Bioremediation of Petroleum and Petroleum Products E-Book

James G. Speight

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Serie: Energy and Environment
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 1018

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012

Beschreibung

With petroleum-related spills, explosions, and health issues in the headlines almost every day, the issue of remediation of petroleum and petroleum products is taking on increasing importance, for the survival of our environment, our planet, and our future. This book is the first of its kind to explore this difficult issue from an engineering and scientific point of view and offer solutions and reasonable courses of action.

This book will guide the reader through the various methods that are used for the bioremediation of petroleum and petroleum products. The text is easy to read and includes many up-to-date and topical references.

This book introduces the reader to the science and technology of biodegradation—a key process in the bioremediation of petroleum and petroleum-based contaminants at spill sites. The contaminants of concern in the molecularly variable petroleum and petroleum products can be degraded under appropriate conditions. But the success of the process depends on the ability to determine the necessary conditions and establish them in the contaminated environment.

Although the prime focus of the book is to determine the mechanism, extent, and efficiency of biodegradation, it is necessary to know the composition of the original petroleum or petroleum product. The laws of science dictate what can or cannot be done with petroleum and petroleum products to ensure that biodegradation (hence, bioremediation) processes are effective. The science of the composition of petroleum and petroleum products is at the core of understanding the chemistry of biodegradation and bioremediation processes. Hence, inclusion of petroleum analyses and properties along with petroleum product analyses and properties is a necessary part of this text.

Bioremediation of Petroleum and Petroleum Products:

• Summarizes the pros and cons of remediation of petroleum and petroleum-based products, from an environmental perspective
• Gives examples of unethical behavior and how they should be corrected
• Offers arguments and elucidates engineering considerations on all sides of these difficult environmental and economic issues

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Half Title page

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

Chapter 1: Introduction to Bioremediation

1 Introduction

2 Principles of Bioremediation

3 Bioremediation and Biodegradation

4 Mechanism of Biodegradation

5 Bioremediation Methods

6 Test Methods for Biodegradation

7 References

Chapter 2: Petroleum Composition and Properties

1 Introduction

2 Composition

3 Properties

4 References

Chapter 3: Refinery Products and By-Products

1 Introduction

2 Refinery Products

3 Refinery Chemicals

4 References

Chapter 4: Composition and Properties of Gaseous Products

1 Introduction

2 Gaseous Products

3 Environmental Effects

4 Analysis

5 References

Chapter 5: Composition and Properties of Liquid Products

1 Introduction

2 Naphtha

3 Fuel Oil

4 Wastewaters

5 References

Chapter 6: Composition and Properties of Solid Products

1 Introduction

2 Residua and Asphalt

3 Coke

4 Sludge

5 References

Chapter 7: Sample Collection and Preparation

1 Introduction

2 Petroleum Chemicals

3 Sample Collection and Preparation

4 Measurement

5 Accuracy

6 Precision

7 Method Validation

8 Quality Control and Quality Assurance

9 Method Detection Limit

10 References

Chapter 8: Analytical Methods

1 Introduction

2 Chemical And Physical Properties

3 Petroleum Group Analyses

4 Other Analytical Methods

5 References

Chapter 9: Biodegradation of Petroleum

1 Introduction

2 Biodegradation of Specific Constituents

3 Petroleum Biodegradation

4 Application to Spills

5 References

Chapter 10: Biodegradation of Naphtha and Gasoline

1 Introduction

2 Identity and Origin

3 Remediation

4 BTEX and MTBE

5 References

Chapter 11: Biodegradation of Kerosene and Diesel

1 Introduction

2 Identity and Origin of Kerosene and Diesel

3 Bioremediation

4 Jet Fuel

5 References

Chapter 12: Biodegradation of Fuel Oil

1 Introduction

2 Identity and Origin of Fuel Oil

3 Biodegradation

4 References

Chapter 13: Biodegradation of Lubricating Oil

1 Introduction

2 Identity and Origin of Lubricating Oil

3 Composition and Properties of Lubricating Oil

4 Biodegradation of Lubricating Oils

5 Bioremediation – The Challenge

6 Conclusion

7 References

Chapter 14: Biodegradation of Residua and Asphalt

1 Introduction

2 Identity and Origin of Residua and Asphalt

3 Biodegradation of Residua and Asphalt

4 References

Chapter 15: Bioremediation Methods

1 Land Ecosystems

2 Water Ecosystems

3 References

Chapter 16: The Future of Bioremediation

1 Introduction

2 Status

3 Advantages and Disadvantages

4 Conclusion

5 References

Glossary

Conversion Factors

1. Concentration Conversions

2. Sludge Conversions

3. Weight Conversion

4. Temperature Conversions

5. Area

6. Nutrient Conversion Factor

7. Other Approximations

Index

Bioremediation of Petroleum and Petroleum Products

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Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, New Jersey, and Scrivener Publishing LLC, Salem, Massachusetts.Published simultaneously in Canada.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

ISBN 978-0-470-93849-2

Preface

Biodegradation is a natural process, and with enough time, microorganisms can eliminate many components of petroleum oil from the environment. The concern is whether or not bioremediation technologies can accelerate this natural process enough to be considered practical, and, if so, whether they might find a niche as replacements for, or adjuncts to, other petroleum spill response technologies.

Petroleum (crude oil) is a complex mixture of thousands of different chemical compounds. In addition, the composition of each accumulation of oil is unique, varying in different producing regions, and even in different unconnected zones of the same formation. The composition of petroleum also varies with the amount of refining. Significantly, the many constituents of petroleum differ markedly in volatility, solubility, and susceptibility to biodegradation: some constituents are susceptible to microbial biodegradation, while others are non-biodegradable. Furthermore, the biodegradation of different petroleum constituents occurs simultaneously, but at very different rates. This leads to the sequential disappearance of individual components of petroleum over time and, because different species of microbes preferentially attack different compounds, to successional changes in the degrading microbial community. Thus, to evaluate the effectiveness of biodegradation through the application of bioremediation technologies, it is necessary to know the molecular effects of the process, starting with the molecular composition of the contaminants.

This book introduces the reader to the science and technology of biodegradation, a key process in the bioremediation of petroleum and petroleum based contaminants at spill sites. The contaminants of concern in the molecularly-variable petroleum and petroleum products can be degraded under appropriate conditions. But the success of the process depends on the ability to determine the necessary conditions and establish them in the contaminated environment.

Although the prime focus of the book is to determine the mechanism, extent, and efficiency of biodegradation, it is necessary to know the composition of the original petroleum or petroleum product. The laws of science dictate what can or cannot be done with petroleum and petroleum products to insure that biodegradation (hence, bioremediation) processes are effective. The science of the composition of petroleum and petroleum products is at the core of understanding the chemistry of biodegradation and bioremediation processes. Hence, inclusion of petroleum analyses and properties, along with petroleum product analyses and properties, is a necessary part of this text.

As a result, the book is divided into chapters that guide the reader through the composition of petroleum and petroleum products, as well as processes involved in the biodegradation/bioremediation of petroleum: Chapter 1: Introduction to Bioremediation; Chapter 2: Petroleum Composition and Properties; Chapter 3: Refinery Products and By-Products; Chapter 4: Composition and Properties of Gaseous Fractions; Chapter 5: Composition and Properties of Liquid Fractions; Chapter 6: Composition and Properties of Solid Fractions; Chapter 7: Sample Collection and Preparation; Chapter 8: Analytical Methods; Chapter 9: Biodegradation of Petroleum; Chapter 10: Biodegradation of Naphtha and Gasoline; Chapter 11: Biodegradation of Kerosene and Diesel; Chapter 12: Biodegradation of Fuel Oil; Chapter 13: Biodegradation of Lubricating Oil; Chapter 14: Biodegradation of Residua and Asphalt; Chapter 15: Bioremediation Methods for Oil Spills; and Chapter 16: The Future of Bioremediation.

Each chapter includes a copious reference section, and the book is further improved by the inclusion of an extensive Glossary.

James G. Speight PhD, DScLaramie, Wyoming, USA

Karuna K. Arjoon, MPhilCalifornia, Trinidad and Tobago

Chapter 1

Introduction to Bioremediation

1 Introduction

One of the major and continuing environmental problems is hydrocarbon contamination resulting from activities related to petroleum and petroleum products. Soil contamination with hydrocarbons causes extensive damage of local systems, since accumulation of pollutants in animals and plant tissue may cause death or mutations.

However, not all petroleum products are harmful to health and the environment. There are records of the use of petroleum spirit for medicinal purposes. This was probably a higher boiling fraction than naphtha or a low boiling fraction of gas oil that closely resembled the modern-day liquid paraffin, for medicinal purposes. In fact, the so-called liquid paraffin has continued to be prescribed up to modern times, as a means for miners to take in prescribed doses to lubricate the alimentary tract and assist coal dust, taken in during the working hours, in passing though the body.

There are, however, those constituents of petroleum that are extremely harmful to health and the environment. Indeed, petroleum constituents, either in the pure form or as the components of a fraction, have been known to belong to the various families of carcinogens and neurotoxins. Whatever the name given to these compounds, they are extremely toxic.

As a result, once a spill has occurred, every effort must be made to rid the environment of the toxins. The chemicals of known toxicity range in degree of toxicity from low to high, and represent considerable danger to human health, and must be removed (Frenzel et al., 2009). Many of these chemicals substances come in contact with, and are sequestered by, soil or water systems. While conventional methods to remove, reduce, or mitigate the effects of toxic chemical in nature are available, including (1) pump and treat systems, (2) soil vapor extraction, (3) incineration, and (4) containment, each of these conventional methods of treatment of contaminated soil and/or water suffers from recognizable drawbacks, and may involve some level of risk. In short, these methods, depending upon the chemical constituents of the spilled material, may have limited effectiveness and can be expensive (Speight, 1996; Speight and Lee, 2000; Speight, 2005).

Although the effects of bacteria (microbes) on hydrocarbons have been known for decades, this technology (now known as bioremediation) has shown promise and, in some cases, high degrees of effectiveness for the treatment of these contaminated sites, since it is cost-effective and will lead to complete mineralization. Bioremediation functions basically on biodegradation, which may refer to complete mineralization of the organic contaminants into carbon dioxide, water, inorganic compounds, and cell protein, or transformation of complex organic contaminants to other simpler organic compounds that are not detrimental to the environment. In fact, unless they are overwhelmed by the amount of the spilled material or the material is toxic, many indigenous microorganisms in soil and/or water are capable of degrading hydrocarbon contaminants.

The United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) uses bioremediation because it takes advantage of natural processes and relies on microbes that occur naturally or can be laboratory cultivated; these consist of bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, cyanobacteria, and, to a lesser extent, plants (US EPA, 2006). These microorganisms either consume and convert the contaminants, or assimilate within them all harmful compounds from the surrounding area, thereby rendering the region virtually contaminant-free. Generally, the substances that are consumed as an energy source are organic compounds, while those that are assimilated within the organism are heavy metals. Bioremediation harnesses this natural process by promoting the growth and/or rapid multiplication of these organisms that can effectively degrade specific contaminants and convert them to nontoxic by-products.

The capabilities of micro-organisms and plants to degrade and transform contaminants provide benefits in the cleanup of pollutants from spills and storage sites. These remediation ideas have provided the foundation for many ex situ waste treatment processes (including sewage treatment), and a host of in situ bioremediation methods that are currently in practice.

Thus, bioremediation - the use of living organisms to reduce or eliminate environmental hazards resulting from accumulations of toxic chemicals and other hazardous wastes - is an option that offers the possibility to destroy or render harmless various contaminants using natural biological activity (Gibson and Sayler, 1992). In addition, bioremediation can also be used in conjunction with a wide range of traditional physical and chemical technology to enhance their effectiveness (Vidali, 2001).

In the current context, bioremediation of petroleum and petroleum fractions (or products) is the cleanup of petroleum spills or petroleum product spills by the use of microbes to breakdown the petroleum constituents (or other organic contaminants) into less harmful (usually lower molecular weight) and easier-to-remove products (biodegradation). The microbes transform the contaminants through metabolic or enzymatic processes, which vary greatly, but the final product is usually harmless and includes carbon dioxide, water, and cell biomass. Thus, the emerging science and technology of bioremediation offers an alternative method to detoxify petroleum-related soil and water contaminants.

Briefly and by means of clarification, biodegradation (biotic degradation, biotic decomposition) is the chemical degradation of contaminants by bacteria or other biological means. Organic material can be degraded aerobically (in the presence of oxygen) or anaerobically (in the absence of oxygen). Most bioremediation systems operate under aerobic conditions, but a system under anaerobic conditions may permit microbial organisms to degrade chemical species that are otherwise non-responsive to aerobic treatment, and vice versa.

Thus, biodegradation is a natural process (or a series of processes) by which spilled petroleum hydrocarbons, or other organic waste material, are broken down (degraded) into nutrients that can be used by other organisms. As a result, the ability of a chemical to be biodegraded is an indispensable element in understanding the risk posed by that chemical on the environment.