Erhalten Sie Zugang zu diesem und mehr als 300000 Büchern ab EUR 5,99 monatlich.
- Herausgeber: Science & Technology Publishing
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Anatomy and Embalming: A Treatise on the Science and Art of Embalming, the Latest and Most Successful Methods of Treatment and the General Anatomy Relating to this Subject is a comprehensive and authoritative guide that delves into the intricate world of embalming and human anatomy. Written for both students and practitioners, this classic work offers a detailed exploration of the scientific principles and practical techniques that underpin the art of preserving the human body after death. The book begins with a thorough overview of human anatomy, providing clear explanations of the structures and systems most relevant to the embalmer’s work. It then transitions into an in-depth discussion of the history and evolution of embalming, tracing its origins from ancient civilizations to the most modern and effective methods of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The treatise covers every aspect of the embalming process, from the selection and preparation of chemicals to the step-by-step procedures for arterial and cavity embalming. It addresses the challenges posed by various causes of death, decomposition, and pathological conditions, offering practical solutions and advice for achieving the best possible results. Special attention is given to the importance of sanitation, the prevention of infection, and the ethical responsibilities of those entrusted with the care of the deceased. Richly illustrated and meticulously detailed, Anatomy and Embalming serves as both a textbook and a reference manual, making it an invaluable resource for funeral directors, morticians, medical students, and anyone interested in the science of preservation. The book’s clear language, logical organization, and wealth of practical information ensure that readers gain a deep understanding of both the theoretical and hands-on aspects of embalming. Whether used for study or professional reference, this treatise remains a foundational text in the field, reflecting the knowledge and standards of its era while providing timeless insights into the respectful care of the human body.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 407
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
Das E-Book (TTS) können Sie hören im Abo „Legimi Premium” in Legimi-Apps auf:
Ähnliche
ANATOMY AND EMBALMING
ANATOMY AND EMBALMING
A Treatise on the Science and Art of Embalming, the Latest and Most Successful Methods of Treatment and the General Anatomy Relating to This Subject.
BY
ALBERT JOHN NUNNAMAKER, A. B. AND CHARLES O. DHONAU
PROFESSORS OF ANATOMY AND SANITARY SCIENCE AT THE CINCINNATI COLLEGE OF EMBALMING, CINCINNATI, OHIO.
Illustrated
Cincinnati, Ohio. THE EMBALMING BOOK COMPANY.1913
Copyright, 1913, by
THE EMBALMING BOOK COMPANY.
Dedicated to Those Who Are Advancing The Standards of the Profession
ANATOMY AND EMBALMING
PREFACE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
PART I. HISTORY OF EMBALMING
CHAPTER I. HISTORY OF EMBALMING.
Guanch Embalming.
Egyptian Embalming.
CHAPTER II. EMBALMING FROM EGYPTIANS DOWN TO CIVIL WAR.
Jews.
Persians.
Babylonians.
Scythians.
Ethiopians.
Romans.
Greeks.
Norsemen.
Hindoos.
French and Belgians.
Britains.
Peruvians.
Aztecs.
North American Indians.
Early Christians.
Later European Embalming.
CHAPTER III. EMBALMING IN AMERICA AFTER THE CIVIL WAR.
PART II. ANATOMY
CHAPTER IV. HISTOLOGY.
Definition.
A Cell.
Tissues.
The Skin.
The Nails.
The Hair.
The Fascia.
The Lymphatics.
Glands.
Cartilage.
Bones.
Teeth.
Nerves.
Muscles.
Tendons.
Aponeuroses.
Ligaments.
Fat.
Mucous Membranes.
Serous Membranes.
Synovial Membranes.
Arteries.
Veins.
Blood.
CHAPTER V. OSTEOLOGY.
Definition.
The Skeleton.
The Vertebral or Spinal Column. (The Spine).
The Skull.
The Bones of the Cranium.
The Bones of the Face.
The Hyoid Bone.
The Bones of the Thorax.
The Bones of the Upper Extremities.
The Bones of the Lower Extremities.
CHAPTER VI. ORGANOLOGY.
The Cavities.
The Cerebro-Spinal Cavity.
CHAPTER VII. ORGANOLOGY.—Continued.
The Thoracic Cavity.
Larynx.
The Trachea.
The Pleurae.
The Lungs.
The Mediastinum.
The Pericardium (Heart Sac).
The Heart.
The Alimentary Canal.
The Mouth.
The Teeth.
The Palate.
The Salivary Glands.
The Pharynx.
The Esophagus.
The Diaphragm.
CHAPTER VIII. ORGANOLOGY.—Continued.
The Abdomen.
The Stomach.
The Small Intestines.
Duodenum.
Jejunum.
Ileum.
The Large Intestines.
Caecum.
The Colon.
The Rectum.
Liver.
The Gall Bladder.
The Pancreas.
The Spleen.
The Kidneys.
The Ureters.
The Suprarenal Capsules.
The Pelvic Cavity.
The Bladder.
The Uterus.
Prostate.
The Peritoneum.
CHAPTER IX. THE VASCULAR SYSTEM.
The Vascular System.
The Blood Vascular System.
The Systemic Circulation.
The Arterial System.
The Capillary Circulation.
The Venous System.
The Pulmonary Circulation.
The Coronary Circulation.
The Portal Circulation.
The Foetal Circulation.
The Collateral Circulation.
The Lymphatic Circulation.
PART III. EMBALMING
CHAPTER X. MODES, SIGNS AND TESTS OF DEATH.
Modes of Death.
Signs of Impending Death.
Tests of Actual Death.
Later and More Positive Signs.
CHAPTER XI. PREMATURE BURIAL.
Premature Burial.
CHAPTER XII. THE CHANGES IN THE BODY AFTER DEATH.
Cooling of the Body.
Cadaveric Lividity.
Putrefactive Changes.
Skin Slip.
Rigor Mortis.
Fermentation and the Production of Gas.
Spirituous Fermentation.
Digestive Fermentation.
Metabolic Fermentation.
Putrefactive Fermentation.
Abdominal Fermentation.
Gastric Fermentation.
Intestinal Fermentation.
CHAPTER XIII. DISCOLORATIONS.
Discolorations.
Discolorations Occurring before Death.
Yellow Jaundice.
Pigmentary Atrophy.
Cancerous Spots.
Gangrene.
Ecchymosis, or Antemortem Staining.
Wounds.
Fractures.
Scars and Tattoo Marks.
CHAPTER XIV. DISCOLORATIONS.—Continued.
Discolorations Occurring After death.
Desiccation.
Greenish Tinge of Putrefaction.
Chemical Action.
Postmortem Discoloration.
Postmortem Staining.
Capillary or Venous Congestion.
CHAPTER XV. ARTERIAL EMBALMING.
Making the First Call.
The Position of the Body on the Embalming Board.
Selection of an Artery.
How to Raise an Artery.
How to tell an Artery from a Vein or a Nerve.
How to Cut an Artery for Injection.
The Injection of Fluid.
Approved Disinfectants.
Embalming Fluids.
Wrapping a Body in Cotton.
[3]The Charge of Embalming.
CHAPTER XVI. THE ANATOMICAL AND LINEAR GUIDES FOR SPECIAL ARTERIES.
How to Locate and Inject the Carotid Artery.
How to Locate and Inject the Axillary Artery.
How to Locate, Raise, and Inject the Brachial Artery.
How to Locate, Raise and Inject the Radial Artery.
How to Locate, Raise and Inject the Ulnar Artery.
How to Locate, Raise and Inject the Femoral Artery.
CHAPTER XVII. CAVITY EMBALMING.
Cavity Embalming.
The Cerebral Cavity.
Purging.
The Thoracic or Chest Cavity.
Abdominal Cavity.
The Direct Incision.
Embalming of the Subcutaneous Tissue.
Plugging Orifices of the Body.
Removal of Urine.
CHAPTER XVIII. THE REMOVAL OF BLOOD.
The Removal of Blood.
Removal of Blood from the Right Auricle of the Heart. Direct Method.
Removal of Blood from the Right Ventricle of the Heart. Direct Method.
Removal of Blood from the Right Auricle of the Heart. Indirect Method.
Removal of Blood by the Use of the Femoral Vein.
Removal of Blood from the Axillary Vein.
Removal of Blood from the Basilic Vein.
The Removal of Blood from the Internal Jugular Vein.
PART IV. TREATMENTS
CHAPTER XIX. TREATMENT OF SPECIAL DISEASES.
Anthrax.
Cerebro-spinal Fever.
Erysipelas.
Glanders.
Hydrophobia.
Relapsing Fever.
Syphilis.
Tetanus.
Actinomycosis.
Dengue.
Malarial Fever.
Yellow Fever.
Diphtheria.
Tuberculosis.
Typhoid Fever.
Leprosy.
Influenza.
Cholera.
Bubonic Plague.
Scarlet Fever.
Variola.
Measles.
Parotitis.
Pertussis.
Typhus Fever.
Varicella.
Septicemia.
Pyemia.
CHAPTER XX. TREATMENT OF SPECIAL DISEASES.—Continued. DISEASES OF THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM.
Gangrene of the Lung.
Pulmonary Hemorrhage.
Pulmonary Abscess.
Pneumonia.
Hydrothorax.
CHAPTER XXI. TREATMENT OF SPECIAL DISEASES.—Continued. DISEASES OF THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.
Pericarditis.
Hydropericardium.
Hemopericardium.
Pneumo-Pericardium.
Endocarditis.
Aortic Incompetency.
Aortic Stenosis.
Mitral Incompetency.
Mitral Stenosis.
Tricuspid Incompetency.
Tricuspid Stenosis.
Pulmonary Incompetency.
Pulmonary Stenosis.
Cardiac Thrombosis.
Hypertrophy of the Heart.
Cardiac Dilatation.
Cardiac Atrophy.
Arterio-Sclerosis.
Fatty Degeneration of the Arteries.
Aneurism.
CHAPTER XXII. TREATMENT OF SPECIAL DISEASES.—Continued. DISEASES OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM.
Jaundice.
Catarrhal Jaundice.
Infantile Jaundice.
Malignant Jaundice.
Cirrhosis of the Liver.
Carcinoma of the Liver.
Appendicitis.
Peritonitis.
Dropsy.
Ascites.
Anasarca.
CHAPTER XXIII. TREATMENT OF ACCIDENT CASES.
Specific Treatment of Accidents.
Body Severed.
The Arm Severed.
The Leg Severed.
The Head Severed.
The Head Crushed.
The Foot Crushed.
The Chest Crushed.
Gun-shot in the Abdomen.
Burns and Scalds.
CHAPTER XXIV. TREATMENT OF POSTED CASES.
Cranial Evisceration.
Thoracic Autopsy.
Abdominal Post.
Posted Cases.
CHAPTER XXV. TREATMENT OF MISCELLANEOUS CASES.
Alcoholism.
Morphinism.
Plumbism.
Arsenicism.
Mercurialism.
Heat-Stroke.
Obesity.
Elephantiasis.
Drowned Cases.
Floater.
Mother and Unborn Child.
Senility.
Gangrene.
FOOTNOTES:
INDEX
[v]
[vi]
[vii]
[ix]
[x]
[xi]
[xii]
[xiii]
[xiv]
[xv]
[xvi]
[xvii]
[xviii]
[1]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
[31]
[33]
[34]
[35]
[36]
[37]
[38]
[39]
[40]
[41]
[42]
[43]
[44]
[45]
[47]
[48]
[49]
[50]
[51]
[52]
[53]
[54]
[55]
[56]
[57]
[58]
[59]
[60]
[61]
[62]
[63]
[64]
[65]
[66]
[68]
[69]
[70]
[71]
[72]
[73]
[74]
[75]
[76]
[77]
[78]
[79]
[80]
[81]
[82]
[83]
[84]
[85]
[86]
[87]
[88]
[89]
[90]
[91]
[92]
[93]
[94]
[95]
[96]
[97]
[98]
[99]
[100]
[101]
[102]
[103]
[104]
[105]
[106]
[107]
[108]
[109]
[110]
[111]
[112]
[113]
[114]
[115]
[116]
[117]
[118]
[119]
[120]
[121]
[122]
[123]
[124]
[125]
[126]
[127]
[128]
[129]
[131]
[132]
[133]
[134]
[135]
[136]
[137]
[138]
[139]
[141]
[142]
[144]
[145]
[146]
[147]
[148]
[149]
[150]
[151]
[153]
[154]
[155]
[156]
[157]
[158]
[159]
[160]
[161]
[162]
[163]
[164]
[165]
[166]
[167]
[168]
[169]
[170]
[171]
[172]
[173]
[174]
[175]
[176]
[177]
[178]
[179]
[180]
[181]
[182]
[183]
[184]
[185]
[186]
[187]
[188]
[189]
[190]
[191]
[192]
[193]
[194]
[195]
[196]
[197]
[198]
[199]
[200]
[201]
[202]
[203]
[204]
[205]
[206]
[207]
[208]
[209]
[210]
[211]
[212]
[213]
[214]
[215]
[216]
[217]
[218]
[219]
[220]
[221]
[222]
[223]
[224]
[225]
[226]
[227]
[228]
[229]
[230]
[231]
[232]
[233]
[234]
[235]
[236]
[237]
[238]
[239]
[240]
[241]
[242]
[243]
[244]
[245]
[246]
[247]
[248]
[249]
[250]
[251]
[252]
[253]
[254]
[255]
[256]
[257]
[258]
[259]
[260]
[261]
[262]
[263]
[264]
[265]
[266]
[267]
[268]
[269]
[270]
[271]
[272]
[273]
[274]
[275]
[276]
[277]
[278]
[279]
[280]
[281]
[283]
[285]
[286]
[288]
[289]
[291]
[292]
[293]
[294]
[295]
[296]
[297]
[298]
[299]
[300]
[301]
[302]
[303]
[304]
[305]
[306]
[307]
[308]
[309]
[311]
[312]
[313]
[314]
[315]
[316]
[317]
[318]
[319]
[320]
[321]
[322]
[323]
[324]
[325]
[326]
[327]
[328]
[329]
[330]
[331]
[332]
[333]
[334]
[335]
[336]
[337]
[338]
[339]
[340]
[341]
[342]
[343]
[344]
[345]
[346]
[347]
[348]
[349]
[351]
[352]
[353]
[354]
[355]
[356]
[357]
[358]
[359]
[360]
[361]
[362]
[363]
[364]
[365]
[366]
[367]
PREFACE
This book is the result of many years of contact with embalmers in training and in practice. We have included in this work a crystallization of essential information without which, the embalmer must be poorly equipped to carry out the many duties incident to his calling in a manner satisfactory to his patrons and to himself.
Having been thrown in contact with the many problems surrounding the education of the embalmer, the authors have gained many ideas as to just how to place the information before the embalmer so that the result will be reflected in an increased capacity for good work on the part of the individual embalmer.
In prescribing information for the embalmer in this manner, we know clearly just what is to be expected from the application of the sciences herein described, and wish for the novitiate and practitioner the same enthusiasm for actual knowledge that has helped us thus far in arranging the information.
In Part One, we have chronicled, from the word of historians and men of the present day, a condensed, yet complete exposition of the funeral customs relating to the care of the dead, giving our readers a better understanding of present methods by reason of an opportunity to compare them with those of the past.
In Part Two, we have placed the ground work or foundation for the securing of the proper education in embalming. The work on Anatomy, which, if mastered by the student or practitioner, is by far the greatest lever in helping him to master his lifework.
In Part Three, we have placed the practical application of the principles of modern embalming, tempered by the use of the sciences of pathology, bacteriology, and chemistry in our own application of the work and in its transcription to these pages.
In formulating the technical part of the work, we have been greatly assisted by many authorities among whom are:—Green, Howell, Thomas, Piersol, Gray, Spalteholz, Myers, Barnes, Renouard, Clarke, and those authors who have from time to time contributed articles to the current embalmers journals. We are deeply indebted to these men for the results of their work.
We have based the treatments given herein on the following classification of embalming fluid as expressed in the percentage strength of formaldehyde gas contained within the fluid.
½ strength¾ strengthNormal strength1¼ strengthAs the existence of a calling or profession depends on a constant assimilation of newly discovered information counterbalanced by the throwing off of that which has been found faulty, we commend this book to the embalmer and hope that it will meet with all the requirements of the higher education, for which we are constantly battling.
THE AUTHORS.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I.History of Embalming. CHAPTER I. History of Embalming:PageGuanch Embalming3Egyptian Embalming5 CHAPTER II. Embalming from Egyptians down to the Civil War:Jews15Persians16Babylonians17Scythians17Ethiopians17Romans17Greeks17Norsemen18Hindoos18French and Belgians18Britains18Peruvians19Aztecs19North American Indians19Early Christians20Later European Embalming20 CHAPTER III. Embalming in America after the Civil War:Holmes25Billow26Clarke26Renouard27Sullivan27Meyers27Barnes27 PART II.Anatomy. CHAPTER IV. Histology:Definition35A Cell35Tissues37Skin37The Nails40The Hair41The Fascia43The Lymphatics44Glands47Cartilage48Bones48Teeth52Nerves53Muscles54Tendons55Aponeuroses55Ligaments55Fat56Mucous Membranes57Serous Membranes57Synovial Membranes57Arteries58Veins60Blood61 CHAPTER V. Osteology:Definition69The Skeleton69The Spine71The Skull72The Bones of the Cranium74The Bones of the Face74The Hyoid Bone75The Bones of the Thorax76The Bones of the Upper Extremities77The Bones of the Lower Extremities77 CHAPTER VI. Organology:The Cavities79The Cerebro-Spinal Cavity79 CHAPTER VII. Organology,—Continued:The Thoracic Cavity83Larynx84The Trachea85The Pleurae87The Lungs88The Mediastinum91The Pericardium (Heart Sac)92The Heart92The Alimentary Canal96The Mouth97The Teeth97The Palate97The Salivary Glands98The Pharynx98The Esophagus99The Diaphragm99 CHAPTER VIII. Organology,—Continued:The Abdomen101The Stomach103The Small Intestines106Duodenum107Jejunum107Ileum108The Large Intestines108Caecum109The Colon111The Rectum112Liver112The Gall Bladder114The Pancreas115The Spleen116The Kidneys116The Ureters117The Suprarenal Capsules117The Pelvic Cavity118The Bladder118The Uterus118Prostate119The Peritoneum120 CHAPTER IX. The Vascular System:The Vascular System123The Blood Vascular System123The Systemic Circulation125The Arterial System125The Capillary Circulation132The Venous System134The Pulmonary Circulation141The Coronary Circulation142The Portal Circulation144The Foetal Circulation144The Collateral Circulation147The Lymphatic Circulation147 PART III.Embalming. CHAPTER X. Modes Signs and Tests of Death:Modes of Death156Signs of Impending Death157Tests of Actual Death158Later and More Positive Signs162 CHAPTER XI. Premature Burial:Premature Burial164 CHAPTER XII. Changes in Blood after Death:Cooling of the Body167Cadaveric Lividity168Putrefactive Changes169Skin Slip175Rigor Mortis177Fermentation and the Production of Gas179Spirituous Fermentation180Digestive Fermentation180Metabolic Fermentation181Putrefactive Fermentation181Abdominal Fermentation182Gastric Fermentation184Intestinal Fermentation185 CHAPTER XIII. Discolorations:Discolorations187Discolorations Occurring before Death188Yellow Jaundice188Pigmentary Atrophy189Cancerous Spots190Gangrene191Ecchymosis191Wounds193Fractures194Scars and Tattoo Marks194 CHAPTER XIV. Discolorations,—Continued:Discolorations Occurring after Death196Desiccation196Greenish Tinge of Putrefaction200Chemical Action202Postmortem Discoloration203Postmortem Staining204Capillary or Venous Congestion204 CHAPTER XV. Arterial Embalming:Making the First Call205The Position of the Body on the Embalming Board210Selection of an Artery211How to Raise an Artery214How to tell an Artery from a Vein or Nerve215How to Cut an Artery for Injection216The Injection of Fluid218Approved Disinfectants221Embalming Fluids221Wrapping a Body in Cotton221The Charge of Embalming222 CHAPTER XVI. The Anatomical and Linear Guides for Special Arteries:How to Locate and Inject the Carotid Artery225How to Locate and Inject the Axillary Artery231How to Locate and Inject the Brachial Artery234How to Locate and Inject the Radial Artery237How to Locate and Inject the Ulnar Artery240How to Locate and Inject the Femoral Artery241 CHAPTER XVII. Cavity Embalming:Cavity Embalming247The Cerebral Cavity247Purging249The Thoracic or Chest Cavity252The Abdominal Cavity254The Direct Incision257Embalming of the Subcutaneous Tissue260Plugging Orifices of the Body262Removal of Urine263 CHAPTER XVIII. The Removal of Blood:The Removal of Blood264Right Auricle of Heart.—Direct Method273Right Ventricle of Heart.—Direct Method274Right Auricle of Heart.—Indirect Method274Femoral Vein276Axillary Vein277Basilic Vein278Internal Jugular Vein279 PART IV.Treatment. CHAPTER XIX. Treatment of Special Diseases:Anthrax285Cerebro-Spinal Fever286Erysipelas287Glanders288Hydrophobia289Relapsing Fever290Syphilis290Tetanus292Actinomycosis293Dengue294Malarial Fever295Yellow Fever296Diphtheria297Tuberculosis298Typhoid Fever299Leprosy301Influenza301Cholera302Bubonic Plague303Scarlet Fever304Variola305Measles306Parotitis307Pertussis308Typhus Fever308Varicella309Septicemia310Pyemia311 CHAPTER XX. Treatment of Special Diseases,—Continued:Diseases of the Respiratory System312Gangrene of the Lung312Pulmonary Hemorrhage312Pulmonary Abscess314Pneumonia314Hydrothorax317 CHAPTER XXI. Treatment of Special Diseases,—Continued:Diseases of the Circulatory System318Pericarditis318Hydropericardium318Hemopericardium319Pneumo-Pericardium319Endocarditis320Aortic Incompetency321Aortic Stenosis321Mitral Incompetency321Mitral Stenosis322Tricuspid Incompetency322Tricuspid Stenosis323Pulmonary Incompetency323Pulmonary Stenosis323Cardiac Thrombosis323Hypertrophy of the Heart324Cardiac Dilatation324Cardiac Atrophy324Arterio Sclerosis325Fatty Degeneration of the Arteries326Aneurism328 CHAPTER XXII. Treatment of Special Diseases.—Continued:Diseases of the Digestive System329Jaundice329Cirrhosis of the Liver333Carcinoma of the Liver335Appendicitis336Peritonitis336Dropsy337Ascites337Anasarca339 CHAPTER XXIII. Treatment of Accident Cases:Broken Neck341Hanging341Strangulation341Body Severed342The Arm Severed343The Leg Severed344The Head Severed344The Head Crushed345The Foot Crushed345The Chest Crushed346Gun-shot in the Abdomen347Burns and Scalds347 CHAPTER XXIV. Treatment of Posted Cases:Cranial Evisceration351Thoracic Autopsy351Abdominal Post351Posted Cases352 CHAPTER XXV. Treatment of Miscellaneous Cases:Alcoholism354Morphinism356Plumbism356Arsenicism357Mercurialism357Heat-Stroke357Obesity358Elephantiasis359Drowned Cases359Floater359Mother and Unborn Child360Senility361Gangrene362LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Page1. View of the skin362. A cross section of the skin373. Lymphatics of the head and neck454. Lymphatics of the leg465. Cross section of the bone506. Section of a nerve fiber537. View of muscle fibers548. Section of artery589. Valves of the veins6010. Cross section through a small artery and vein6011. Human blood6112. The skeleton6913. The spine7114. The skull7315. Brain and spinal cord8016. Front view of the thorax8317. The cartilages of the larynx, the trachea and bronchi8618. The root of the left lung8919. A cross section of the heart showing valves9320. The right auricle and ventricle laid open9421. Passage into trachea and esophagus9822. The regions of the abdomen and their contents10223. The coeliac axis and its branches10424. The caecum and colon laid open to show the ileocaecal valve11025. Excretory apparatus of the liver11426. The abdominal aorta and its branches11627. The peritoneum12028. The arch of the aorta and its branches12629. The internal carotid and vertebral arteries12730. The circle of Willis12831. The arteries of the face and scalp12932. The external carotid and its branches12933. The anterior tibial artery13034. The popliteal, posterior tibial, and peroneal arteries13035. Capillaries13336. Superficial veins of the head and neck13537. The internal long saphenous vein13638. The superficial veins of the arm13739. Vertical section of the skull, showing the sinuses of the duramater13840. The sinuses at the base of the skull13941. The azygos system and the venae cavae with branches14142. The front view of the heart14343. The back view of the heart14344. Plan of the foetal circulation14545. Collateral anastomosis of veins14746. The arteries of the neck22647. The axillary artery and its branches23248. The brachial artery23549. The radial and ulnar arteries24050. The femoral artery243PART I. HISTORY OF EMBALMING
Ancient Embalming
CHAPTER I. HISTORY OF EMBALMING.
Guanch Embalming.
—The Guanches with the Egyptians are the only nation among whom embalming had become national, and there exists in the process and mode of preservation of both such striking analogy, that the study of the Guanch mummies is, probably, the surest means of arriving at some positive notions of their origin and relationship. The details known of the mode of embalming among the Guanches will enlighten and complete the descriptions that ancient authors have left to us of the Egyptian processes. They were silent on desiccation in the act of mummification, but it is to be regarded as a simple omission on their part. This desiccation was continued during the seventy days of preparation, and it constituted the principle part of the process adopted.
The details that I am about to give are extracted from the work of M. Bory de Saint Vincent on the fortunate Isles.
“The arts of the Guanches were not numerous, the most singular without doubt is that of embalming. The Guanches preserved the remains of their relations in a scrupulous manner and spared no pains to guarantee them from corruption. As a moral duty each individual prepared for himself the skins of goats, in which his remains could be enveloped, and which might serve him for sepulture. These skins were often divested of their hair, at other times they permitted it to remain, when they placed indifferently the hair side within or without. The processes to which they resorted to make perfect mummies, which they named xaxos, are nearly lost.
With the Guanches, the embalmers were abject beings; men and women filled this employment respectively, for their sexes; they were well paid, but their touch was considered contamination; and all who were occupied in preparing the xaxos lived retired, solitary, and out of sight.
There were several kinds of embalming, and several different employments for those who had charge of it. When they had need of the services of the embalmers, they carried the body to them to be preserved, and immediately retired. If the body belonged to persons capable of bearing the expenses, they extended it at first on a stone table, the operator then made an opening in the lower part of the belly with a sharpened flint, wrought into the form of a knife and called tabona; the intestines were withdrawn, which other operators afterwards washed and cleaned; they also washed the rest of the body, and particularly the delicate parts, as the eyes, interior of the mouth, the ears, and the nails, with fresh water saturated with salt. They filled the large cavities with aromatic plants; they then exposed the body to the hottest sun, or placed it in stoves, if the sun was not hot enough. During the exposition they frequently endued the body with an ointment, composed of goats' grease, powder of odoriferous plants, pine bark, resin, tar ponce stone, and other absorbing material.
On the fifteenth day the embalming should be completely terminated; the mummy should be dry and light; the relatives send for it and establish the most magnificent obsequies in their power. They sew up the body in several folds of skin, which they had prepared while living, and they bind it with straps.
The kings and the grandees were besides placed in a case or coffin of a single piece, and hollowed out of the trunk of a juniper tree, the wood of which was held as incorruptible.
They then finally carried the xaxos, thus sewed and encased, to inaccessible grottoes consecrated to this purpose.
Egyptian Embalming.
—The Egyptians embalmed their dead, and the processes which they employed were sufficiently perfect to secure them an indefinite preservation. This is a fact which the pyramids, the cavern, and all the sepultures of Egypt offer us irrefragible proof. But what were the causes of the origin of this custom? We have in answer only hypothesis and conjecture. In the absence of valid documents, each one explains according to the bias of his mind, or the nature of his studies, a usage, the origin of which is lost in the night of time. One of the ancients informs us that the Egyptians took so much pains for the preservation of the body, believing that the soul inhabited it so long as it subsisted. Cassien, on the other hand, assures us that they invented this method because they were unable to bury their dead during the period of inundation. Herodotus, in his third book, observes, that embalming had for its object the securing of bodies from the voracity of animals; they did not bury them, says he, for fear they would be eaten by worms, and they did not burn them, because they considered fire like a wild beast that devours everything it can seize upon. Filial piety and respect for the dead, according to Sicculus, were the sentiments which inspired the Egyptians with the idea of embalming the dead bodies. De Maillet, in his tenth letter upon Egypt, refers only to a religious motive as the origin of embalming: The priests and sages of Egypt taught their fellow citizens that, after a certain number of ages, which they made to amount to thirty or forty thousand years, and at which they fixed the epoch of the grand revolution when the earth would return to the point at which it commenced its existence, their souls would return to the same bodies which they formerly inhabited. But in order to arrive, after death, to this wished for resurrection, two things were absolutely necessary; first that the bodies should be absolutely carefully preserved from corruption, in order that the souls might re-inhabit them; secondly, that the penance submitted to during this long period of years, that the numerous sacrifices founded by the dead, or those offered to their names by their friends, or relation, should expiate the crimes they had committed during the time of their first inhabitation on earth.
With these conditions exactly observed, these souls separate from their bodies, should be permitted to re-enter at the arrival of this grand revolution which they anticipated—remember all that had passed during their sojourn, and become immortal like themselves. They had further the same privilege of communicating this same happiness to the animals which they had cherished, provided that their bodies inclosed in the same tomb with themselves, were equally well preserved. It is in virtue of this belief that so many birds, cats, and other animals are found embalmed with almost the same care as the human bodies with which they have been deposited.
Such was the idea of perfect happiness which they hoped to enjoy in this new life. Surely superstition alone, it could scarcely be believed, would induce men to save from destruction the mortal spoils of individuals whom they had loved whilst living. We much prefer looking for the source of this usage in the sentiment which survives a cherished object snatched from affection by the hand of death. Since death levels all distinctions—respecting neither love nor friendship—since the dearest and most sacred ties are relentlessly broken asunder, it is the natural attribute of affection, to seek to avoid in some degree, a painful separation, by preserving the remains of those they loved and by whom they were beloved. This according to Saint Vincent. Volney and Paraset write as follows as to the probable cause of the origin of the custom: In a numerous population, under a burning climate, and the soil profoundly drenched during many months of the year, the rapid putrefaction of bodies, is a leaven for plague and disease. Stricken by these numerous pests, Egypt at an early day, struggled to obviate them; hence have arisen, on the one hand a custom of burying their dead at a distance from their habitations; and on the other an art so ingenious and simple to prevent putrefaction by embalming. One individual may be induced to embalm the bodies of his relatives and friends by motives of superstition; another from egotism and personal interest; a third from motives of salubrity or common interest; another is impelled to perform the sacred duty of preserving the remains of those who were dear to him by an instinctive affection. Caylus says that the Egyptians, according to appearances owe the idea of their mummies, to the dead bodies which they found buried in the burning sands which prevail in some parts of Egypt, and which, carried away by the winds, bury travelers and preserve their bodies, by consuming the fat and flesh without altering the skin.
The mourning, embalming and funerals were conducted as follows: When a man of consideration dies, all the women of his house, cover the head and even the face with mud; they leave the deceased in the house, girdle the middle of their bodies, bare the bosom, strike the breast, and overrun the city, accompanied by their relations. On the other side, the men also girdle themselves, and strike their breasts; after this ceremony they carry the body to the place where it is to be embalmed.
Certain men according to the law have charge of the embalming, and make a profession of it. When a body is brought to them, they show the bearers models of the dead in wood. The most renowned represents, they say, Him whose name I am scrupulous to mention. This model was probably the figure of some divinity. To be prepared after this model would cost one talent, (about nine hundred dollars of our money). They show a second which is inferior to the first, and which is not so costly, twenty mina, (or about three hundred dollars in our money). They also show a third of lower price, the price of which was considered by Herodotus as a trifle, which we would infer to mean from fifty to seventy-five dollars of our money. The exhibition of models on the part of the embalmers, had reference to the richness of the work demanded, and to the expense of the chosen form. They demand after which of the three models they wish the deceased to be embalmed. After agreeing about the price, the relatives retire; the embalmers work alone and proceed as follows, in the most costly embalming.
They first withdraw the brain through the nostrils, in part with a curved iron instrument, and in part by means of drugs, which they introduce into the head. They now make an incision in the flank with a sharp Ethiopian stone. The body is extended upon the earth, the scribe traces on the left flank the portion to be cut out. He who is charged with making the incision cuts with an Ethiopian stone, as much as the law allows; which, having done, he runs off with all his might, the assistants follow, throwing stones after him, loading him with imprecations, as if they wished to put upon him this crime. They regard, indeed, with horror, whoever does violence to a body of the same nature as their own.
They withdraw the intestines through this opening, clean them, and pass them through palm wine, place them in a trunk; and among other things they do for the deceased, they take this trunk, and calling the sun to witness, one of the embalmers on the part of the dead, addresses that luminary in the following words, which Euphantus has translated: “Sun and ye too, Gods, who have given life to men, receive me, and grant that I may live with the eternal Gods: I have persisted all my life in the worship of those Gods, whom I hold from my fathers, I have ever honoured the Author of my being, I have killed no one, I have committed no breach of trust, I have done no other evil: if I have been guilty of any other fault during life, it has not been on my own account, but for these things.” The embalmer in finishing these words, shows the trunk containing the intestines, and afterwards casts it into the river. As to the rest of the body when it is pure they embalm it.
Afterwards they fill the body with pure bruised myrrh, with cannella and other perfumes, excepting incense, it is then sown up. When that is done they salt the body by covering it with natrum for seventy days. The natrum carries off and dries the oily, lymphatic, and greasy parts. After the seventy days the body is not permitted to remain longer in the salt. The seventy days elapsed, they wash the body and entirely envelope it in linen and cotton bandages, soaked with gum Arabic. The relatives now reclaim the body, they have made a wooden case for the human form, in which they enclose the corpse, and put it in a chamber destined for this purpose, standing erect against the wall. Such is the most magnificent method of embalming the dead.
Those who wish to avoid the expense, choose this other method; they fill syringes with an unctious liquor which they obtain from the cedar, with this they inject the belly of the corpse without making any incision, and without withdrawing the intestines; when this liquor has been introduced into the cavity, they cork it; the body is then salted for the prescribed time. The last day they draw off from the body the injected liquor, it has such strength that it dissolves the ventricles and intestines, which come away with the liquid. The natrum destroys the flesh, and there remains of the body only the skin and the bones. This operation finished, they return the body without doing anything further to it.
The third kind of embalming is only for the poorer classes of society, they inject the body with a fluid called surmata, they put the body in natrum for seventy days, and they afterwards return it to those who brought it.
As to the ladies of quality, when they are dead, they are not immediately sent to the embalmers, any more than such as are beautiful or highly distinguished; they are reserved for three or four days after death. They take this precaution lest the embalmers might pollute the bodies confided to their care.
The relatives now fix the day for the obsequies in order that the judges, the relations, and the friends of the dead may be present, and they characterize it by saying that he is going to pass the lake; afterwards the judges, to the number of more than forty arriving, place themselves in the form of a semicircle beyond the lake. A bateau approaches, carrying those who have charge of the ceremony, and in which is a sailor whom the Egyptians name in their language, Charon. Before placing in the bateau the coffin containing the body of the deceased, it is lawful for each one present to accuse him. If they prove that he has led a sinful life, the judges condemn him, and he is excluded from the place of his sepulture, if it appear that he has been unjustly accused, they punish the accuser with severity. If no accuser presents himself or if the one who does so is known to be a calumniator, the relatives, putting aside the signs of their grief, deliver an eulogism, on the deceased without mentioning his birth, because they consider all Egyptians equally noble. They enlarge on the manner in which he has been schooled and instructed from his childhood; upon his piety, justice, temperance, and his other virtues since he attained manhood, and they pray the Gods of hell to admit him into the dwelling of the pious. The people applauded and glorified the dead who were to pass all eternity in the abodes of the happy. If any one has a monument destined for his sepulture, his body is there deposited; if he has none, they construct a room in his house, and place the bier upright against the most solid part of the wall. They place in their houses those to whom sepulture has not been awarded, either on account of crimes, of which they are accused, or on account of the debts which they may have contracted; and it happens sometimes in the end that they obtained honorable sepulture, their children or descendants becoming rich, pay their debts or absolve them.
The Egyptian embalmers knew how to distinguish from the other viscera, the liver, the spleen, and the kidneys, which they did not disturb; they had discovered the means of withdrawing the brain from the interior of the body without destroying the bones of the cranium; they knew the action of alkalies upon animal matter, since the time was strictly limited that the body could remain in contact with these substances; they were not ignorant of the property of balsams, and resins to protect the bodies from the larvae of insects and mites; they were likewise aware of the necessity of enveloping the dried and embalmed bodies, in order to protect them from the humidity, which would interfere with their preservation.
The preceding is a description of ancient Egyptian embalming as given by Herodotus, and has been the subject of numerous commentations, discussions and researches. It is almost a positive fact that Herodotus has omitted desiccation, and that it naturally took place during the time consecrated to preparation. From the mummies examined it is believed now that the body was first salted for seventy days, then dried, and that it was not until after this desiccation that the resinous and balsamic substances were applied. A simple inspection of the mummies is sufficient to confirm this opinion and besides what use would have been these resinous matters, with which the alkali of the natrum would soon form a soapy mass, which the lotions would have carried off, at least in great part? It is much more reasonable to suppose that these balsamic and resinous substances were not applied to the bodies until after they were withdrawn from the natrum.
All the ancients agree, in saying that the Egyptians made use of the various aromatics to embalm the dead; that they employed for the rich myrrh, aloes, canella, and cassia lignea; and for the poor, the cedria, bitumen, and natrum. The natrum was a mixture of carbonate, sulphate, and muriate of soda. It was a fixed alkali, which acted after the manner of quicklime; despoiling the bodies of their lymphatic, and greasy fluids, leaving only the fibrous and solid parts. The odoriferous resins and bitumen not only preserved from destruction, but also kept at a distance the worms and beetles which devour dead bodies.
The embalmers, after having washed the bodies with palm wine, and having filled them with odoriferous resins or bitumen, they place them in stoves, where by means of convenient heat these resinous substances united intimately with the bodies, and these arrive in a very little time to that state of perfect preservation which we find them at the present day. This operation of which no historian has spoken, was, without doubt, the principle and most important part of their embalming.
CHAPTER II. EMBALMING FROM EGYPTIANS DOWN TO CIVIL WAR.
Here facts are almost entirely wanting and the history of the art we are studying, can only be followed in the recitals of historians, to control whose veracity we have no longer those monuments which Egypt offers us in such great numbers. Among the Jews, the Greeks, the Romans, and all modern nations, we see the honors of embalming accorded to Kings, Princes and men of distinction, but no tomb that has been opened, has rendered a single mummy so perfect, as those which we admire among the Egyptians.
Jews.
—The Jewish people, who, like others, testified their respect for the dead, never admit the care of embalming the body as a common usage. Thus Abraham purchased the field where Sarah was buried; Joseph had the body of his father magnificently embalmed; Moses only carried away the bones of Joseph; David praised the people of Gilead, for having buried with pomp Saul and his sons, etc. In most of these examples, no mention is made of embalming; nevertheless, the body of Jesus Christ was embalmed. It is written that Joseph of Arimathea, a secret disciple, and Nicodemus, ministered unto him, after the crucifixion, and that 100 lbs. of myrrh and aloes were used. In this action the greatest secrecy had been observed, for “when the Sabbath was over, very early on the first day of the next week, came the faithful women who had loved him, with spices and ointment they had prepared where with to annoint him, not knowing that, already, this loving service had been performed by the hand of pious affection.”
The following is nearly the method used by the Jews: Each sex took care of its dead; they first of all, close the mouth and eyes of the exposed person, afterward they washed the body and then rubbed it with perfumes, tied it with bands, and then bandaged it in several cloths of very fine linen or woolen; and finally, they put it into the sepulture. It is thought that the myrrh and aloes which they employed had very little virtue to resist putrefaction, and that the great quantities of aromatics which they consumed, was rather for pomp, than for the long preservation of the subject. They took no pains to dry the body; they did not take away the intestines, and in spite of all these odoriferous drugs, decomposition must have soon revealed itself as was testified by the body of Lazarus when resurrected.
Persians.
—Neither did the Persians possess a very great knowledge of preservation. Cyrus, King of Persia, said to his children: “when I have ceased to live, place my body neither in silver nor in gold, nor in any other coffin, but return it immediately to the earth, etc.” It will be perceived that Cyrus, in forbidding that any care should be taken with his body, does not allude to embalming, which, of all other means, would have been the most efficient in preventing its elements from returning to the Common Mother.
Babylonians.
—The Babylonians, anointed the bodies of their dead with honey, after which, they were immersed in the same substance. It is highly improbable that this process was successful for long time preservation, for the preservative power of honey was only equal to its ability to keep the air from the body.
Scythians.
—The Scythians coated the bodies of their dead with wax. This process could not have been successful excepting to retard decomposition through shutting off all communication between the body and the air.
Ethiopians.
—The Ethiopians coated the bodies of their dead with waxy covering called parget. The same comment given on the Babylonian and Scythian processes must also be used here.
Romans.
—The disposition of the dead among the Romans embraced the following treatment: the deceased was first washed with hot water varied with oil, at intervals, for seven days; was dressed and embalmed with the performance of a variety of singular ceremonies. Cremation was then the means of ultimate disposal of the dead, the ashes being gathered and placed in urns and then the urns, in turn, were placed in tombs.
Greeks.
—Homer describes cremation, as an honorable mode of sepulture practiced in the heroic ages. Later from their many conquests, the Greeks acquired the art of embalming patterned after the Arabian and Assyrian-Persian methods, of which we have no record.
Norsemen.
—It appears from the sages that a form of cremation was used by the early Norsemen, who used to place the viking in his ship and send him “flaming out to sea.” Later it became the custom to place him, with all his belongings, in his vessel set on an even keel, and entomb him beneath a mound of earth.
Hindoos.
—Suttee (from Sati-a virtuous wife), an Indian custom, involving the burning of widows on the same funeral pyre as the husband, was the rule until 1829 A. D.
French and Belgians.
—Paleolithic cave dwellers of France and Belgium buried their dead in natural caves or crevices, like those in which they lived. Later stone-age people throughout Europe buried in chambered barrows or cairns. Bronze age people buried in unchambered barrows or in cemeteries of stone cists set in the ground often on a natural eminence, and surrounded by circles of standing stones. The cist was formed of a double row of stones covered with rude stone slabs.
