Antimicrobial Polymers E-Book

Jose Maria Lagaron

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1121

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011

Beschreibung

The pioneering guide on the design, processing, and testing of antimicrobial plastic materials and coatings The manifestation of harmful microbes in plastic materials used in medical devices and drugs, water purification systems, hospital equipment, textiles, and food packaging pose alarming health threats to consumers by exposing them to many serious infectious diseases. As a result, high demand for intensifying efforts in the R&D of antimicrobial polymers has placed heavy reliance on both academia and industry to find viable solutions for producing safer plastic materials. To assist researchers and students in this endeavor, Antimicrobial Polymers explores coupling contaminant-deterring biocides and plastics--focusing particular attention on natural biocides and the nanofabrication of biocides. Each chapter is devoted to addressing a key technology employed to impart antimicrobial behavior to polymers, including chemical modification of the polymers themselves. A host of relevant topics, such as regulatory matters, human safety, and environmental risks are covered to help lend depth to the book's vital subject matter. In addition, Antimicrobial Polymers: * Discusses the design, processing, and testing of antimicrobial plastic materials * Covers interdisciplinary areas of chemistry and microbiology * Includes applications in food packaging, medical devices, nanotechnology, and coatings * Details regulations from the U.S. (FDA and EPA) and EU as well as human safety and environmental concerns Achieving cleaner and more effective methods for improving the infection-fighting properties of versatile and necessary plastic materials is a goal that stretches across many scientific fields. Antimicrobial Polymers combines all of this information into one volume, exposing readers to preventive strategies that harbor vast potential for making exposure to polymeric products and surfaces a far less risky undertaking in the future.

Leseprobe

Contents

Preface

Contributors

Chapter 1: Antimicrobial Packaging Polymers. A General Introduction

1.1 Pathogens in Food: Public Health Importance

1.2 Primary Contamination and Its Causes

1.3 Prevention and Control

1.4 Antimicrobial Agents for Food Preservation

1.5 Methods to Determine the Antimicrobial Activity

1.6 Plastics and Bioplastics in Packaging

1.7 Antimicrobials in Polymers

1.8 Conclusions

Chapter 2: Bacterial Resistance and Challenges of Biocide Plastics

2.1 Preface

2.2 Resistance to Antibiotics

2.3 Mechanisms of Resistance

2.4 Consequences of Bacterial Resistance

2.5 Biocide Plastics

2.6 Challenges of Biocide Plastics

2.7 Conclusions and Future Trends

Chapter 3: “Click Chemistry” To Derived Antimicrobial Polymers

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Synthesis and Polymerization of Monomers Functionalized by Cationic Salts

3.3 Functionalization of Polymer Chains

3.4 Click Chemistry

3.5 The “Click” Copper-Mediated Azide/Alkyne Cycloaddition Reaction

3.6 Antibacterial Polypropylene by Click Chemistry

3.7 Antibacterial Aliphatic Polyesters by Click Chemistry

3.8 Outlook

Acknowledgments

Chapter 4: Chitosan and Chitosan Blends as Antimicrobials

4.1 General Properties of Chitosan

4.2 Limitations of Chitosan

4.3 Understanding the Biocide Properties of Chitosan Films

4.4 Designing Water-Resistant Chitosan-Based Films

4.5 Active Antimicrobial Packaging Based on Chitosan

4.6 Chitosan-Based Systems in Biomedical Applications

4.7 Future Perspectives

Chapter 5: Thymol in Nanocomposites. A Case Study

5.1 Understanding Thymol and its Biocide Efficiency

5.2 Generating Thymol-Based Films by Casting Methods

5.3 Using Nanoclays to Control Solubility and Diffusion: Modeling Control Release

5.4 Summary and Future Trends

Chapter 6: Bacteriocins in Plastics

6.1 Bacteriocins

6.2 Designing Films and Surfaces Containing Active Bacteriocins

6.3 Applications in Food Packaging

6.4 Future Trends

Chapter 7: Antimicrobial Enzymes and Natural Extracts in Plastics

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Enzymes and Natural Extracts

7.3 Designing Films and Surface-Containing Active Enzymes and/or Natural Extracts

7.4 Modeling and Delivery Systems for Controlled Release of Active Agents

7.5 Future Trends

Chapter 8: Antimicrobial Peptides

8.1 Summary

8.2 Antimicrobial Peptides: Definition and Properties

8.3 Examples of Natural Antimicrobial Peptides

8.4 Antimicrobial Peptides by Design

8.5 Mode of Action of Antimicrobial Peptides

8.6 Production of Antimicrobial Peptides

8.7 Incorporation of Antimicrobial Peptides Into Polymers

8.8 Antimicrobial Peptide Encapsulation by Liposomes or Microparticles

8.9 Nanostructure-Forming Antimicrobial Peptides

8.10 Future Trends

Acknowledgments

Chapter 9: Recombinant Antimicrobial Peptides

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Recombinant Routes for the Generation of Novel AMPs

9.3 Compositional and Structural Requirements for AMP Activity

9.4 Applications of AMPs

Chapter 10: Novel Antimicrobials Obtained by Electrospinning Methods

10.1 Fundamentals of Electrospinning

10.2 Physical and Morphological Properties of Electrospun Polymers

10.3 Development of Biocide Polymeric Fiber Mats

10.4 Electrospinning as an Emerging Technology to Develop Antimicrobial Functionalities

Chapter 11: Silver- and Nanosilver-Based Plastic Technologies

11.1 Introduction

11.2 Antimicrobial Silver: How Does It Work?

11.3 Obtention and Incorporation of Silver into Coatings and Polymer Matrices

11.4 Properties of Silver-Based Polymers

11.5 Applications and Future Trends

Chapter 12: Antimicrobial Plastics Based on Metal-Containing Nanolayered Clays

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Silver-Containing Nanolayered Clays

12.3 Conclusions

Chapter 13: Nanometals As Antimicrobials

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Nanometals as Antimicrobial Agents

13.3 Nanoparticulate Metal Oxides as Antimicrobial Agents

13.4 Nanometals and the Control of Biofilms

13.5 Properties of Polymeric Matrix-Nanocomposites

13.6 Toxicity Issues and Nanometals

13.7 Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

Chapter 14: Titanium Dioxide-Based Plastic Technologies

14.1 Titanium Dioxide: General Introduction

14.2 Titanium Dioxide: Disinfection

14.3 Titanium Dioxide-Polymeric Nanocomposites

14.4 TiO2-Nanocomposites with Biocidal Properties

Chapter 15: Tissue-Implant Antimicrobial Interfaces

15.1 Implant-Related Infections: Background Concepts

15.2 Peri-Implant Infections

15.3 Biofilm-Controlling Materials

15.4 Polymer-Based Antimicrobial Surfaces

15.5 Novel Engineering Approaches for Treatment of Implant-Related Infections

15.6 Future Trends

Chapter 16: Characterizing the Interactions Between Cell Membranes and Antimicrobials VIA Sum-Frequency Generation Vibrational Spectroscopy

16.1 Introduction

16.2 Sum-Frequency Generation

16.3 Solid-Supported Lipid Bilayers

16.4 Magainin 2

16.5 Melittin

16.6 Tachyplesin I

16.7 Synthetic Antimicrobial Compound—Oligomer 1

16.8 Synthetic Antimicrobial Compounds—Oligomers 2, 3, and 4

16.9 Summary and Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Chapter 17: Gas-Based Antimicrobials in Active Packaging

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Allyl Isothiocyanate

17.3 Chlorine Dioxide

17.4 Future Trends

Chapter 18: Current Legislation in Antimicrobials

18.1 Introduction

18.2 European Union

18.3 United States

18.4 Websites Listed

Chapter 19: Human Safety and Environmental Concerns Associated with the Use of Biocides

19.1 Risks to Health Associated with the General Use of Biocides

19.2 Human Safety Concerns Arising from Biocide Misuse

19.3 Environmental Impacts of Biocide Use

19.4 Biocides and Food Packaging

19.5 Summary and Future Trends

Index

Inserts

Copyright © 2012 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, [phone], fax [phone], or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, [phone], fax [phone], or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at [phone], outside the United States at [phone] or fax [phone].

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic formats. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Antimicrobial polymers / edited by José M. Lagarón, María J. Ocio, Amparo López-Rubio.

p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-0-470-59822-1 (cloth)

1. Antimicrobial polymers. 2. Materials–Microbiology. 3. Plastics–Additives. I. Lagaron, Jose Maria. II. Ocio, Maria Jose. III. Rubio, Amparo Lopez.

TP1180.A58A68 2011

668.4—dc23

2011022704

Preface

Antimicrobial technologies are rapidly spreading to many industrial applications thanks to increased consumer awareness in the safe handling of everyday appliances and surfaces. As a result, there is also a concomitant rise in the number of research activities in biocides from both fundamental and applied perspectives. Biocides are currently applied in many application areas such as health care and medicine, building and construction, furniture and office accessories, shoes and apparel, as well as food packaging and coatings. This is the result of the increasing value perception of hygiene and cleanliness among the public, perhaps borne out of the rapidly spread outbreak of infections, so loudly reported by the media during the last several years. Most of these outbreaks are associated with globalization and increased internationalization of individuals’ business and leisure activities. In a global context, people move across continents within one day and get potentially exposed to unknown (to their immune system) threats and infections. The discussion of whether this is completely within a rational or historic perspective is beyond the scope of this book, but what is certainly true is that the highly competitive environment in which we currently liaise makes it very “inconvenient” for professional people to be absent from work as a result of illness. Moreover, the growing world population and increasing common shared spaces facilitate microbial contamination and spread in locations such as schools, supermarkets, airports, shopping malls, convention centers, and hospitals. Additionally, the rushing activity resulting from complying with frenzied schedules reduces the time to approach hygiene more carefully within homes and other children’s habitats.

Nevertheless, it is in the food and medical fields where microbial contamination can cause special seriousness and grave consequences to people in general. In the food area, this is lately more the case because current trends toward mildly preserved foods to ensure product quality and freshness by making use of alternative hurdle preservation technologies may eventually reduce food safety aspects. In this context, antimicrobials have thus become increasingly important in food handling areas, in food itself, and in “active” packaging strategies. Of course, biocides cannot be considered substitutes for hygiene, and in reckoning this, the food industry operations will become a lot safer by appropriate usage of biocides in combination with currently employed good hygiene practices. In the medical area, antimicrobials have always been of concern, but novel antimicrobial technologies and nanotechnologies are being implemented in more applications such as implant interphases, coatings, and others to avoid postoperatory infections.

In agreement with this new interest in biocides and with the current trend of giving value to natural and renewable resources as well as to avoid (1) the inherent collateral toxicity and side effects of biocide synthetic chemicals, (2) legislation, and (3) application barriers, naturally-derived biocides are rapidly growing in various applications areas, particularly in food packaging and in biomedical applications. As the use of plastics and bioplastics is currently very widespread and many articles and surfaces are made of plastics, these materials currently offer considerable interest as matrices for the incorporation of highly functional biocides. Even traditional and novel ceramic-based matrices and various other finishes and coatings of other materials are made of plastics, from which biocides can be fixated or control released. Moreover, some bioplastics and modern fabrication and nanofabrication of bioplastics can also lead to very efficient antimicrobial plastics.

This pioneering book gathers, by reviewing appropriate scientific literature and technological developments in the field, up-to-date scientific and technological understanding to generate and describe antimicrobial plastics, putting special emphasis on natural biocides and on the nanofabrication of biocides. After a general introductory chapter by the editors and others related to bacterial resistance, several chapters deal with the design, phenomenology, and understanding of novel antimicrobial technologies to be implemented in plastics or made of plastics, discussing nanotech strategies such as various nanometals and electrospun fiber-based biopolymeric biocides. Additionally, biocide implant interphases, chitosan-based biocides, advanced “click” chemistry to render antimicrobial plastics, peptides and recombinant peptides, bacteriocins, antimicrobial and antioxidant natural extracts, and gas-based biocides incorporated into plastics or bioplastics are presented and discussed. The book ends with two chapters related to both global legislation in the area and human safety and environmental concerns associated with the use of biocides and plastic-based biocides.

We believe this book to be of general interest to biologists, microbiologists, biotechnologists, medical doctors, pharmacists, polymer scientists, food scientists and technologists, and other academic and industrial professionals with interest in antimicrobials. We seriously hope to have offered a balanced, interesting, and innovative perspective in the area not only for advanced readers but also for industrial decision makers and for those approaching the field with limited knowledge.

The Editors

Contributors

Nibras A.A.M. Ahmed, Department of Oral Biology, University of Oslo, Norway

R.P. Allaker, Queen Mary University of London, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Institute of Dentistry, London, U.K.

Christopher W. Avery, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

F. Bellomo, Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy

Maria A. Busolo, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), NanoBioMatters R&D S.L., Paterna, (Valencia), Spain

María L. Cerrada, Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros (ICTP-CSIC), Madrid, Spain

Zhan Chen, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA

Orla Condell, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland

Amalia Conte, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy

Matteo Alessandro Del Nobile, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy

I. Donati, Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy

Séamus Fanning, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland

Marcos Fernández-García, Instituto de Catálisis y Petroleoquímica, (ICP-CSIC), Madrid, Spain

Marta Fernandez-García, Instituto de Ciencia y Tecnología de Polímeros (ICTP-CSIC), Madrid, Spain

Patricia Fernandez-Saiz, Institute of Agrochemistry and Food Technology (IATA), CSIC, Burjassot, Spain

Carmen García-Arévalo, GIR Bioforge, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain

Alessandra Girotti, GIR Bioforge, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain

Javier Gómez, Treqtop Services, S.L., Valencia, Spain

Carol Iversen, Nestlé Research Center, Lausanne, Switzerland

C. Jérôme, Center for Education and Research on Macromolecules (CERM), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium

Anna Kubacka, Instituto de Catálisis y Petroleoquímica, (ICP-CSIC), Madrid, Spain

José M. Lagarón, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), CSIC, Valencia, Spain

P. Lecomte, Center for Education and Research on Macromolecules (CERM), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium

Loong-Tak Lim, Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada

Amparo López-Rubio, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), CSIC, Valencia, Spain

Paloma Manzanares, Departamento de Biotecnología de Alimentos, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Burjassot, Valencia, Spain

Jose F. Marcos, Departamento de Ciencia de los Alimentos, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Burjassot, Valencia, Spain

E. Marsich, Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy

Laura Martín, GIR Bioforge, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain

Antonio Martínez-Abad, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), CSIC Paterna, Valencia, Spain

Marcella Mastromatteo, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy

Marianna Mastromatteo, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy

Gianluigi Mauriello, Department of Food Science, University of Naples Federico II, Portici, Naples, Italy

Siriyupa Netramai, School of Packaging, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan and Mahidol University, Karnjanaburi, Thailand

María J. Ocio, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), CSIC, Valencia, Spain

S. Paoletti, Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy

Karen Power, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin, Ireland

G.G. Ren, School of Engineering and Technology, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, U.K.

R. Riva, Center for Education and Research on Macromolecules (CERM), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium

J. Carlos Rodríguez-Cabello, GIR Bioforge, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain

Maria Rubino, School of Packaging, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan

Maria Dolores Sanchez-Garcia, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), CSIC, Valencia, Spain

Mercedes Santos, GIR Bioforge, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain

Sergio Torres-Giner, Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), CSIC, Paterna (Valencia), Spain

A. Travan, Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy

G. Turco, Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy

M.A. Vargas-Reus, Queen Mary University of London, Barts and The London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Institute of Dentistry, London, U.K.

Francesco Villani, Department of Food Science, University of Naples Federico II, Portici, Naples, Italy

CHAPTER 1

ANTIMICROBIAL PACKAGING POLYMERS. A GENERAL INTRODUCTION

JOSÉ M. LAGARÓN, MARÍA J. OCIO, and AMPARO LÓPEZ-RUBIO

Instituto de Agroquímica y Tecnología de Alimentos (IATA), CSIC, Valencia, Spain

CONTENTS

1.1 Pathogens in Food: Public Health Importance

1.2 Primary Contamination and Its Causes

1.2.1 Salmonella spp

1.2.2 L. monocytogenes

1.2.3 S. aureus

1.2.4 C. jejuni

1.2.5 E. coli O157:H7

1.3 Prevention and Control

1.4 Antimicrobial Agents for Food Preservation

1.5 Methods to Determine the Antimicrobial Activity

1.6 Plastics and Bioplastics in Packaging

1.7 Antimicrobials in Polymers

1.8 Conclusions

References

This chapter introduces in a general and brief fashion the subjects discussed across the book. Albeit the concepts can be generally considered, it has an application perspective that relates more intensely to the food area. This is because antimicrobials, thanks to the recent publication of the European Commission regulation on active and intelligent materials and articles intended to come into contact with food (EC 450/2009) as well as to the increasing number of submissions to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), are attracting a lot of new academic and industrial interest for implementation into plastic packaging materials.

1.1 PATHOGENS IN FOOD: PUBLIC HEALTH IMPORTANCE

Without a doubt, the most relevant sectors regarding the seriousness of microbial contamination are hospitals and medical equipment and foods. Hence, antimicrobials have traditionally been of great relevance to these areas. Foods are perhaps attracting even greater general attention in particular nowadays because they constitute a permanent part of our daily life and are increasingly making use of plastic packaging for their presentation to the consumer. Infections and intoxications associated with consumption of foods are a growing concern worldwide. In this regard, the World Health Organization (WHO) and the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) report annually on the main agents causing food-borne toxic infections. The results suggest that in recent years there has been a slight increase in food-borne diseases in many parts of the world and that the emergence of new or newly recognized food-borne problems have been identified and associated with consumption of foods. According to the WHO [1, 2], one of the main reasons for this increase is that the microbial population have adapted through natural selection leading to the development of antibiotic resistance, acquisition of new virulence factors, or changes in the ability to survive in adverse environmental conditions. In addition, the change of population dietary habits produced by the growing demand for prepared foods and minimally processed foods has contributed significantly in increasing the number of outbreaks of food-borne illnesses.

1.2 PRIMARY CONTAMINATION AND ITS CAUSES

Most pathogenic bacteria associated with food-borne diseases are zoonotic (animal origin), and their carriers are usually healthy animals from which are transmitted to a wide variety of foods such as Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, or Campylobacter jejuni. Other pathogens such as Listeria monocytogenes are widely distributed in the environment or are part of the natural microbiota of humans as Staphylococcus aureus. In these two last cases, food contamination occurs during processing as a result of failures of hygienic practices in the food chain.

Farm animals usually acquire microbial hazards as a result of horizontal transmission from their environment. The principal sources are other infected animals, contaminated water, and wildlife such as birds or rodents. This horizontal transmission can be exacerbated by intensive husbandry, which promotes overcrowding and interferes with the maintenance of adequate hygiene to which animals are subjected in many farms [3, 4]. Finally, the products derived from these infected animals can reach the consumer at some point.

The rising incidence of microbial food-borne disease has focused attention on the sources of contamination. Because animal products have been directly responsible for more than the 50% of the total food-borne outbreaks in the 1990s, emphasis has been paid to these types of products such as meat, poultry, eggs, and milk [5]. Nevertheless, in recent years, the demand for fresh fruits and vegetables has increased in the industrial countries as a consequence of the awareness of the health benefits associated with eating fresh produce [6]. Nowadays, therefore, outbreaks of food-borne diseases have been increased probably because crops in the field can be contaminated with pathogens carried by farm animals and human beings. The main risk factors include proximity to irrigation wells and surface waterways exposed to feces from cattle and wildlife, exposure in fields to wild animals and their waste materials, and improperly composted animal manure used as fertilizer [7]. The public health implications are especially serious when the products affected are those usually consumed without cooking such as salad fruits and vegetables [8]. Although the frequency of food-borne outbreaks in gastrointestinal illness associated with fruit and vegetables seems to be low compared with products of animal origin, ready-to-eat fruit and vegetables requiring minimal or no further processing prior to consumption have been implicated as vehicles for transmission of infectious microorganisms. Even more, food-borne illnesses associated with fruit and vegetables seem to be increasing in many countries because of mainly the increase in global food distribution.