Chapter 9: Motivation, Reinforcer Efficacy, and Habit Formation
Everyday Concepts of Motivation
From Motivation to Motivating Operations
Two Kinds of Motivating Operations
Examples of EOs
Examples of AOs
Motivating Operations Require Response-Reinforcer Contingency Learning
The Therapeutic Utility of Motivating Operations
Extra Box 1: The Cost of Mentalistic Reasoning
Reading Quiz 1
Identifying Effective Reinforcers: The “Liking” Strategy
Reinforcer Surveys
Stimulus Preference Assessments
Extra Box 2: Avoiding Circularity – The Premack Principle
Reading Quiz 2
Measuring Reinforcer Efficacy
Dimensions of Effective Reinforcers
Contingency
Reinforcer Size
Reinforcer Quality
Reinforcer Immediacy
Summary
Habit Formation
Habits – What Are They and How Are They Formed
Our Everyday Habits
Replacing Bad Habits with Good Ones
Reading Quiz 3
Summary
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions
Notes
References
Chapter 10: Punishment
Punishers and Punishment
Two Kinds of Punishment – Both Decrease Behavior
Positive Punishment
Negative Punishment
Reading Quiz 1
When Should We Punish?
Extra Box 1: Punishment Is the Norm – Using It Effectively Is Humane
Six Characteristics of Effective Punishment Interventions
1. Focus on Reinforcement First
2. Combine Punishment with Extinction and/or Differential Reinforcement
3. Deliver Punishers Immediately
4. Deliver Punishment Contingently
5. Punish Every Time
6. Use a Punisher in the Goldilocks Zone
Reading Quiz 2
Primary and Conditioned Punishment
Arranging Effective Conditioned Punishers
Some Commonly Used Punishers
Time-Out from Positive Reinforcement
Response-Cost Punishment
The Watchful Eye of the Punisher
The Role of Reinforcement in the Act of Punishing
Reading Quiz 3
Summary
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions
Note
References
Chapter 11: Complex Contingencies of Reinforcement
Schedules of Reinforcement
Ratio Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-Ratio Schedules
Variable-Ratio Schedules
The Behavioral Economics of Ratio Schedules
The Underappreciated VR Schedule
Reading Quiz 1
Interval Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-Interval Schedules
Variable-Interval Schedules
Putting in All Together
Reading Quiz 2
Why Study Schedules of Reinforcement?
Extra Box 1: Contingency Management
Schedule Thinning
Scheduling Reinforcers to Enhance Human Performance and Happiness
Reading Quiz 3
Summary
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions and Questions Posed in Tables 11.1–11.4
Notes
References
Chapter 12: Antecedent Stimulus Control
Phylogenetic and Pavlovian Stimulus Control
Discriminated Operant Behavior
The Discriminative Stimulus (S
D
)
The SΔ
The S
Dp
The Three-term Contingency
Reading Quiz 1
Discriminative Stimuli and Establishing Operations
Discrimination Training
Effective Methods of Discrimination Training
Using Discrimination Training to Positively Influence Behavior
Extra Box 1: Direct Instruction of Reading Skills
Generalization
Using Discrimination Training to Improve Stimulus Control
Promoting Generalization and Maintenance
Tactic 1: Teach Behaviors That Will Contact Natural Contingencies of Reinforcement
Tactic 2: Train Diversely
Tactic 3: Arrange Antecedent Stimuli That Will Cue Generalization
Reading Quiz 2
Stimulus-Response Chains
Teaching Stimulus-Response Chains
Prompting and Fading
Extra Box 2: Consciousness
Reading Quiz 3
Summary
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions
References
Chapter 13: Choice
What Is Choice?
Four Variables Affecting Choice
Reinforcement vs. No Consequence
Reinforcer Size/Quality
Effort
Reinforcer Delay
Summary
Reading Quiz 1
The Rich Uncle Joe Experiment
Choosing between Uncertain Outcomes
Herrnstein’s Matching Equation
More Uncertainty
Research Support for Herrnstein’s Equation
Reading Quiz 2
Extra Box 1: The Matching Law, Terrorism, and White Nationalism
Substitutes
Extra Box 2: What Substitutes for Drug Reinforcers?
Using the Matching Law to Positively Influence Behavior
The Matching Law and Attention
Summary
Reading Quiz 3
Impulsivity and Self-Control
Predicting Impulsive Choice
Predicting Preference Reversals
Influencing Impulsive Choice
Commitment Strategies
Delay-Exposure Training
Reading Quiz 4
Summary
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions and Questions Posed in Table 13.3
Notes
References
Chapter 14: Verbal Behavior, Rule-Following, and Clinical Behavior Analysis
Behavioral Approaches to Language
Skinner’s Functional Taxonomy of Speaker Behavior
Echoic
Mand
Tact
Intraverbal
Training Verbal Operants
Reading Quiz 1
The Behavior of the Listener
Expanding the Verbal Repertoire
Verbal Behavior and Emotions
Reading Quiz 2
Rules and Rule-Governed Behavior
Why Follow the Rules?
Pliance
Tracking
Persistently Following Incorrect Rules
Are We Hopelessly Compliant?
The Dark Side of Tracking
Reading Quiz 3
Breaking the Rules in Clinical Psychology
Extra Box 1: If Thoughts Are Important, Prepare to Suffer
The “Acceptance” in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
The “Commitment” in Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
Does ACT Work?
Further Reading
Reading Quiz 4
Summary
Answers to Reading Quiz Questions
References
Appendix
Glossary
Author Index
Subject Index
List of Illustrations
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1 A flowchart used to choose the most…
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1 A graph showing data collected in a comparison…
Figure 3.2 Three graphs showing unstable behavior.…
Figure 3.3 An example of data collected in a reversal…
Figure 3.4 An example of hypothetical data collected…
Figure 3.5 The left column of graphs provides an example…
Figure 3.6 An example of data collected in a…
Figure 3.7 An example of data collected in a…
Figure 3.8 The left column of graphs (A-C) illustrates…
Figure 3.9 Examples of convincing and unconvincing…
Figure 3.10 Changes in trend that are less convincing…
Figure 3.11 Changes in level that are less convincing…
Figure 3.12 The three steps of the visual analysis are…
Figure 3.13 The data in Figure 3.12 are regraphed here…
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1 An overview of Pavlovian conditioning.…
Figure 4.2 An overview of Pavlovian conditioning…
Figure 4.3 When the US does not quickly follow…
Figure 4.4 During Pavlovian conditioning,…
Figure 4.5 How long does it take for Pavlovian…
Figure 4.6 Diagram of Kamin’s (1969) blocking…
Figure 4.7 Generalization gradient composed…
Figure 4.8 Idealized gradients illustrating…
Figure 4.9 Conditioned responses (CRs) to…
Figure 4.10 Over the course of six extinction…
Figure 4.11 Number of conditioned responses…
Chapter 5
Figure 5.1 The number of times per day that the…
Figure 5.2 Test-session response rates of rats…
Figure 5.3 Drawing of puzzle Box A, used by…
Figure 5.4 Cat 12’s speed of escaping…
Figure 5.5 Use this flowchart to evaluate…
Figure 5.6 The average speed of four cats’…
Figure 5.7 An apparatus that B. F. Skinner…
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1 The rate at which rat A5 pressed a…
Figure 6.2 Use this flowchart to evaluate if a…
Figure 6.3 Shuttle-box similar to the one…
Figure 6.4 Speed at which the dog jumped…
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1 After a rat had earned many reinforcers,…
Figure 7.2 In the first phase of the Davenport and …
Figure 7.3 Number of bites of food consumed per ses…
Figure 7.4 Number of responses emitted in extinctio…
Figure 7.5 An individual rat’s response rate …
Figure 7.6 An individual rat deflecting a ceiling r…
Figure 7.7 A backyard example of the “other effects”…
Figure 7.8 Hypothetical data illustrating the resul…
Figure 7.9 A flowchart used when evaluating if diff…
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1 Record of events occurring during an e…
Figure 8.2 Results of an experiment conducted by …
Figure 8.3 A frequency distribution shows how fre…
Figure 8.4 The new contingency (red dashed line) …
Figure 8.5 Hypothetical step-count data collected…
Chapter 10
Figure 10.1 Use this flowchart to evaluate if …
Figure 10.2 The two kinds of reinforcement and …
Figure 10.3 The effects of a positive punishera…
Figure 10.4 The effects of a negative punishero…
Figure 10.5 The effects of delaying the deliveh…
Figure 10.6 The effects of contingent and noncr…
Figure 10.7 In the upper panel, a blue light a(…
Figure 10.8 High levels of problem behavior ins…
Figure 10.9 Three human participants were rarei…
Figure 10.10 The percentage of human participao…
Chapter 11
Figure 11.1 A continuum of contingencies.
Figure 11.2 A visual representation of an FR 3…
Figure 11.3 An illustration of how non-responding (A)…
Figure 11.4 A cumulative record of a pigeon’s…
Figure 11.5 A visual representation of a VR 3…
Figure 11.11 A cumulative record showing a…
Figure 11.12 A visual representation of a…
Figure 11.13 A cumulative record showing a…
Figure 11.14 Idealized cumulative records…
Chapter 12
Figure 12.1 Common antecedents, behaviors, and cons…
Figure 12.2 Filled circles show individual pigeon’s…
Figure 12.3 The average number of responses made by…
Figure 12.4 The generalization gradient from Figure…
Figure 12.5 The left panel shows a hypothetical gen…
Chapter 14
Figure 14.1 Parents typically teach their child…
Figure 14.2 Parents explicitly teach their chil…
Figure 14.3 The upper panel shows two symmetric…
Figure 14.4 For Annora, the sight of a dog evok…
Figure 14.5 Verbal behavior involves symmetric …
Guide
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Table of Contents
Preface
Begin Reading
Appendix
Glossary
Author Index
Subject Index
End User License Agreement
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PREFACE
Why Study Behavior Analysis
The course in which you are currently enrolled will give you substantive training in the behavior-analytic principles that underlie effective behavior-change interventions. For example, the principles covered in this course have proven effective in the treatment of autism spectrum disorders (Bellini & Akullian, 2007; Eldevik et al., 2009), intellectual disabilities (Heyvaert et al., 2012), antisocial behavior (McCart et al., 2006), adult anxiety and depression (Öst, 2008; Powers et al., 2009), and substance-use disorders (Dutra et al., 2008) to name just a few. In this class, you will learn the principles that are foundational to these successes.
Taking a more expansive view, the course will prepare you to pursue further training at one of the more than 250 universities that offer graduate degrees in behavior analysis. Should you choose to pursue this training, you would join more than 51,000 Board Certified Behavior Analysts (BCBA) who are recognized by most US states as the appropriate providers of behavior-analytic services to children and adults with disabilities. These underserved populations depend on students like you to pursue careers in the helping profession of behavior analysis.
For those not drawn to serving those with disabilities, you should know that the principles covered in this book have proven beneficial in the practice of clinical, counseling, and school psychology. For example, in 2012 the Inter-Organizational Task Force on Cognitive and Behavioral Psychology Doctoral Education outlined the most important principles that these practice-oriented psychologists must understand to be effective (Klepac et al., 2012). At least 60% of the competencies listed were behavior analytic, and many of these will be covered in this book (e.g., shaping, extinction/exposure).
Perhaps your interests lie elsewhere still. If so, you may be interested to know that the principles covered in this book have been successfully used in business settings. Indeed, some of the most effective managers are those who know how to (1) identify the behaviors of successful employees, (2) measure the occurrence and non-occurrence of those behaviors in all employees, and (3) develop behavior-management plans that encourage those successful behaviors. Managers who can do this are actually managing behavior, rather than acting like authoritarian dictators. Because behavior analysts rely on positive reinforcement in their management practices, employees tend to be happier while being more productive.
Still not interested? Well, consider that most readers of this book will one day be parents, if they are not already. Because the behavior-analytic principles covered in this book have proven so reliable in positively influencing behavior, they constitute the core of most parent-training programs; for example, the Criando con Amor, Promoviendo Armonía y Superacíon [Raising with Love, Promoting Harmony & Improvement] program (Baumann et al., 2014). So, if you hope to be a loving parent who helps their children to successfully navigate their world, you would do well to learn all you can from this book. Your children will never thank you for it, but you will thank yourself one day, particularly when you see other parents struggling to understand the behavior of their children.
If you are still not interested in the contents of this book, we have only one more plea – consider the words of Socrates who said, “The unexamined life is not worth living.” Socrates was encouraging those of his age to use logic, wisdom, and philosophy in pursuit of self-knowledge, better relationships, and a harmonious existence with the natural world. These goals are timeless and universal. This book can open doors of self-discovery. So, use what you are about to learn to examine your life, your actions, your goals, your values. The examined life is even more worth living.
How to Use the Features of This Book
This book is designed to help students identify the important information they should know after taking this class. When important terms are first presented, they appear in bold. When you identify one of these terms you should take the following steps:
Write the term on one side of a 3 × 5 inch flashcard. For example, in
Chapter 1
, the first term defined is “behavior.”
The definition of the term will always be provided nearby in
italics
. Once you have found the definition, write it on the back of the flashcard. For example,
Chapter 1
defines behavior as
an individual living organism’s activity, public or private, which may be influenced by external or internal stimulation
.
Sometimes the book will pose a question (e.g., what is behavior analysis?). When you identify one of these, write it on a flashcard and then, as you read on, write the answer to this question on the other side of the card.
Keep your flashcards with you throughout the day.
Effective Studying
Most college students think reading and rereading the textbook and their lecture notes is a good way to study (Karpicke et al., 2009). It isn’t. This method of studying does little to help you remember the materials when you are taking a test or, more importantly, you are trying to apply the concepts in your everyday life. For example, in a study conducted by Roediger and Karpicke (2006), one group of students was asked to study by reading the materials four times (that’s probably more than you normally study). Although the students thought this would be effective, when they were tested a week later they could recall only about 40% of the materials – that’s a failing grade.
A better way to study is called “repeated retrieval,” but most college students don’t use it (Karpicke et al., 2009). Repeated retrieval involves reading the information that you are studying and then, without peeking, saying everything you can remember (you can say it out loud or to yourself, both work equally well; Smith et al., 2013). Want to try it right now? If so, without looking, say, write, or think the definition of behavior that was given in the previous section.
If you could not recall all of the important components of the definition, that’s not a problem. Compare what you could recall with the definition provided above and then (without peeking) try again. When Karpicke and Roediger (2010) asked students to repeat this read-and-retrieve process three times, the students remembered about 80% of the materials one week later. That’s twice as much as the students who read the book four times.
Repeated Retrieval Made Easy
The following steps outline a practical way to use repeated retrieval to improve the efficiency and efficacy of your studying (Karpicke et al., 2014):
Make the flashcards discussed previously.
At least twice a day, go through your flashcards:
Look at the term and say out loud (or to yourself) as much of what’s on the back of the card as you can.
Turn the card over and see which parts you missed. If you were not 100% correct, try it one more time before moving on to the next card.
If you do this a couple times a day, most every day, you will study less and learn more than ever before.
An Added Benefit
Students who use repeated retrieval, by studying their flashcards 3-4 times a day, don’t cram the night before an exam. They sleep anxiety-free. They also have a stack of flashcards to help them study for any comprehensive exams taken later in the semester. So, what are you waiting for? Get some flash cards and start earning better grades. Flash cards too old-school for you? There are several flash card apps you can use on your phone.
The Behavior Analysis Task List
Some readers of this book will be interested in earning the credential of BCBA. This credential is granted by the Behavior Analysis Certification Board (BACB) and it is the gold-standard credential of practicing and applied behavior analysts. The BACB’s Fifth Edition Task List outlines the Foundational principles and concepts that students must master before beginning an internship as a behavior analyst and before earning the BCBA credential. The Appendix of this textbook provides the BACB’s list of Foundations and indicates the chapter in which each topic is discussed.
Animal Research
As your read this textbook, you will find that many of the foundational principles of behavior analysis were discovered in research conducted with nonhuman animals. It is hard to overstate the importance of this research. What we know today about attention, perception, learning, and decision-making were first discovered by studying the behavior of nonhumans. Current research with nonhuman animals continues to expand our understanding of behavior in important ways. For example, these research findings have proven important in understanding similarities and differences in the behavior of different species. Understanding the unique behavioral abilities of each species is important in guiding conservation efforts around the world (Higham, 2016; O’Brien & Robeck, 2010; Swaisgood et al., 2003; Zimbler-DeLorenzo & Stone, 2011).
Importantly, the findings of research conducted with nonhuman animals have improved the efficacy of the work done by psychologists and behavior analysts tasked with improving the lives of individuals with disabilities, addictions, phobias, anxiety, depression, and so on (Carroll & Overmier, 2001; Madden et al., 2016). For these reasons, the American Psychological Association and the Association for Behavior Analysis International strongly support research and teaching with nonhuman animals. Therefore, this book will draw heavily on research findings from the nonhuman laboratory.
Trigger Warning
This book discusses many different categories of human behavior. Behavior analysts and psychologists are asked to help people who suffer from a myriad of difficulties. This includes anxiety, depression, and posttraumatic stress disorder. So that students will have the opportunity to see the utility of behavior analysis in the treatment of these disorders; this book will discuss them. Examples will be provided. If you believe an unexpected encounter with descriptions or visual depictions of these disorders would be unnecessarily stressful for you, we recommend that you share your concerns with your instructor. They will take care to let you know in advance where these sensitive topics are discussed in the book and in lectures.
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1 An Introduction to Behavior Analysis
What Is Behavior?
The primary subject matter of this book is behavior. Thus, it is important to begin by defining that term. In this book, behavior is defined as an individual living organism’s activity, public or private, which may be influenced by external or internal stimulation.
A fish watches the current, looking for edible materials. When something tasty floats by, the fish strikes. This strike is a response – a single instance of behavior.
Source: David A Birkbeck / E+ / Getty Images
Source: Mimagephotography/Shutterstock.com
You think about your future and consider what kind of job will make you happy, while simultaneously allowing you to pay the rent on time. Having a thought is also a response – a single instance of a different kind of behavior.
Let’s dissect the definition of behavior provided in italics above. The first word indicates behavior is something individuals do – the fish that strikes a bug does so as an individual. Likewise, when you think about your job prospects, you think your own thoughts, as an individual. Behavior is something individuals do.
Focusing on individual behavior is consistent with the goals of those who seek the expertise of a psychologist, counselor, or behavior analyst. The individual experiencing depression, the parent of a child diagnosed with autism, the manager of an underperforming employee, they all want the behavior of an individual – self, child, and employee, respectively – to change in an adaptive direction, that is, a reduction in depression, an increase in social interactions, and an increase in productivity. If you were depressed, you would not be satisfied with the services of your therapist if they said, “Sorry you aren’t doing any better, but 4 of my other 10 patients are getting better.” While that is great for them, this helps you in no way. Your depression is experienced as an individual, and an effective therapist who treats individuals will seek to understand your behavior and the factors that can effectively reduce your depression. This requires a focus on the behavior of the individual – you.
The second component of our definition of behavior is that it is something that individual living organisms do. Applying an electric current to a dead fish will produce reflexive movement, but it will not produce a fish that strikes when its next meal floats downstream. Likewise, if you were dead, no amount of electrical stimulation to precise brain regions would revitalize your ability to contemplate a future career path. Moreover, while we acknowledge that advancements in the field of artificial intelligence and robotics have created robots that learn and behave in ways remarkably similar to animals, we will restrict our definition of behavior to the actions of biological organisms.
The next part of the definition – public or private – simply means that some behavior is public (everyone can observe it happening) and some behavior is private (you are the only person who can observe it). The bug-striking behavior of our fish is public – it can be observed by the fish, other nearby fish, and by anyone who takes the time to set up an underwater camera to watch the fish strike its prey.
Source: Hero Images/Getty Images
By contrast, thinking about your career is a private behavior. Only you can observe the entirety of your thoughts as you think them. If you did your career contemplation while lying in a functional magnetic resonance imaging device, we could observe the areas of your brain that are active as you are thinking, but it gives us no access to the content of your thinking. Hence, this behavior remains private.
The final component of the definition – which may be influenced by external or internal stimulation – means behavior can be affected (changed) by stimulus events (things you see, hear, smell, taste, or feel) and these stimulus events can occur outside or inside your body. For example, the bug floating toward the fish is an external visual stimulus – the bug is outside the fish’s body and when the fish sees it the visual stimulus increases the probability of a striking action. Without the visual stimulus, the probability of striking is very low. Likewise, the internal stimulation of hunger increases the probability of searching for food and striking a bug when one is encountered.
Just like the fish, your own private behavior – contemplating career choices – is influenced by external and internal stimulation. If your biology instructor is charismatic and speaks convincingly of the joys of being a professor (external stimuli), the probability of contemplating this career path is increased. Simultaneously, a number of internal stimuli can increase (e.g., caffeine’s stimulating effects) or decrease (e.g., a headache) the probability of a career contemplation session.
What Is Behavior Analysis?
Behavior analysis may be defined by its goals, its assumptions, and its major activities. We discuss each of these in the sections that follow. But before you read on, you should read the “How to Use the Features of This Book” section of this book’s Preface. There you will find important advice about how to read this book and how to study so that you can maximize your learning, enhance your ability to use what you learn to improve your life (and the lives of those around you), and to earn a better grade in this class. The advice comes from scientific studies identifying effective ways to study. Interestingly, these studies find very few students use these techniques, opting instead for study methods that are much less effective (e.g., highlighting your textbook and rereading it the night before the exam). You will find the advice provided in the Preface useful not only for this class, but for all of your classes. So, take a few moments to read the “How to Study” section now.
The Goals of Behavior Analysis
The broad goal of any science is to understand the phenomena being studied. Entomologists want to understand insects. Astronomers want to understand the universe. Similarly, behavior analysts seek to understand the behavior of individuals. Whether it’s you, me, your pet, or a mountain lion, behavior analysts are interested in the behavior of individual organisms.
There are many different approaches to understanding. Behavior analysts take a pragmatic approach. They want to improve the human condition (and that of the nonhuman animals with whom we share the planet) and this is reflected in the two goals of behavior analysis.
THE FIRST GOAL OF BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
The first goal of behavior analysisis to accurately predict behavior. To understand why behavior analysts want to predict behavior, ask yourself, which would you prefer: a bus that arrives at a predictable time or a bus that arrives at an unpredictable time? The predictable bus arrives at the hour and the half-hour; it is never late. The unpredictable bus arrives at no particular time, but it arrives at the bus stop twice per hour. So, which bus would you prefer? The answer is obvious. We would all prefer the predictable bus.
Source: Wangkun Jia/Shutterstock.com
Let’s make obvious why we prefer the predictable bus. If the bus always arrives on time, then we can plan for its arrival. We can enjoy our conversation with friends a little longer, study a little longer, or finish a meal at a casual pace before we leave to catch the bus. By contrast, if the bus is unpredictable then our behavior will be less efficient as we must spend more time doing what we don’t want to do (sitting at the bus stop) and less time doing what we want to do (eating and talking with friends). We prefer the predictable bus because predictability allows adaptive behavior.
It’s not just buses. We also like to predict the weather and we check our weather apps regularly. Why – because predictability allows adaptive behavior. If we know it’s going to rain, we can wear a raincoat or grab an umbrella. If we know it’s going to be sunny, we can leave both of these at home and save the hassle of carrying them.
Of course, behavior analysts are interested in predicting the behavior of individuals, not of buses or the weather. What is the utility in predicting the behavior of individuals? To answer this question, consider your roommate who predictably joins you for breakfast at 8:30 each weekday morning. The utility in accurately predicting when your roommate will arrive, is that it allows adaptive behavior – you can make extra coffee, clear a spot at the table, and leave out the box of cereal. Your roommate appreciates this, and these actions increase the probability that your roommate will be nice to you at a later time.
If your roommate’s behavior suddenly became unpredictable, sometimes getting up at 3 am, other times at 11 am; your acts of kindness would no longer be adaptive – the coffee would go to waste, the spot cleared would not be used, and the cereal box would go unopened.
Predicting behavior is important to all of us because it allows adaptive behavior. Have you ever noticed that when you meet someone new (e.g., a new coworker) you ask a lot of questions: What is your name? Where are you from? Are you in school? Which school? What’s your major? Do you work? How many brothers and sisters do you have?
We all do this. Why? Because it allows adaptive behavior. If you learn, for example, that your new coworker likes street tacos, then you can behave adaptively at lunch time by saying “Hey, want to go to the taco truck for lunch?” There is no guarantee that the answer will be “yes,” but the probability is higher than if you had said “Hey, want to go to the vegan restaurant for lunch?”
All of us try to accurately predict long-term patterns of behavior in those around us. We refer to this as a “reputation”. If Chauncey has a reputation as a liar, we will not believe it when he tells us that his start-up company is a great investment. If Winter has a reputation for generosity, we will ask her for a ride to work when our car will not start. We keep track of the behavior of others and we use this information adaptively. If we did not track the reputations of others, we would invest in worthless ventures, walk to work, and would, ourselves, get a reputation for being naïve.
Although it is useful to accurately predict behavior, some have argued that it is either impossible or ill-advised to do so. For example, the famous Russian author Fyodor Dostoyevsky commented on the unpredictability of behavior in this way,
If you say one can also calculate all this according to a table, this chaos and darkness, these curses, so that the mere possibility of calculating it all in advance would stop everything and that reason alone would prevail – in that case man would go insane deliberately in order not to have reason, but to have his own way!1
The ironic thing, of course, is that in arguing against a behavioral science, he made a prediction about behavior – the individual would deliberately go insane.
Source: Fine Art Images/AGE Fotostock
The extent to which we can accurately predict human behavior is a topic that we will return to throughout this textbook. For now, it is enough to remind you that the first goal of behavior analysis is to predict behavior and the reason that predicting behavior is important is that it allows adaptive behavior. Table 1.1 shows some predictions about behavior, adaptive behaviors that can occur if the prediction is correct, and the beneficial outcome of this adaptive behavior.
Table 1.1 Predicting behavior is useful.
Prediction about behavior
Adaptive behavior
Beneficial outcome
I will snooze my alarm clock three times tomorrow morning
Set the alarm to go off 45 minutes before I need to get out of bed
Arrive at my appointment on time
Within the next 6 months, I will drop my phone and crack the screen
Buy insurance
Save money when I need a new screen
My roommate will eat my favorite leftovers
Hide the leftovers behind something my roommate dislikes
Leftovers are there when I want them
My boss will be grumpy during the dinner rush
Avoid talking to my boss during the dinner rush
Avoid getting yelled at
* This table shows some predictions about behavior, the adaptive behavior that the prediction allows, and then the beneficial outcome expected because the adaptive behavior occurred.
THE SECOND GOAL OF BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
The ability to accurately predict behavior is great, and in some sciences, prediction is all you can do. For example, astrophysicists can precisely predict where Mars will be two years from now, but they cannot practically influence the trajectory of the planet. Within a science of behavior, we seek to do more than just predict behavior; we want to influence it. Stated more formally, the second goal of behavior analysisis to discover functional variables that may be used to positively influence behavior. A functional variable is a variable that, when changed, reliably and systematically influences behavior.
Throughout this book we will discuss how behavior analysts have discovered functional variables. For now, let’s focus on what we mean when we say our goal is to positively influence behavior. We mean that the behavior analyst is able to change behavior. Where we predict that a maladaptive behavior will occur (e.g., drunk driving), the behavior analyst can use existing knowledge of functional variables to do something that decreases the probability of this behavior and increases the likelihood that the individual will choose to do something else – something more adaptive (e.g., call an UberTM when intoxicated).
There are many ways to positively influence the behavior of individuals, and this textbook provides an introduction to these techniques. By carefully studying these techniques, you will acquire insights into how you can improve lives by positively influencing behavior.
DEMAND MORE OF YOUR SCIENCE
We encourage readers to embrace the twin goals of behavior analysis and apply them to all sciences. These goals are practical, useful, and, if realized, will improve our own lives and those of others (Baer et al., 1968). As you evaluate the progress of any science, it is worth asking, does this science make accurate predictions? If not, that is a problem. If astrophysicists cannot predict exactly where Jupiter will be on a specific date four years from today, then they cannot send a probe to the planet to study its atmosphere. That is a problem.
Likewise, it is worth asking if the social and behavioral sciences have identified functional variables that may be used to positively influence behavior. The more functional variables the science has identified, the more it allows us to improve the human condition. Again, by changing those variables (something that behavioral scientists call “therapy” or an “intervention”) we change people’s behavior and improve their lives. So, whatever social/behavioral science you study, it is worth asking: Can this science accurately predict and positively influence behavior and, in so doing, prove beneficial to society at large?
Reading Quiz 1
Each chapter in this book will include a few reading quizzes embedded within the text. If you can answer all of these questions correctly, then you will know that you are understanding this book. The answers to these quiz questions are provided at the end of the chapter.
Behavior is something that ____________ living organisms do.
_____________ is defined as an individual living organism’s activity, public or _____________, which may be influenced by external or __________ stimulation.
A _____________ is something you see, hear, smell, taste, or feel. These events can occur outside or inside your body.
Stimuli is the plural of _____________.
One stimulus, two _____________.
Buying a car is an instance of ____________ (public/private) behavior.
Changing your clothes is an instance of _____________ (public/private) behavior.
Thinking that you should not have bought that car because now you don’t have enough money for new clothes is an instance of _____________(public/private) behavior.
The first goal of behavior analysis is to ___________ ___________ behavior.
The second goal of behavior analysis is to discover ______________ variables that may be used to ___________ ___________ behavior.
Accurately predicting behavior is important because it allows ______________ behavior.
The Assumptions of Behavior Analysis
Recalling from above that behavior analysis may be defined by its goals, its assumptions, and its major activities, we now turn to two assumptions that guide behavior analysis.
Assumption #1: Behavior is determined
Behavior analysts assume that behavior is determined.2What does it mean to say, “behavior is determined?” It means that behavior has a cause, or multiple causes. This is an appropriate assumption for scientists who study behavior. If they assume that behavior is caused by knowable variables, then behavioral scientists will set out to discover those functional variables. If one assumes that behavior is not determined (i.e., behavior occurs without a cause), then one would not bother trying to discover functional variables that are assumed not to exist.
Here is a quick note about the distinction between functional variables and causes. Behavioral scientists are reluctant to discuss “causes” because it implies that we know everything there is to know about behavior, and that clearly is not the case. In recognition of this incomplete knowledge, we talk about “functional variables.” When a functional variable is changed, we can be confident that it will influence behavior. However, to suggest that the functional variable “caused” the behavior change is more than the evidence supports. Perhaps, for example, the functional variable plays no causal role, but is merely correlated with behavior change. We will have more to say about correlations, functional variables, and behavior change in Chapters 2 and 3. For now, we return to the assumption that behavior is determined.
For most members of Western cultures, this assumption of determinism is difficult to accept because we have been taught that some, if not all, of our behavior is self-determined and free from external causal variables. For example, most westerners embrace the concept of free will. However, a careful consideration of this issue leads us to reject the idea that behavior is self-determined.
Source: rudall30/Getty Images
Consider your behavior right now. If we accept the concept of free will, then your current behavior (reading this book) is not influenced by any causal variables. If that were true, then it would not be influenced by biological variables; for example, that you have a brain capable of decoding the symbols on this page into meaningful sentences. It would not be influenced by experiences from long ago, such as learning to speak your native language or learning to read through systematic instruction provided by teachers and parents. It would not be influenced by experiences a few months ago; for example, a friend that you trust recommended that you take this class. And your behavior would not be influenced by recent experiences; for example, the instructor assigned this chapter and said that some materials from the book will appear in upcoming exams. Behavior analysis holds that this complex of causal biological and experiential variables combines to determine your behavior.
MENTALISTIC EXPLANATIONS OF BEHAVIOR
When we learn how biological and environmental events combine to influence behavior (like your reading this textbook right now), it makes sense to us. More importantly, understanding how biological and environmental events can change behavior enhances our ability to accurately predict and positively influence behavior. But this scientific way of thinking stands in contrast to how most of us explain why we, or those around us, do the things we do. Consider these examples of everyday explanations of behavior:
“I ate a sweet potato because I decided I needed more potassium.”
“I went to a movie because I felt like laughing.”
“I hit him because I was angry.”
