Aquaculture Production Systems E-Book

James H. Tidwell

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: World Aquaculture Society Book Series
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 818

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

Aquaculture is an increasingly diverse industry with an ever-growing number of species cultured and production systems available to professionals. A basic understanding of production systems is vital to the successful practice of aquaculture.

Published with the World Aquaculture Society, Aquaculture Production Systems captures the huge diversity of production systems used in the production of shellfish and finfish in one concise volume that allows the reader to better understand how aquaculture depends upon and interacts with its environment.

The systems examined range from low input methods to super-intensive systems. Divided into five sections that each focus on a distinct family of systems, Aquaculture Production Systems serves as an excellent text to those just being introduced to aquaculture as well as being a valuable reference to well-established professionals seeking information on production methods.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright

Contributors

Preface

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1: The Role of Aquaculture

1.1 Seafood demand

1.2 Seafood supply

1.3 Seafood trade

1.4 Status of aquaculture

1.5 Production systems

1.6 The future and the challenge

Chapter 2: History of Aquaculture

2.1 Beginnings of aquaculture

2.2 Expansion prior to the mid-1800s

2.3 The explosion of hatcheries

2.4 Art becomes science

2.5 Commercial finfish species development

2.6 Shrimp culture

2.7 Mollusk culture

2.8 Controversy

Chapter 3: Functions and Characteristics of All Aquaculture Systems

3.1 Differences in aquatic and terrestrial livestock

3.2 Ecological services provided by aquaculture production systems

3.3 Diversity of aquaculture animals

3.4 Temperature classifications of aquacultured animals

3.5 Temperature control in aquaculture systems

3.6 Providing oxygen in aquaculture systems

3.7 Waste control in aquaculture systems

3.8 Aquaculture systems as providers of natural foods

Chapter 4: Characterization and Categories of Aquaculture Production Systems

4.1 Open systems

4.2 Semi-closed systems

4.3 Closed systems

4.4 Hybrid systems

Chapter 5: Shellfish Aquaculture

5.1 Major species in culture (oysters, clams, scallops, mussels)

5.2 History

5.3 Biology

5.4 Culture basics

5.5 Extensive versus intensive culture

5.6 Spat collection: hatchery, nursery, growout

5.7 Cultured algae

5.8 Spawning

5.9 Larval development

5.10 Setting

5.11 Nursery and growout scale considerations

5.12 Nursery methods

5.13 Growout methods

5.14 Fouling

5.15 Fouling control strategies

5.16 Predation

5.17 Harvest

5.18 Food safety

5.19 Shellfish diseases

5.20 Disease management options

5.21 Genetics: selective breeding

5.22 Triploidy

5.23 Harmful algal blooms

5.24 Site selection

5.25 Carrying capacity

5.26 Permitting challenges

5.27 Non-native species

Chapter 6: Cage Culture in Freshwater and Protected Marine Areas

6.1 Current status of cage culture

6.2 History and evolution of cage culture

6.3 Advantages and disadvantages of cages

6.4 Site selection

6.5 Stocking cages

6.6 Feeding caged fish

6.7 Polyculture and integrated systems

6.8 Problems with cage culture

6.9 Economics of cage culture

6.10 Sustainability issues

Chapter 7: Ocean Cage Culture

7.1 The context for open ocean farming

7.2 Characterization and selection of open ocean sites

7.3 Technologies for open ocean farming

7.4 Finfish species cultivated in open ocean cages

7.5 Environmental considerations

7.6 Future prospects and challenges

Chapter 8: Reservoir Ranching

8.1 Reservoir ranching vs. culture-based fisheries

8.2 Reservoir

8.3 Natural processes of reservoirs

8.4 Selection of reservoirs for reservoir ranching

8.5 Fish species selection

8.6 Stocking density and size

8.7 Status of reservoir ranching around the world

8.8 Summary

Chapter 9: Flow-through Raceways

9.1 Types of raceways

9.2 Physical requirements

9.3 Water requirements

9.4 Carrying capacity

9.5 Water consumption and waste management

9.6 Feeding and inventory management

9.7 Summary

Chapter 10: Ponds

10.1 Species cultured

10.2 Pond types

10.3 Water use

10.4 Pond culture intensity and ecological services

10.5 Food in pond aquaculture

10.6 Life support in pond aquaculture

10.7 Land use and the ecological footprint of pond aquaculture

10.8 Consequences of unregulated algal growth

10.9 Practical constraints on pond aquaculture production

10.10 Comparative economics of culture systems

10.11 Sustainability issues

10.12 Trends and research needs

Chapter 11: Recirculating Aquaculture Systems

11.1 Positive attributes

11.2 Overview of system engineering

11.3 Culture tanks

11.4 Waste solids removal

11.5 Cornell dual-drain system

11.6 Settling basins and tanks

11.7 Mechanical filters

11.8 Granular media filters

11.9 Disposal of the solids

11.10 Biofiltration

11.11 Choice of biofilter

11.12 Aeration and oxygenation

11.13 Carbon dioxide removal

11.14 Monitoring and control

11.15 Current system engineering design

11.16 Recirculation system design

11.17 Four major water-treatment variables

11.18 Summary of four production terms

11.19 Stocking density

11.20 Engineering design example

11.21 Conclusion

Chapter 12: Biofloc-based Aquaculture Systems

12.1 Bioflocs

12.2 Oxygen dynamics

12.3 Resuspension, mixing, and sludge management

12.4 Nitrogenous waste products

12.5 Temperature

12.6 Feeds and feeding

12.7 Economics

12.8 Sustainability

12.9 Outlook and research needs

12.10 Acknowledgment

Chapter 13: Partitioned Aquaculture Systems

High rate ponds in aquaculture—the partitioned aquaculture system

PAS fingerling production

Flow-through PAS: the controlled eutrophication process

Photoautotrophic and chemoautotrophic PAS for marine shrimp production

Alabama in-pond raceway system

Mississippi split-pond aquaculture system

California pondway system

Chapter 14: Aquaponics—Integrating Fish and Plant Culture

System design

Fish production

Solids

Biofiltration

Hydroponic subsystems

Sump

Construction materials

Component ratios

Plant growth requirements

Nutrient dynamics

Vegetable selection

Crop production systems

Pest and disease control

Approaches to system design

Economics

Prospects for the future

Chapter 15: In-pond Raceways

Development of the in-pond raceway

Stocking and feeding

Backup systems and disease treatments

Comparison to other culture systems

Sustainability issues

Future trends

Chapter 16: On the Drawing Board

Future trends

Index

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Aquaculture production systems / editor, James Tidwell. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8138-0126-1 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Aquaculture. I. Tidwell, James. SH135.A76 2012 639.8–dc23 2011048340

A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

1 2012

Contributors

Geoff Allan

Department of Primary Industries

NSW Department of Trade and Investment

Regional Infrastructure and Services

Port Stephens Fisheries Institute

New South Wales, Australia

Yoram Avnimelech

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Technician

Israel Institute of Technology

Haifa, Israel

Craig L. Browdy

Novus International Inc.

Charleston, South Carolina, USA

D. E. Brune

Department of Agricultural Systems Management

Columbia, Missouri, USA

Jesse Chappell

Fisheries and Allied Aquacultures

Auburn, Alabama, USA

James M. Ebeling

Aquaculture System Technologies

New Orleans, Louisiana, USA

Gary Fornshell

University of Idaho Extension

Twin Falls, Idaho, USA

John Hargreaves

Aquaculture Assessments LLC

Baton Rouge, Louisiana, USA

Jeff Hinshaw

North Carolina State University

Department of Zoology

Raleigh, North Carolina, USA

Richard Langan

University of New Hampshire

Coastal and Ocean Technology Programs

Durham, New Hampshire, USA

John W. Leffler

Waddell Mariculture Center

Marine Resources Research Institute

South Carolina Department of Natural Resources

Charleston, South Carolina, USA

Michael P. Masser

Texas Co-op Extension

College Station, Texas, USA

Michael Massingill

Kent BioEnergy Corporation

San Diego, California, USA

Steven D. Mims

Kentucky State University

Division of Aquaculture

Frankfort, Kentucky, USA

Richard J. Onders

Kentucky State University

Division of Aquaculture

Frankfort, Kentucky, USA

James E. Rakocy

University of the Virgin Islands

Agricultural Experiment Station

St. Croix, US Virgin Islands

Andrew J. Ray

The University of Southern Mississippi

Gulf Coast Research Laboratory

Ocean Springs, Mississippi, USA

Robert Rheault

Shellfish Environmental Services, Ltd.

Wakefield, Rhode Island, USA

Robert R. Stickney

Texas Sea Grant

Texas A&M University

College Station, Texas, USA

James H. Tidwell

Kentucky State University

Division of Aquaculture

Frankfort, Kentucky, USA

Michael B. Timmons

Cornell University

Biological and Environmental Engineering Department

Ithaca, New York, USA

Granvil D. Treece

Texas Sea Grant

Texas A&M University

College Station, Texas, USA

Craig Tucker

National Warmwater Aquaculture Center

Stoneville, Mississippi, USA

Preface

Aquaculture. A simple word but a complex story. It's also a story of contradictions. In some ways aquaculture is very old, having been around in some regions for 4,000 to 5,000 years. However, as a major industry, and source food for mankind, it's been around only about fifty to sixty years. While aquaculture is an industry of several hundred species, the vast majority of production is dominated by less than ten. Also, unlike other livestock crops, we not only raise herbivores and omnivores but also carnivores and even filter feeders. It is a complex story indeed.

The idea for this book began in the 1990s. At Kentucky State University (KSU) aquaculture was initially entirely a research area. We received approval to teach our first course in 1991 and I developed Principles of Aquaculture as an experimental course. Gradually my colleagues and I at KSU developed additional courses to fill out a curriculum. In the Principles of Aquaculture course, I gave an overview of concepts, and then worked through a short but comprehensive overview of some major aquaculture species. However, the systems used to raise the fish were given a very cursory overview of one or two lectures. The more I thought about it the more it seemed to me that the aquaculturist's real job is to manage the environment, and that is the job of the production system. Wouldn't it be productive to develop another course that approached aquaculture not from the direction of the culture species, but from the direction of the culture system itself? The fact is that all species from shellfish to blue fin tuna have certain things they all need. Primary among them is a suitable water temperature, sufficient dissolved oxygen, and a way to remove or detoxify their waste products. The theme of this book is to explain how all of the different production systems we use provide these services, in many diverse ways.

To provide the best coverage of the subject, and a comprehensive explanation of each system, my job was to try to convince one of the most knowledgeable experts on each system to provide a chapter covering that system. To do this I tapped into a network of colleagues and friends, many of whom I had gotten to know during my years or while working with the World Aquaculture Society (WAS) in a number of different roles. If you go through the list of contributors, you will find that there are no less than six former WAS presidents contributing to the book.

The book is intended as a resource for students and researchers. Even within aquaculture there are individuals who know a tremendous amount about one system, but have had limited exposure to other systems. It is also intended as a resource for those outside of aquaculture who wish to understand the industry better. In two of my chapters I have tried to explain in simple terms the basic concepts of the different systems. I have also used extreme examples to help those from other professions appreciate just how hard our job can be with some aquatic species. Examples of non-aquaculture professionals that I hope can benefit from this book include entrepreneurs, investment bankers, feed and equipment salesmen, engineers, and environmentalists.

Environmental groups often use the broad term “aquaculture” when referring to issues related to one particular species or production system. They often paint with a very “broad brush.” With a greater knowledge of the many different systems encompassed by this term, they might better understand aquaculture and all it represents. They might also better understand that the system they take issue with is only a very small portion of the larger aquaculture industry while their comments and criticisms negatively impact ALL parts of the industry. They might also become better able to appreciate the continuing efforts to improve the system's efficiencies and sustainability credentials. They can then come to understand that some of these systems are actually able to improve the environment by filtering out excess nutrients from whatever source.

A final theme of the book is a look ahead. What new types or combinations of systems might we see down the road? How will climate change affect aquaculture and its ability to provide increasing amounts of high quality protein to human populations, especially in regions of the world that need it the most?

I hope this text can serve as a resource for students and practitioners for many years to come and that it inspires them to develop new systems in the future. The Blue Revolution is really just beginning.

Jim Tidwell

Acknowledgments

A first of many thanks goes to Ms. Leigh Anne Bright. Her organizational skills and keen eye as a reviewer/editor of all of the chapter manuscripts kept the project moving forward. Also, her patience in times of crisis kept me from losing mine. Thanks to Ms. Karla Johnson for typing, retyping, and re-retyping my chapters through their many stages of evolution, while keeping our other duties on track as well. My appreciation to Mr. Charles Weibel for his good-natured assistance with figures. He improved many and actually recreated several to ensure the best quality for publication. Thanks to Mr. Shawn Coyle for keeping more than his share of our research responsibilities on track while this project demanded a significant percentage of my attention. My appreciation to the faculty, staff, and students of the Division of Aquaculture at Kentucky State University for their support while this project came together. Many, many thanks to the contributors of the chapters in the book. They have endured hundreds of e-mails and requests with patience and quick responses. I appreciate their support, endurance, and perseverance. I also look back and thank my mentors and fellow students at Mississippi State University in years past who helped me develop a real devotion to this discipline that has not diminished. I thank my friends and colleagues in the World Aquaculture Society who have helped me appreciate how diverse and dynamic this industry is and will continue to be. Finally, I thank my family. This includes my big brother, Bill, who has shown a real interest in the project; my wife, Vicki; and my children, Will, Chandler, and Patrick, who have shared me, and have often helped me, with many aquaculture endeavors over the years.

Chapter 2

History of Aquaculture

Robert R. Stickney and Granvil D. Treece

For purposes of this historical account the concentration is on finfish, shrimp, and mollusks that are reared as food for human consumption. The reader should be aware that aquaculture is much more expansive. In the finfish category alone there is a considerable amount of culture of ornamental fishes, particularly freshwater species. There is also a good deal of interest in marine ornamentals but the number of species that have been successfully cultured is considerably smaller than is the case for their freshwater counterparts. In some parts of the world there is also aquaculture of baitfish, such as minnows, for marketing to the recreational fishing community.

There are a large number of mollusks, crustaceans, and other invertebrate groups that include species currently being produced in aquaculture. Oysters, clams, mussels, and abalone are examples of mollusks being cultured, while various species of marine shrimp and one species of freshwater shrimp, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, are the most important groups of crustaceans being cultured for the human food market. Crabs are also cultured to a limited extent, and there is some culture of lobster. There is also some culture of sea urchins and sea cucumbers as well as a few other invertebrates.

Captive spawning and rearing of fingerlings for stocking recreational fishing waters has a relatively long history. The foundations upon which the science of aquaculture are based can be traced in large part to the pioneering fish culturists who developed the various processes associated with spawning and rearing a variety of both marine and freshwater fishes. Fish continue to be produced for recreational purposes but there are also hatcheries producing fish in many countries to enhance wild capture fisheries. Japan has a history over the past several years of also producing shrimp for enhancement stocking.