Bio-Nanotechnology E-Book

Manashi Bagchi

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Serie: Food Science and Technology
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1933

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

Bio-nanotechnology is the key functional technology of the 21st century. It is a fusion of biology and nanotechnology based on the principles and chemical pathways of living organisms, and refers to the functional applications of biomolecules in nanotechnology. It encompasses the study, creation, and illumination of the connections between structural molecular biology, nutrition and nanotechnology, since the development of techniques of nanotechnology might be guided by studying the structure and function of the natural nano-molecules found in living cells. Biology offers a window into the most sophisticated collection of functional nanostructures that exists.

This book is a comprehensive review of the state of the art in bio-nanotechnology with an emphasis on the diverse applications in food and nutrition sciences, biomedicine, agriculture and other fields. It describes in detail the currently available methods and contains numerous references to the primary literature, making this the perfect “field guide” for scientists who want to explore the fascinating world of bio-nanotechnology. Safety issues regarding these new technologies are examined in detail.

The book is divided into nine sections – an introductory section, plus:

• Nanotechnology in nutrition and medicine
• Nanotechnology, health and food technology applications
• Nanotechnology and other versatile applications
• Nanomaterial manufacturing
• Applications of microscopy and magnetic resonance in nanotechnology
• Applications in enhancing bioavailability and controlling pathogens
• Safety, toxicology and regulatory aspects
• Future directions of bio-nanotechnology

The book will be of interest to a diverse range of readers in industry, research and academia, including biologists, biochemists, food scientists, nutritionists and health professionals.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Cover

Functional Food Science and Technology Series

Title page

Copyright page

Dedication

Foreword

Preface

Contributors

Part 1: Introduction

1 Biomedical Applications of Nanomaterials: An Overview

1.1 Introduction

1.2 Metallic NPs

1.3 Carbon-based nanomaterials

1.4 Quantum dots

1.5 Toxicity

2 The Challenge of Nanotechnology-Derived Food: Addressing the Concerns of the Public

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Framework

2.3 Event description

2.4 Findings

2.5 Deference to scientific knowledge

2.6 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Appendix 2.1: Examples of coded data

Appendix 2.2: Excerpts from recommendations

3 Nanotechnology and Public Health: Contributions, Promises, and Premises

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Public health and bio-nanotechnology

3.3 The divergence of nano-bio from nanotechnology and associated problems

3.4 Nanotechnology and its contribution to public health

3.5 Conclusions

Part 2: Nanotechnology in Nutrition and Medicine

4 Functional Nanomaterials for Biomedical Research: Focus on Bio-Functionalization, Biosynthesis, and Biomedical Applications

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Design of bio-functionalized nanomaterials

4.3 Biosynthesis of nanoparticles

4.4 Biomedical application of functionalized nanoparticles

4.5 Summary and outlook

5 An Overview of Nanoparticle-Assisted Polymerase Chain Reaction Technology

5.1 PCR technology

5.2 Nanoparticle-assisted PCR (nanoPCR) technology

5.3 The possible mechanism of nanoPCR

5.4 Evolution of nanoPCR concepts

5.5 Conclusions

6 A Revolution in Nanomedicines

6.1 Introduction

6.2 A brief history of drug delivery technology

6.3 Characteristics of polymeric micelles

6.4 Types of drug incorporation into the polymeric micelle core

6.5 Applications of polymeric micelles

6.6 Regulatory considerations

6.7 The future of polymeric micelles

7 Nanotechnology for Regenerative Medicine

7.1 Introduction

7.2 Tissue regeneration with cell sheet engineering

7.3 Bone regeneration using a nanofiber scaffold

7.4 Gene delivery using nanometer-sized vesicles for bone regeneration

7.5 Conclusions

Part 3: Nanotechnology, Human Health and Applications

8 Novel Technologies for the Production of Functional Foods

8.1 Introduction

8.2 Nanotechnology

8.3 High-pressure processing (HPP)

8.4 Pulsed electric fields (PEF)

8.5 Use of nanotechnology, HPP, and PEF in the production of functional foods

8.6 Conclusions

9 Nanomedicine: The Revolution of the Big Future with Tiny Medicine

9.1 Introduction

9.2 Nanotechnology: an overview

9.3 Nanomedicine

9.4 Ethics, NT and nanomedicine

9.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgment

10 Application of γ-Cyclodextrin in Nanomedicinal Foods and Cosmetics

10.1 Introduction

10.2 What is cyclodextrin?

10.3 Reasons for using CDs in medicinal foods

10.4 Nanotechnology innovation using γ-CD for producing nanomedicinal foods and personal care products

10.5 Study on anti-aging and health improvements by oral administration of CoQ10–γ-CD complex as a powerful nutraceutical

10.6 Conclusions

11 Polymer-Based Nanocomposites for Food Packaging Applications

11.1 Introduction

11.2 iPP/CaCO3 nanocomposites

11.3 Starch/clay nanocomposites

11.4 PET/calcium carbonate nanocomposites

12 Ultrasound-Mediated Delivery Systems: Using Nano/Microbubbles or Bubble Liposomes

12.1 Introduction

12.2 Microbubbles as ultrasound contrast agents

12.3 Properties of microbubbles combined with ultrasound

12.4 Bubble liposomes

12.5 Gene delivery using sonoporation as a non-viral vector system

12.6 Tissue- or organ-selective gene delivery by the combination of ultrasound and nano/microbubbles or bubble liposomes

12.7 Antigen delivery to dendritic cells by bubble liposome and ultrasound

13 Nanoprobes and Quantum Dots: Employing Nanotechnology to Watch Biology

13.1 Introduction

13.2 Nanomaterials, nanoprobes, and quantum dots

13.3 Nanoparticle design and application

13.4 Imaging biological processes

13.5 Disadvantages of nanoprobes and quantum dots

13.6 Future perspectives

14 Enhanced Optical Biosensors Based on Nanoplasmonics

14.1 Introduction to surface plasmon resonance

14.2 Theory

14.3 Localized SPR biosensors

14.4 Overlap integral

14.5 Target-localized LSPR biosensors

14.6 Conclusions

15 Nano-Biosensors for Mimicking Gustatory and Olfactory Senses

15.1 Introduction

15.2 Materials and methods

15.3 Taste sensor

15.4 Miniaturized taste sensor

15.5 Odor discrimination and regeneration using an electronic nose

15.6 Electronic dog nose

15.7 Overview

16 Nanoparticles Inducing Simultaneous Bioreaction in Living Organisms: Critical Sizes for Transition of Biointeractive Behavior

16.1 The first era to engage fully with nanoparticles

16.2 Chemical ionic dissolution effect and physical size effect: effects of surface and volume

16.3 Bioreactive and biointeractive nature of micro/nanoparticles

16.4 Stealth of nanoparticles: invasion into the inner body and permeability of internal barriers

16.5 Discussion

17 Analysis of Immunological Reactions to Nanoscale Foods: Possible Occurrence of Allergic Reaction to Nanoscale Food Particles

17.1 Introduction

17.2 Nanofood requirements

17.3 Novel food risk assessment

17.4 Food allergy

17.5 Conclusions

18 An Overview of Green Nanotechnology

18.1 Introduction

18.2 Nanoparticles

18.3 Quantum dots (QDs)

18.4 Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)

18.5 Current and future developments

18.6 Conclusions

Acknowledgment

19 Characterization of Biopolymer and Chitosan-Based Nanocomposites with Antimicrobial Activity

19.1 Introduction

19.2 Preparation and characterization

19.3 Chitosan-based nanocomposites

19.4 Conclusions

Acknowledgments

20 Nanotechnology and its Use in Agriculture

20.1 Introduction

20.2 Nanoformulations for agrochemicals

20.3 Genetic manipulation

20.4 Nanosensors

20.5 Conclusions

Acknowledgements

21 Applications of Polymeric Nanoparticles with Steroids: A Review

21.1 Introduction

21.2 Preparation of polymer blend nanoparticles

21.3 Characteristics of nanoparticles

21.4 Applications of nanosteroids

21.5 Summary

22 Nanocomposites for Food Packaging: An Overview

22.1 Introduction

22.2 Organoclays

22.3 Formation of polymer–clay nanocomposites

22.4 Barrier enhancement of nanocomposite materials

22.5 Summary

23 Nanotechnology in Cosmetic Products

23.1 Introduction

23.2 Nanotechnology in cosmetic products

23.3 Mineral-based cosmetics

23.4 Titanium dioxide and zinc oxide: the influence of particle size

23.5 Fullerenes

23.6 Safety concerns

23.7 “Nano” labeling of cosmetic products

23.8 Particle size of inorganic sunscreens: test methods for characterization, and effects of nanoparticles

23.9 Conclusions

24 Potential Medical Applications of Fullerenes: An Overview

24.1 Introduction

24.2 Functionalized fullerenes

24.3 Biological applications

24.4 Conclusion

Part 4: Nanotechnology and Other Versatile Diverse Applications

25 Biomedical Applications of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials

25.1 Introduction

25.2 Biomedical applications

25.3 Toxicity

26 Carbon Nanotubes and Their Application to Nanotechnology

26.1 Introduction

26.2 Overview: single-walled carbon nanotubes

26.3 Electronic/electrical devices

26.4 Gas sensor devices

26.5 In-situ nondestructive chemical and mechanical sensors

26.6 Actuators

26.7 Reinforced composite materials

26.8 Summary

27 Characterization of Cyclodextrin Nanoparticles as Emulsifiers

27.1 Introduction

27.2 Preparation of emulsions using CDs

27.3 Characterization of emulsions made using CDs

27.4 Comparison of emulsions made using α-, β-, and γ-cyclodextrin

27.5 Application of a Pickering emulsion

27.6 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

28 Application of Poly(γ-Glutamic Acid)-Based Nanoparticles as Antigen Delivery Carriers in Cancer Immunotherapy

28.1 Introduction

28.2 Nanoparticulate vaccine carrier system

28.3 Studies of the use of γ-PGA NPs

28.4 Conclusion

29 Basic Characterization of Nanobubbles and Their Potential Applications

29.1 Introduction

29.2 Current state of research on microbubbles and nanobubbles

29.3 Advantages and disadvantages of microbubbles and nanobubbles

29.4 Evidence of NBs supported by size distribution and zeta potential measurements

29.5 Example of application: direct observation of nanobubbles and impurities captured on bubble surfaces

29.6 Summary

Part 5: Nanomaterial Manufacturing

30 Formulation and Characterization of Nanodispersions Composed of Dietary Materials for the Delivery of Bioactive Substances

30.1 Introduction

30.2 Formation and characterization of nanoparticles using chitosan

30.3 Formulation of size-controlled vesicles with high entrapment efficiency using W/O/W emulsions as templates

30.4 Lipid vesicles as carriers of flavonoids to enhance stability and transepithelial permeability

30.5 Conclusion

Acknowledgments

31 Production of Nanoscale Foods Using High-Pressure Emulsification Technology

31.1 Introduction

31.2 Manufacture of nanoparticles

31.3 Nanoemulsions

31.4 Fat emulsions

31.5 Use of high-pressure homogenizers in food manufacture

31.6 Liposomes (nanocapsules)

31.7 Other examples of the use of high-pressure homogenizers

31.8 Effects expected in food manufacture when a high-pressure homogenizer is used

31.9 The future of nanotechnology

31.10 Conclusion

32 Production of Monodisperse Fine Dispersions by Microchannel/Nanochannel Emulsification

32.1 Introduction

32.2 Microchannel emulsification

32.3 Nanochannel emulsification

32.4 Conclusion

Part 6: Applications of Microscopy and Nuclear Magnetic Resonance in Nanotechnology

33 Applications of Atomic Force Microscopy in Food Nanotechnology

33.1 Introduction

33.2 Imaging technology

33.3 Imaging and analysis of food samples

34 Applications of NMR to Biomolecular Systems of Interactions: An Overview

34.1 Introduction

34.2 Basic NMR parameters

34.3 Protein structure determination by NMR

34.4 Analysis of biomolecular interactions using NMR

34.5 Future prospects

Part 7: Applications in Enhancing Bioavailability and Controlling Pathogens

35 Bioavailability and Delivery of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods Using Nanotechnology

35.1 Functional foods

35.2 Bioavailability

35.3 Approaches to improving bioavailability

35.4 Various types of nanotechnology-based formulations

35.5 Outlook

35.6 Conclusion

36 Encapsulation of Bioactive Compounds in Micron/Submicron-Sized Dispersions Using Microchannel Emulsification or High-Pressure Homogenization

36.1 Introduction

36.2 Formulation and characterization of microdispersions containing lipophilic bioactive compounds by microchannel emulsification

36.3 Formulation of submicron-sized oil-in-water dispersions containing bioactive compounds

36.4 Conclusions

37 Nanometric-Size Delivery Systems for Bioactive Compounds for the Nutraceutical and Food Industries

37.1 Introduction

37.2 Digestion, uptake, and bioavailability of nanometric foods

37.3 Nanometric-size delivery systems

37.4 Large-scale production of nanometric-size delivery systems

37.5 Case studies

37.6 Conclusion and outlook

38 Nanoemulsion Technology for Delivery of Nutraceuticals and Functional-Food Ingredients

38.1 Introduction

38.2 Colloids and emulsions

38.3 General features of nanoemulsions

38.4 Food-grade amphiphilic molecules used for nanoemulsion design

38.5 Empirical rules governing the emulsion type

38.6 Droplet structure and effective volume fraction

38.7 Properties of nanoemulsions

38.8 Nanoemulsions as delivery systems for nutraceuticals and functional-food ingredients

38.9 Technological aspects, production, and applications in functional foods

38.10 Future trends

39 Nanotechnology and Nonpolar Active Compounds in Functional Foods: An Application Note

39.1 Introduction

39.2 Nanoencapsulation delivery systems

39.3 Nanoencapsulation methods in beverage applications

39.4 Conclusion

Part 8: Safety, Toxicology and Regulatory Aspects

40 How Standards Inform the Regulation of Bio-nanotechnology

40.1 Standardization and regulation as distinct concepts

40.2 Standards development

40.3 Standards and bio-nanotechnology

40.4 Product clearance rules for bio-nanotechnology

40.5 The intersection of standards and regulation

40.6 Conclusion

41 FDA and Nanotech: Baby Steps Lead to Regulatory Uncertainty

41.1 Introduction

41.2 Defining nanotechnology in the context of medicine – Does size matter?

41.3 FDA confronts nanotech

41.4 Nanoproducts as combination products?

41.5 Recommendations, conclusions, and future prospects

41.6 Statement of disclosure/ conflicts of interest

42 Toxicity and Environmental Risks of Nanomaterials: An Update

42.1 Introduction

42.2 In vitro screening

42.3 In vivo zebrafish embryo screening

42.4 In vivo mouse model screening

42.5 Summary and outlook

Acknowledgments

43 Nanoparticle–Lung Interactions and Their Potential Consequences for Human Health

43.1 Introduction

43.2 Understanding how nanoparticles affect the lung

43.3 Current knowledge of nanoparticle health effects in the lung

43.4 Summary

Acknowledgements

Conflict of interest statement

Part 9: Future Directions in Bio-Nanotechnology

44 Bio-Nanotechnology: A Journey Back to the Future

Index

Functional Food Science and Technology Series

Functional foods resemble traditional foods but are designed to confer physiological benefits beyond their nutritional function. Sources, ingredients, product development, processing and international regulatory issues are among the topics addressed in Wiley-Blackwell’s new Functional Food Science and Technology book series. Coverage extends to the improvement of traditional foods by cultivation, biotechnological and other means, including novel physical fortification techniques and delivery systems such as nanotechnology. Extraction, isolation, identification and application of bioactives from food and food processing by-products are among other subjects considered for inclusion in the series.

Series Editor: Fereidoon Shahidi, Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John’s, Newfoundland, Canada.

Titles in the series

Nutrigenomics and Proteomics in Health and Disease: Food Factors and Gene Interactions

Editors: Yoshinori Mine, Kazuo Miyashita and Fereidoon Shahidi

ISBN 978-0-8138-0033-2

Functional Food Product Development

Editors: Jim Smith and Edward Charter

ISBN 978-1-4051-7876-1

Cereals and Pulses: Nutraceutical Properties and Health Benefits

Editors: Liangli (Lucy) Yu, Rong Tsao and Fereidoon Shahidi

ISBN 978-0-8138-1839-9

Bio-Nanotechnology: A Revolution in Food, Biomedical and Health Sciences

Editors: Debasis Bagchi, Manashi Bagchi, Hiroyoshi Moriyama and Fereidoon Shahidi

ISBN 978-0-4706-7037-8

This edition first published 2013. © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Wiley-Blackwell is an imprint of John Wiley & Sons, formed by the merger of Wiley’s global Scientific, Technical and Medical business with Blackwell Publishing.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Bio-nanotechnology : a revolution in food, biomedical, and health sciences / edited by Debasis Bagchi ... [et al.].

p. ; cm. – (Functional food science and technology series)

Includes bibliographical references and index.

 ISBN 978-0-470-67037-8 (hardback :alk. paper) – ISBN 978-1-118-45194-6 (epdf/ebook) – ISBN 978-1-118-45192-2 (emobi) – ISBN 978-1-118-45193-9 (epub) – ISBN 978-1-118-45191-5 (obook)

 I. Bagchi, Debasis, 1954- II. Series: Functional food science and technology series.

 [DNLM: 1. Nanotechnology. 2. Biomedical Technology. 3. Biomimetic Materials. 4. Food Technology. QT 36.5]

 610.28'4–dc23

2012024776

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.

Cover image credits: Main image: © Stockphoto.com/setixela; Bottom left: © Anterovium – Fotolia.com; Bottom right: © iStockphoto.com/janulla

Cover design by His and Hers Design: www.hisandhersdesign.co.uk

Dedication

Dedicated to my well respected and beloved guruji, Dr. Basudeb Achari, PhD.

Debasis Bagchi

Dedicated to my beloved daughter Dipanjali Bagchi, and my mother Bakul Bardhan, for always giving me inspiration.

Manashi Bagchi

Dedicated to my beloved daughter Atsue, and son, Takanobu.

Hiroyoshi Moriyama

To the memory of my beloved parents.

Fereidoon Shahidi

Foreword

Predictions indicate that well over a million scientists and technologists will work in nanoscience and nanotechnology-related areas over the next decade. Indeed, nanoscale advances in science and technology promise applications in almost every area, with revolutionary socio-economic impacts. We can, for instance, expect major developments in research areas as diverse as nanocomposite materials for solar power generation to nanoscale devices with precise function for future medical strategies.

The drug industry has hardly started and is still locked in a Neanderthal mindset, focused mainly on relatively simple molecules to combat diseases. The new field of nanoscience and nanotechnology indicates that we should in future be able to develop medical weapons that are of commensurate sophistication with that of ‘the enemy’. We should be able to develop complex and clever molecular machines which will be able to combat on more even terms viruses and bacteria, which employ subtle strategies for infection. Penicillin is a miracle drug which led to the antibiotics revolution, but in comparison with these enemies it is really a very, very simple system

The all-carbon hollow cage molecules, the fullerenes, and their elongated cousins, the carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are stable allotropes, which in addition to graphene, graphite and diamond show fascinating promise as basic materials for novel nanoscale applications. The morphology of mate­rials is a fascinating field, and structure-related properties are of key interest in nanoscale engineering, promising nanoscale devices exhibiting advanced performance in sustainable, environmentally friendly applications. As we improve our chemical synthetic capabilities and are able to construct molecular devices with complex function, we can expect these unusual carbon-based systems also to be applied in medical situations. Drug delivery is but one area where fullerene cages promise to be non-toxic carriers of radioactive elements in chemotherapy application.

Particularly exciting is the promise of paradigm-shifting advances in medical strategies. This volume contains one of the first collections of articles addressing this fascinating and challenging area. If all these exciting advances are to be realized, then the next cohort of young biologists and medical practitioners must have a sound education in nanoscale science and technology and this education needs to be integrated into the undergraduate and graduate curricula in student biological and medical courses. This text is a welcome and highly effective response to this challenge, that must be met if we are to develop the effective bio-medical technologies we shall certainly need to survive into the next century.

Harold KrotoFlorida State UniversityTallahassee, FL, USA

Preface

Bio-nanotechnology is the key functional technology of the 21st century, which is emerging around the world. The possibility of exploiting the structures and processes of biomolecules for novel applications in materials, biosensors, bioelectronics and medical applications has created the rapidly growing field of nanobiotechnology. At the nano level, atoms demonstrate extreme diversity and uniqueness. The term ‘bio-nanotechnology’ is a fusion of bioscience and nanotechnology based on the principles and chemical pathways of living organisms, and refers to the functional applications of biomolecules in nanotechnology. It encompasses the study, creation and illumination of the con­­nections between structural molecular biology, nutrition, food science and nanotechnology, since the development of techniques of nanotechnology might be guided by studying the structure and function of the natural nano-sized molecules found in living cells.

The bio-nanotechnology of ‘biomimetic membranes’ describes the current state of research and development in biomimetic membranes for their versatile applications in bio-nanotechnology. The application areas in bio-nanotechnology range from novel nanosensors, to novel methods for sorting and delivering bioactive molecules, to novel drug delivery systems. The success of these applications relies on a good understanding of the interaction and incorporation of macromolecules in membranes and the fundamental properties of the membrane itself.

The biological and physical sciences share a common interest in small structures (ranging from 1 nm to 1 mm). The development of nanoscience around new materials and tools (largely from the physical sciences) and new phenomena (largely from the biological sciences) is already happening. The physical sciences offer tools for the synthesis and fabrication of devices for measuring the characteristics of cells and subcellular components, and of materials useful in cell and molecular biology; biology offers a window into the most sophisticated collection of functional nanostructures that exist.

The present situation regarding the biomaterials that are currently used differs greatly from the situation a decade ago. Although implantable medical devices are still immensely important, medical technologies now encompass a range of drug and nanodelivery systems, tissue engineering and cell therapies, organ printing and cell patterning; and also nanotechnology-based imaging and diagnostic systems and microelectronic devices. These technologies still encompass metals, ceramics and synthetic polymers, but also biopolymers, self-assembled systems, nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes and quantum dots. These changes imply that our original concepts of biomaterials and our expectations of their performance may have to change. It may be concluded that many substances which were not regarded as biomaterials may now be considered as traditional structural biomaterials. Hence, substances have been engineered and developed to perform functions within health-care, where they are directly controlled by interactions with cells and tissue components. These include engineered tissues, cells, organs and even viruses.

This book is intended for health professionals, nutritionists, food scientists, biologists, physicians and a diverse scientific community. Sir Harold Kroto, eminent Nobel Laureate, Professor at Florida State University, and the inventor of fullerene, wrote the Foreword for this book. Professor Kroto’s support and encouragement gave us the highest level of enthusiasm to complete this book.

The book is divided into nine main sections with forty-four chapters as follows:

Introduction

Nanotechnology in Nutrition and Medicine

Nanotechnology, Human Health and Applications

Nanotechnology and Other Versatile Diverse Applications

Nanomaterial Manufacturing

Applications of Microscopy and Magnetic Resonance in Nanotechnology

Applications in Enhancing Bioavailability and Controlling Pathogens

Safety, Toxicology and Regulatory Aspects

Future Directions in Bio-Nanotechnology

Each chapter gives a detailed description of currently available methods, and contains numerous references to the primary literature, making this the perfect ‘field guide’ for chemists, biologists, biochemists and materials and food scientists who want to explore the fascinating world of bio-nanotechnology.

The book starts with a Foreword, highlighting the importance of bio-nanotechnology in the field of biomedical sciences and applications in human health. There are three chapters in the Introduction section. The first chapter provides a review on the biomedical applications of nanomaterials, while the second chapter highlights the challenges of nanotechnology-derived foods with a special em­­phasis on addressing the concerns of the public. The third chapter deals with nanotechnology and public health.

The second section emphasizes the applications of nanotechnology in nutrition and medicine. There are four chapters in this section: the first covers functional nanomaterials for biomedical research with an integral focus on bio-functionalization and biomedical applications, and the second provides an overview of nanoparticle-assisted polymerase chain reaction technology. The third chapter demonstrates the medical applications of micellar nanoparticles, and the fourth illustrates the uses of nanotechnology for regenerative medicine.

The third section is entitled Nanotechnology, Human Health and Applications, and comprises seventeen chapters. The first chapter givers an overview of novel technologies for the production of functional foods, the second illustrates nanomedicine, which is described as ‘the revolution of the big future with tiny medicine’, and the third describes the application of γ-cyclodextrin in nanomedicinal foods and cosmetics. The fourth chapter illustrates the application of polymer-based nanocomposites for food packaging, the fifth discusses ultrasound-mediated delivery systems combined with nano/microbubbles of bubble liposomes, the sixth describes nanoprobes and quantum dots, which are described as ‘a novel device to watch biology’, and the seventh highlights enhanced optical biosensors based on nanoplasmonics. The eighth chapter discusses nanobiosensors for mimicking gustatory and olfactory senses, and the ninth chapter describes nanoparticles that induce biointeractive reactions into living organisms, and the tenth chapter discusses novel technology to analyse immunological reactions in nanoscale food. The eleventh chapter gives an overview on green nanotechnology, the twelfth provides a detailed technique for the characterization of biopolymers and chitosan-based nanocomposites with antimicrobial activity, and the thirteenth discusses the application of nanotechnology in the agriculture and food sectors. The fourteenth chapter highlights the applications of polymeric nanoparticles with steroids, the fifteenth gives an overview on nanocomposites for food packaging, and the sixteenth illustrates the application of nanotechnology in cosmetics. Finally, the seventeenth chapter provides a vivid overview of the potential medical applications of fullerenes – and we are very proud to have the approval of Sir Harold Kroto, the prime discoverer of fullerene.

The fourth section highlights other versatile and diverse applications of nanotechnology. Two dedicated chapters discuss the biomedical applications of carbon-based nanomaterials and carbon nanotubes. The third chapter discusses the application of the nanoparticle cyclodextrin as an emulsifier, and the fourth chapter highlights the application of poly(γ-glutamic acid)-based nanoparticles as an antigen delivery carrier in cancer immunotherapy. The fifth chapter demonstrates the potential applications of nanobubbles.

The fifth section elaborates on the different nanomaterial manufacturing applications. There are three chapters in this section. The first describes the formulation and characterization of nanodispersions composed of dietary materials for the delivery of bioactive substances. The second illustrates the production of nanoscale food using high-pressure emulsification technology, and the third demonstrates the production of mono­disperse fine dispersions by micro/nanochannel emulsification.

The sixth section provides a discussion on the applications of microscopy and nuclear magnetic resonance in nanotechnology. The first chapter discusses the use of atomic force microscopy (AFM) in food nanotechnology, and the second discusses the applications of nuclear magnetic resonance in biomolecular interaction systems.

The seventh section deals with applications in enhancing bioavailability and controlling pathogens. The first chapter demonstrates the bio­­availability and delivery of nutraceuticals and functional foods using nanotechnology; the second demonstrates the encapsulation of bioactive compounds into micron/submicron-sized disper­sions using microchannel emulsification or high-pressure homogenization, and the third describes nanometric-size delivery systems of bioactive compounds for the nutraceutical and food industries. The fourth chapter deals with nanoemulsion technology for the delivery of nutraceuticals and functional foods, and the fifth chapter is an application note on nanotechnology and nonpolar active compounds in functional foods.

The eighth section examines the safety, toxicology and regulatory aspects of bio-nanotechnology. The first chapter describes the standardization of nanotechnologies in the USA; the second ties up US FDA with nanotechnology and discusses various salient features on regulatory uncertainty. The third chapter provides a vivid description of the toxicology and environmental risks of nanomaterials. The fourth chapter covers nanoparticle–lung interactions and their potential consequences to human health.

In the final section, the Editors have provided an account of the future directions and expected advancements of bio-nanotechnology in the near future and named the chapter ‘Bio-nanotechnology: a journey back to the future’.

Overall, we have covered a broad spectrum of areas in the field of bio-nanotechnology and human health. First of all, our special thanks go to Nobel Laureate Sir Harold Kroto. Our sincere gratitude and appreciation go to all the eminent scientists, researchers, doctors and authors who worked very hard to contribute to this book. Finally, all four editors sincerely extend their heartfelt gratitude and thanks to Catriona Cooper of Wiley-Blackwell for her unstinting help and cooperation.

Debasis BagchiUniversity of Houston College of Pharmacy, Houston, TX, USAManashi BagchiNutriToday LLC, Boston, MA, USAHiroyoshi MoriyamaShowa Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, JapanFereidoon ShahidiMemorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, NL, Canada

Contributors

Maurizio Avella, Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, National Research Council (ICTP-CNR), Pozzuoli, Italy

Roberto Avolio, Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, National Research Council (ICTP-CNR), Pozzuoli, Italy

Debasis Bagchi, University of Houston College of Pharmacy, Houston, TX, USA

Manashi Bagchi, NutriToday LLC, Boston, MA, USA

Raj Bawa, Bawa Biotech LLC, Ashburn, VA, USA; Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA; American Society for Nanomedicine, Ashburn, VA, USA

Iulian Bobe, NanoCarrier Co. Ltd., Chiba, Japan

Philip J. Bromley, VIRUN, City of Industry, CA, USA

Shampa Chatterjee, University of Pennsylvania Medical Center, Philadelphia, PA, USA

Martin J.D. Clift, Adolphe Merkle Institute, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland

Debabrata Dash, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India

Emilia Di Pace, Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, National Research Council (ICTP-CNR), Pozzuoli, Italy

Francesco Donsì, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy

Yoko Endo-Takahashi, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan

Howard A. Epstein, EMD Chemicals, Philadelphia, PA, USA

Maria Emanuela Errico, Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, National Research Council (ICTP-CNR), Pozzuoli, Italy

Zhen Fan, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS, USA

Giovanna Ferrari, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy

Katerina B. Fujiu, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Japan

Gennaro Gentile, Institute of Chemistry and Technology of Polymers, National Research Council (ICTP-CNR), Pozzuoli, Italy

Ayako Goto, formerly University of Shizuoka, Japan

Kelvii Wei Guo, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

Shinya Hanashima, RIKEN, Saitama, Japan

Mitsunori Harada, NanoCarrier Co. Ltd., Chiba, Japan

Maki Hashimoto, Osaka City University Medical School, Osaka, Japan

M. Carmen Hermosín, Instituto de Recursos Naturales y Agrobiologia de Sevilla, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IRNAS-CSIC), Seville, Spain

Megumu Higaki, Tokyo Kyosai Hospital, Tokyo, Japan

Yun-Hwa Peggy Hsieh, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA

Qingrong Huang, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA

Sosaku Ichikawa, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan

Masayasu Inoue, Osaka City University Medical School, Osaka, Japan

Ayako Jo, CycloChem Co. Ltd., Kobe, Japan

Alexander Kielbassa, Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany

Donghyun Kim, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea

Kyujung Kim, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea

Isao Kobayashi, National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, Tsukuba, Japan

Paresh P. Kulkarni, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India

Yoshikazu Kumashiro, Tokyo Women’s Medical University, Tokyo, Japan

Takashi Kuroiwa, Tokyo City University, Tokyo, Japan

Tie Lan, Nanocor, Inc., Hoffman Estates, IL, USA

Fernando Leal-Calderon, Université de Bordeaux, Pessac, France

Martha E. Marrapese, Keller and Heckman LLP, Washington, DC, USA

Kazuo Maruyama, Teikyo University, Tokyo, Japan

Masami Matsuda, Tokyo Kasei-gakuin University, Tokyo, Japan

Kazuhiko Matsuo, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan

Danny D. Meetoo, University of Salford, Salford, UK

Hiroyoshi Moriyama, Showa Pharmaceutical University, Tokyo, Japan

Hiroshi Muramatsu, Tokyo University of Technology, Tokyo, Japan

Shinsaku Nakagawa, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan

Ichiro Nakatomi, NanoCarrier Co. Ltd., Chiba, Japan

Yoichi Negishi, Tokyo University of Pharmacy and Life Sciences, Tokyo, Japan

Marcos A. Neves, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan

Yusuke Oda, Teikyo University, Tokyo, Japan

Jack Appiah Ofori, Florida State University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA

Toshio Ogino, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Japan

Youngjin Oh, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea

Naoki Okada, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan

Teruo Okano, Tokyo Women’s Medical University, Tokyo, Japan

Christine M. Oliver, CSIRO Animal, Food and Health Sciences, Werribee, VIC, Australia

Takeshi Onodera, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

Seiichi Oshita, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan

Rajen B. Patel, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, USA

Alejandro Pérez-de-Luque, IFAPA, Centro Alameda del Obispo, Córdoba, Spain

Craig A. Poland, Institute of Occupational Medicine, SAFENANO, Edinburgh, UK

Paresh C. Ray, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS, USA

Sara Reynaud, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, USA

Jong-Whan Rhim, Mokpo National University, Korea

Henelyta S. Ribeiro, Unilever R&D Vlaardingen, Vlaardingen, The Netherlands

Sathya Sadhasivam, Gachon University, GyeonggiDo, Republic of Korea

Yoshihiro Saito, Nihon University, Chiba, Japan

Luz Sanguansri, CSIRO Animal, Food and Health Sciences, Werribee, VIC, Australia

Eisuke F. Sato, Suzuka University of Medical Science, Suzuka, Japan and Osaka City University Medical School, Osaka, Japan

Dulal Senapati, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS, USA

Mariarenata Sessa, University of Salerno, Fisciano, Italy

Fereidoon Shahidi, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John’s, NL, Canada

Cenchao Shen, RMIT University, Bundoora, VIC, Australia

Anant Kumar Singh, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS, USA

Sunil K. Singh, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India

Ramesh Subbiah, Korea Institute of Science and Technology, Seoul, Republic of Korea

Shigeru Sugiyama, National Food Research Institute, Ibaraki, Japan

Ryo Suzuki, Teikyo University, Tokyo, Japan

Yusuke Tahara, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

Kazuyuki Takagi, Mizuho Industries Co. Ltd., Osaka, Japan

Yoshiaki Tanaka, Department of Health, Koto-ku City, Tokyo, Japan

Keiji Terao, CycloChem Co. Ltd., Kobe, Japan

Naveen Kumar Thakral, Laborate Pharmaceutical Ltd, Panipat, India

Seema Thakral, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA

Kiyoshi Toko, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan

Kazumi Tsukamoto, National Food Research Institute, Ibaraki, Japan

Wojtek Tutak, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, USA

Tsutomu Uchida, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan

Yukiko Uekaji, CycloChem Co. Ltd., Kobe, Japan

Akihito Urano, CycloChem Co. Ltd., Kobe, Japan

Murugan Veerapandian, Gachon University, GyeonggiDo, Republic of Korea

Maria Grazia Volpe, Institute of Food Science, National Research Council (ISA-CNR), Avellino, Italy

Jun’ichi Wakayama, National Food Research Institute, Ibaraki, Japan

Jun Watanabe, National Food Research Institute, Tsukuba, Japan

Fumio Watari, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan

Tomiko Yamaguchi, International Christian University, Tokyo, Japan

Yoshiki Yamaguchi, RIKEN, Saitama, Japan

Masayuki Yamato, Tokyo Women’s Medical University, Tokyo, Japan

Hailong Yu, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ, USA

Hongtao Yu, Jackson State University, Jackson, MS, USA

Kyusik Yun, Gachon University, GyeonggiDo, Republic of Korea

Zhizhou Zhang, Harbin Institute of Technology, Weihai, China

Part 1Introduction

1

Biomedical Applications of Nanomaterials: An Overview

Sunil K. Singh, Paresh P. Kulkarni, Debabrata Dash

Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India

1.1 Introduction

Nanotechnology (the Greek word nano means “dwarf”) is the creation and utilization of materials, devices, and systems through the control of matter at the nanometer-length scale, i.e., at the level of atoms, molecules, and supramolecular structures. It is the popular term for the construction and utilization of functional structures with at least one characteristic dimension measured at nanometer scale – a nanometer (nm) is one-billionth of a meter (10−9 m). This is roughly four times the diameter of an individual atom. The width of DNA is approximately 2.5 nm and protein molecules measure 1–20 nm. It is essential to understand nanomaterials and their properties in order to develop innovations in biological systems and medicine. However, it is only in the last 5 years that a new branch of science, known as “nanomedicine,” has emerged as a distinct field, and it has since grown exponentially. The late Nobel physicist Richard P. Feynman had the visionary idea that tiny nanorobots could be designed, manufactured, and introduced into the human body to perform cellular repairs at the molecular level. In his prescient 1959 talk, “There’s plenty of room at the bottom,” he proposed using machine tools to make smaller machine tools, which could be used in turn to make still smaller machine tools, and so on all the way down to the atomic level [1]. Feynman was clearly aware of the potential medical applications of the new technology he was proposing. As perceived by Feynman, it is extremely likely that nanomedicine, a multidisciplinary field that embraces biology, chemistry, physics, engineering, and materials science, will play a major role in the betterment of the human condition.