Rules of Thumb for Petroleum Engineers E-Book

James G. Speight

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Wissenschaft und neue Technologien
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 840

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2017

Beschreibung

The most comprehensive and thorough reference work available for petroleum engineers of all levels. Finally, there is a one-stop reference book for the petroleum engineer which offers practical, easy-to-understand responses to complicated technical questions. This is a must-have for any engineer or non-engineer working in the petroleum industry, anyone studying petroleum engineering, or any reference library. Written by one of the most well-known and prolific petroleum engineering writers who has ever lived, this modern classic is sure to become a staple of any engineer's library and a handy reference in the field. Whether open on your desk, on the hood of your truck at the well, or on an offshore platform, this is the only book available that covers the petroleum engineer's rules of thumb that have been compiled over decades. Some of these "rules," until now, have been "unspoken but everyone knows," while others are meant to help guide the engineer through some of the more recent breakthroughs in the industry's technology, such as hydraulic fracturing and enhanced oil recovery. The book covers every aspect of crude oil, natural gas, refining, recovery, and any other area of petroleum engineering that is useful for the engineer to know or to be able to refer to, offering practical solutions to everyday engineering problems and a comprehensive reference work that will stand the test of time and provide aid to its readers. If there is only one reference work you buy in petroleum engineering, this is it.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title page

Copyright page

Preface

About the Author

Abrasion

Absorption

Acid Gas Removal

Acid Gas Scrubbing

Acid Number

Acid Rain

Acid-Base Catalysts

Acidity and Alkalinity

Acidizing

Adsorption

Adsorption Isotherm

Adulteration

Air Emissions

Alcohol Blended Fuels

Alcohols

Alicyclic Hydrocarbons

Aliphatic Hydrocarbons

Alloys – Composition

Amine Absorber

Amine Condenser

Amine Washing

Ammonia

Aniline Point

Anticline

Antoine Equation

API Gravity

Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Asphalt Manufacture

Asphaltene Constituents

Associated Natural Gas

Atmospheric Equivalent Boiling Point

Auto-ignition Temperature

Barrel

Baumé Gravity

Benchmark Crude Oil

Bernoulli’s Principle

Biomass and Biofuels

Bitumen

Bituminous Rock and Bituminous Sand

Black Acids

Black Oil

Blending and Mixing

Boiling Point and Boiling Range

Brine

Bubble Point and Bubble Point Pressure

Bureau of Mines Correlation Index

Calorific Value

Capillary Forces

Capillary Number

Capillary Pressure

Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide

Carbon Number and Possible Isomers

Carbonate Reservoir

Carbonate Washing and Water Washing

Catalyst Pore Diameter

Catalytic Materials

Catalytic Reforming

Cementation Value

Cetane Index

Characterization Factor

Chemical Reaction Rates

Chemicals Reactive with Water

Chemometrics

Clausius Equation and Clausius-Clapeyron Equation

Coal – General Properties

Coke Yield from Conradson Carbon

Common Acronyms

Common Names of Selected Chemical Compounds

Common Unit Conversions

Commonly Used Constants

Compressibility

Coning

Conversion Charts

Conversion Factors

Correlation Index

Corrosion

Corrosion – Fuel Ash

Corrosion – Naphthenic Acid

Cricondenbar

Cricondentherm

Critical Properties

Critical Temperatures of Gases

Crude Oil – Assay

Crude Oil – Classification

Crude Oil – Desalting

Crude Oil – Distillation

Crude Oil – Fractional Composition

Crude Oil – Hydrotreating

Crude Oil – Molecular Composition

Crude Oil – Primary Recovery

Crude Oil – Recovery

Crude Oil – Refining

Crude Oil – Residua

Crude Oil – Sampling and Analysis

Crude Oil – Secondary Recovery

Crude Oil – Tertiary Recovery

Crude Oil from Tight Formations

Darcy and Non-Darcy Flow in Porous Media

Darcyߣs Law

Decimal Multipliers for SI Prefixes

Decline Curve Evaluation

Delivery Point

Density, Specific Gravity, and API Gravity

Density-Boiling Point Constant

Determining Depreciation

Dew Point Temperature and Pressure

Dielectric Constant

Dielectric Loss and Power Factor

Diesel Index

Dipole Moment

Distillation

Distillation – Flooding

Distillation – Gap-Overlap

Drilling Fluid

Drilling Fluid Additives

E85 Fuel

Embrittlement

Embrittlement – Hydrogen

Emulsion

Enhanced Oil Recovery

Environmental Regulations

Evaporation

Expansion and Contraction of Solids

Explosive Limits

Fire Point

Fischer-Tropsch Chemistry

Flammability and Flammability Limits

Flash Point

Flow Through Porous Media

Fluid Catalytic Cracking – Chemistry

Fluid Flow Fundamentals

Fluid Flow Through Permeable Media

Fluid Flow

Fluid Saturation

Foamy Oil

Formation Volume Factor

Fouling

Fracturing Fluids

Fuel Oil

Functional Groups

Fundamental Physical Constants

Gas Deviation Factor

Gas Formation Volume Factor

Gas Laws

Gas Processing – Hydrogen Sulfide Conversion

Gas Processing – Metal Oxide Processes

Gas Processing – Olamine Processes

Gas Processing – Sweetening

Gas Processing – Absorption and Adsorption Processes

Gas Processing – Acid Gas Removal

Gas Processing – Carbonate and Water Washing Processes

Gas Processing – Catalytic Oxidation Processes

Gas Processing - Fractionation

Gas Processing – Gas-Oil Separation

Gas Processing – Liquids Removal

Gas Processing – Metal Oxide Processes

Gas Processing – Methanol-Based Processes

Gas Processing – Molecular Sieve Processes

Gas Processing – Nitrogen Removal

Gas Processing – Physical Solvent Processes

Gas Processing – Plant Schematic and Products

Gas Processing – Processes and Process Selection

Gas Processing – Water Removal

Gas Solubility

Gas-Condensate Reservoirs

Gaseous Fuels

Gaseous Hydrocarbons – General Properties

Gasification – Chemistry

Gasification – Refinery Resids

Gas-Liquid Solubility

Gas-Oil Ratio

Gas-Oil Separation

Gasoline – Component Streams

Gas-to-Liquids

Geological Time Scale

Geothermal Gradient

Glycol

Grease

Greek Alphabet

Hazardous Chemicals

Hazardous Waste

Heat Capacity

Heat Content of Petroleum Products

Heat Exchangers

Heat of Combustion of Petroleum Fuels

Heat of Combustion of Petroleum Fuels

Heat Transfer Coefficient

Heat Transfer – Convection and Conduction

Heating Value

Heavy Feedstock Conversion – Thermal Processes

Heterogeneity

Heterogeneous Catalysis and Homogeneous Catalysis

High-Acid Crudes

Hydrate Formation and Prevention

Hydraulic Fracturing

Hydrocarbon Gases – Physical Constants

Hydroconversion

Hydrogen Chloride

Hydrogen in Refineries

Hydrogen Sulfide Conversion

Hydrogen Sulfide

Hydrogen

Hydrostatic Pressure

Ideal Gas

Improved Oil Recovery Processes

Incompatible Chemicals

Ionic Liquids

Isothermal Compressibility of Oil

Kinematic Viscosity

Liquefied Petroleum Gas

Liquid-Gas Separators

Lubricants – Classification

Lubricating Oil – Base Stock

M85

Marx-Langenheim Model

Material Balance

Mean Density – Gas-Air Mixture

Mean Density – Gas-Air Mixture

Metals Content and FCC Coke Production

Methane

Molecular Weight of Petroleum Fractions

Naphthenic Acids – Corrosion in Distillation Units

Naphthenic Acids – Mitigating Corrosion

Naphthenic Acids

Natural Gas - Associated

Natural Gas – Composition

Natural Gas – Compressibility

Natural Gas – Measurement

Natural Gas – Nonassociated

Natural Gas – Properties

Natural Gas – Specific Gravity

Natural Gas – Phase Behavior

Natural Gas – Sweetening

Natural Gasoline

Nitrogen and Nitrogen Oxide Gases

Nonassociated Natural Gas

Octane Barrel Yield

Octane Number

Oil and Gas from Tight Formations

Oil and Gas Originally in Place

Oil Recovery Factor

Oil Shale – General Classification

Oilfield Chemicals

Olamine Processes

Olamine

On-Stream Factor

Opportunity Crudes

Organic Compounds – Physical and Thermochemical Data

Organic Solvents

Oxygen

Ozone

Paraffin Hydrocarbons

Particle Size Classification

Permeability

Petrochemicals

Petroleum Products – Heat Content

Petroleum Products

Phase Behavior

Polychlorobiphenyls

Porosity

Prefixes

Pressure Conversion

Principal Component Analysis

Process System

Product Blending

Production Engineering Units

Productivity Index

Proppants

PVT Properties

Rate of Reaction

Reactor Types

Recovery Methods

Refinery Feedstocks – Corrosive Constituents

Refinery Gas

Refinery Types

Refinery Units – Materials of Construction and Operating Conditions

Refractive Index and Specific Refraction

Relative Density

Relative Permeability

Relative Volatility

Reserves – Estimation

Reserves

Reservoir Crude Oil

Reservoir – Drive Mechanisms

Reservoir Pressure

Reservoir – Types and Classification

Reservoir

Resid Upgrading Technologies

Resource Estimation

Retrograde Condensate Systems

Retrograde Condensation

Reynolds Number

Rock Types

SARA Analysis

Saturated Steam

Saturation

Sediments, Reservoirs, and Deposits

Separators – Gas-Oil Separation

Shale Gas Formation

Shale Gas Reservoirs – Variation in Shale Properties

Shale Gas – Variations in Composition

Shale Oil (Kerogen-Derived Oil) – Variation in Properties

Shale Plays – Properties

SI – International System of Units

Solubility Parameter

Solvents

Specific Gravity

Specific Heat

Stress-Corrosion Cracking

Sulfur Dioxide

Sulfur Material Balance

Supercritical Fluids

Surface Tension

Sweetening Processes

Synthesis Gas

Tar Sand

Test Methods

Thermal Conductivity

Thermal Cracking Processes

Tight Formations

Unit Process

Vapor Density

Vapor Pressure

Viscosity

Viscosity Index

Viscosity of Petroleum Fractions

Viscosity-Gravity Constant

Volume Flow Rate

Volumetric Evaluation

Volumetric Factors

Water – Boiling Point Variation with Pressure

Water –Common Impurities

Water – Density and Viscosity in Relation to Temperature

Water Saturation

Watson Characterization Factor

Weights and Measures – Density

Weights and Measures – Fuels

Weights and Measures - General

Well Casing

Wellbore Stability Analysis

Wettability

Wobbe Index

Working Gas

Bibliography and Information Sources

End User License Agreement

Guide

Cover

Copyright

Contents

Begin Reading

List of Tables

Abrasion

Table

Examples of selected ASTM standard test method for determining abrasion*.

Acidity and Alkalinity

Table

Ranges of acidity and alkalinity.

Alcohols

Table

Properties of methanol and ethanol compared to iso-octane.

Alicyclic Hydrocarbons

Table

Properties of selected alicyclic hydrocarbon derivatives.

Aliphatic Hydrocarbons

Table 1

Physical properties of n-paraffins.

Table 2

Physical properties of selected branched paraffins (Iso-Paraffin Derivatives).

Table 3

Physical properties of selected olefins.

Alloys – Composition

Table

Compositions of selected common alloys*.

Amine Washing

Table

Olamines used for gas processing.

Ammonia

Table

Physical properties of ammonia.

Antoine Equation

Table

Example of the antoine constants.

API Gravity

Table 1

API gravity and specific gravity.

Table

API gravity and sulfur content of selected heavy oils.

Table 2

API gravity at observed temperature versus API gravity at 60 °F.

Table 3

Selected crude oils showing the differences in API gravity and sulfur content within a country.

Table 4

API gravity and sulfur content of selected heavy oils and tar sand bitumen.

Aromatic Hydrocarbons

Table

Examples of polycyclic aromatic systems*.

Asphaltene Constituents

Table

ASTM standard methods for asphaltene separation.

Barrel

Table

Conversion factors for barrels to other units.

Baumé Gravity

Table

Guide to the use of Baumé Gravity.

Biomass and Biofuels

Table 1

Composition of biogas from different sources.

Table 2

Elemental composition (with ash content) of biofuels (% w/w, dry basis).

Table 3

Heating value of selected fuels.

Table 4

Typical plants used as a source of energy.

Table 5

Chemical composition of different biomass types (% w/w dry basis).

Table 6

Selected properties of common bio-feedstocks and biofuels (c.f., coal and crude oil distillate).

Table 7

Physical and chemical properties of ethanol, methanol and gasoline.

Table 8

Specifications of diesel and biodiesel fuels.

Table 9

Typical properties of bio-oil from wood pyrolysis and no. 2 diesel fuel.

Table 10

Properties of vegetable oil biodiesel and diesel fuel.

Table 11

Properties of Fischer-Tropsch diesel fuel and no.2 diesel fuel.

Table 12

Moisture, ash, heat content, and chemical composition of selected biomass fuels.

Boiling Point and Boiling Range

Table

Example of the boiling ranges of crude oil fractions.

Brine

Table

Water Salinity based on dissolved salts (parts per thousand).

Calorific Value

Table

Calorific values (higher heating values, HHV and lower heating values, LHV) of selected fuels.

Carbon Monoxide and Carbon Dioxide

Table 1

Physical properties of carbon monoxide.

Table 2

Physical properties of carbon dioxide.

Carbon Number and Possible Isomers

Table

Boiling point of the n-isomers of the various paraffin derivatives and the number of possible isomers associated with each carbon number.

Catalytic Materials

Table

Surface areas of some typical carrier materials.

Catalytic Reforming

Table 1

Parameters for the catalytic reforming process.

Table 2

Reforming reactions.

Cementation Value

Table

Lithology and cementation values.

Coal – General Properties

Table

General properties.

Coke Yield from Conradson Carbon

Table

Coke yields derived from conradson carbon.*

Common Acronyms

Table

Common acronyms used in the petroleum and natural gas industries.

Compressibility

Table

symbols used in determining the compressibility factor.

Critical Properties

Table

Critical properties of selected hydrocarbons and other molecules.

Critical Temperatures of Gases

Table

Critical temperature and pressure data for some common gases.

Crude Oil – Assay

Table

Tests for a crude oil assay.

Crude Oil – Hydrotreating

Table

Process parameters for hydrodesulfurization.

Crude Oil – Molecular Composition

Table

Compound types in petroleum and petroleum fractions.

Crude Oil – Recovery

Table

Recovery process parameters and their potential adverse effects leading to sludge and sediment formation.

Crude Oil – Refining

Table 1

Examples of the types of reactors used in a refinery, including a gas processing plant.

Table 2

Separation processes and conversion processes.

Table 3

Comparison of visbreaking with delayed coking and fluid coking.

Table 4

Summary of catalytic cracking processes.

Table 5

Summary of hydrocracking processes.

Table 6

Comparison of various refinery types.

Crude Oil – Residua

Table

Properties of atmospheric and vacuum residua.

Crude Oil – Sampling and Analysis

Table

Suggested items to be included in a sampling log.

Crude Oil from Tight Formations

Table 1

Comparison of API gravity and sulfur content of selected crude oils including crude oil from the Bakken and Eagle Ford formations.

Table 2

Distillation yields from eagle ford crude oil.

Density, Specific Gravity, and API Gravity

Table 1

Density of petroleum and petroleum products.

Table 2

Specific gravity and density of methane relative to air and water.

Dielectric Constant

Table

Dielectric constants of selected hydrocarbons and petroleum products.

Table

Relationship of dielectric constant to refractive index.

Distillation

Table 1

Tray distribution in an atmospheric distillation column.

Table 2

Constants for converting ASTM distillation data to TBP distillation data.

Drilling Fluid

Table

Elemental composition of drilling fluid constituents.

E85 Fuel

Table

Comparison of E85 and conventional gasoline.

Environmental Regulations

Table

Examples of environmental regulation that influence the petroleum industry.

Explosive Limits

Table

Lower and upper explosive limits for flammable gases and liquids.

Fischer-Tropsch Chemistry

Table

Reactions occurring during the Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis.

Flammability and Flammability Limits

Table

Flammability limits of selected hydrocarbons in air.

Flash Point

Table

Examples of flash points.

Fluid Catalytic Cracking – Chemistry

Table 1

Chemical reactions.

Table 2

Thermodynamics.

Fouling

Table 1

Natural gas and petroleum production/refining components* subject to fouling.

Table 2

The Constituents of crude oils that can promote or cause fouling during recovery, transportation, and refining.

Fracturing Fluids

Table 1

Different fluids used for hydraulic fracturing.

Table 2

Fracturing fluid additives.

Table 3

Examples of chemicals used in hydraulic fracturing fluids*.

Fuel Oil

Table

Properties of the various fuel oils.

Functional Groups

Table

General Properties of Functional Group Compounds.

Gas Laws

Table

Empirically determined values for the constants

a

and b.

Gas Processing – Olamine Processes

Table

Olamines used for gas processing.

Gas Processing – Sweetening

Table

Summary of the Natural Gas Sweetening Processes

Gas Processing – Gas-Oil Separation

Table

Types of liquid-gas separators.

Gas Processing – Nitrogen Removal

Table 1

Permeability of gases in various membranes*.

Gas Processing – Plant Schematic and Products

Table 1

Components of natural gas.

Table 2

Characterization of natural gas.

Table 3

Product of gas processing.

Gas Processing – Processes and Process Selection

Table

Range of composition of natural gas.

Table 2

Gas treating processes (listed alphabetically).

Gas Processing – Water Removal

Table

Properties of solid desiccants.

Gas-Condensate Reservoirs

Table 1

Variable composition of gas condensate.

Table 2

An example of the physical and chemical properties of gas condensate*.

Table 3

Mole composition of single-phase reservoir fluids.

Gaseous Fuels

Table 1

Types of gaseous fuels

Table 2

General properties and description of gaseous fuels.

Table 3

Composition of gaseous fuels*.

Gaseous Hydrocarbons – General Properties

Table

Properties of gaseous (C

1

–C

4

) paraffin hydrocarbons.

Gasification – Chemistry

Table

Gasification reactions.

Gasification – Refinery Resids

Table

Types of refinery feedstocks available for gasification on-site.

Gasoline – Component Streams

Table

Component streams for gasoline.

Glycol

Table

Properties of ethylene glycol, diethlene glycol, and triethylene glycol.

Hazardous Chemicals

Table

Toxic and reactive highly hazardous chemicals which present the potential for a catastrophic event at or above the threshold quantity.

Heat Capacity

Table

Molar heat capacity of gases*.

Heavy Feedstock Conversion – Thermal Processes

Table

Visbreaking, delayed coking, and fluid coking.

High-Acid Crudes

Table 1

High-acid crudes available to various markets.

Table 2

Comments on testing for naphthenic acids.

Hydrate Formation and Prevention

Table

K values for methanol and selected glycols.

Hydraulic Fracturing

Table 1

Proppant type definition.

Table 2

Additives used in the hydraulic fracturing process.

Hydrocarbon Gases – Physical Constants

Table 1

Properties of gaseous (C

1

–C

4

) paraffin hydrocarbons.

Table 2

Critical temperature and pressure of hydrocarbon gases compared to non-hydrocarbons.

Hydroconversion

Table 1

Feedstocks.

Table

Process parameters.

Hydrogen Chloride

Table

Physical properties of hydrogen chloride.

Hydrogen in Refineries

Table 1

Summary of typical hydrogen application and production process in a refinery.

Table 2

Hydroprocessing parameters.

Hydrogen Sulfide

Table

Physical properties of hydrogen sulfide.

Hydrogen

Table

Physical properties of hydrogen.

Incompatible Chemicals

Table

Incompatible chemicals.

Ionic Liquids

Table

General properties of ionic liquids.

Liquefied Petroleum Gas

Table

Properties of liquefied petroleum gas.

Liquid-Gas Separators

Table

Types of liquid-gas separators.

Lubricants – Classification

Table

Classification of automotive lubricants.

Lubricating Oil – Base Stock

Table

Properties of lubricating oil base stocks.

Table 2

Base oil categories as published by the American petroleum institute.

Methane

Table

Physical properties of methane.

Naphthenic Acids – Mitigating Corrosion

Table

Method for mitigating corrosion by naphthenic acids.

Natural Gas – Composition

Table 1

Variation of composition of natural gas.

Table 2

Standard test methods for natural gas.

Natural Gas – Measurement

Table

Measurement units often applied to natural gas.

Natural Gas – Properties

Table 1

General properties of unrefined natural gas (left hand data) and refined natural gas (right hand data).

Table 2

General properties of the constituents of natural gas up to and including n-octane (C

8

H

18

) as well as toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylene.

Table 3

Molecular weights and critical properties of pure components of natural gas.

Table 4

Boiling point and density of methane relative to air and water.

Table 5

Measurement units often applied to natural gas.

Natural Gas – Phase Behavior

Table

Molecular weight and critical properties of pure components (up to n-Octane) that Can Occur in Natural Gas.

Natural Gas – Sweetening

Table

Summary of the natural gas sweetening processes.

Natural Gasoline

Table

Composition of natural gasoline from a natural gas well.

Nitrogen and Nitrogen Oxide Gases

Table 1

Physical properties of nitrogen (N

2

).

Table 2

Physical properties of nitrous oxide (N

2

O).

Table 3

Physical properties of nitric oxide (NO).

Table 4

Physical properties of nitrogen dioxide (NO

2

).

Octane Number

Table

Octane numbers of selected hydrocarbons.

Oil and Gas from Tight Formations

Table 1

Typical properties of fluids occurring in shale formations and in tight formations.

Table 2

Comparison of selected properties of crude oils from tight formations (Eagle Ford, Bakken) with conventional light crude oils (Louisiana light sweet crude oil) and brent crude oil.

Table 3

Simplified differentiation between conventional crude oil and crude oil from shale formations.

Table 4

Common characteristics of tight oils.

Oil Shale – General Classification

Table

Classification of organic-rich shale formations.

Olamine Processes

Table

Olamines used for gas processing.

Olamine

Table

Olamine Derivatives Used for Gas Processing.

Opportunity Crudes

Table

General Properties of Crude in the Opportunity Crude Category.

Organic Solvents

Table

Properties of common organic solvents.

Oxygen

Table

Physical properties of oxygen.

Ozone

Table

Physical properties of ozone.

Paraffin Hydrocarbons

Table

Names and eormulas of the first ten paraffins (n-alkanes).

Table 2

Boiling Points of n-Paraffin Derivatives.

Table 3

Melting Points of n-Paraffin Derivatives.

Particle Size Classification

Table

General particle size classification.

Permeability

Table

Permeability of Different Systems.

Petrochemicals

Table 1

Hydrocarbon intermediates used in the petrochemical industry.

Table 2

Sources of Petrochemical Intermediates.

Petroleum Products

Table 1

General properties of liquid products from petroleum.

Table 2

Heat content of fuel oil.

Table 3

Relationship of Heat Content to API Gravity.

Table 4

Latent Heat of Vaporization of Petroleum Products.

Table 5

Relationship of refractive index to dielectric constant.

Polychlorobiphenyls

Table 1

Chemical identity of selected polychlorinated biphenyl derivatives (Aroclor compounds).

Table 2

Physical and chemical properties of Aroclor derivatives.

Table 3

Physical and chemical properties of Aroclor derivatives (contd.).

Production Engineering Units

Table

Typical units for crude oil and natural gas production engineering calculations.

Proppants

Table

Proppant type definition.

Reactor Types

Table

Various reactor-types.

Table 2

Examples of reactors used in the natural gas and petroleum industries.

Recovery Methods

Table 1

Methods for petroleum recovery.

Table 2

Recovery efficiency of primary methods.

Refinery Feedstocks – Corrosive Constituents

Table

Corrosive Constituents in Refinery Feedstocks*.

Refinery Types

Table

Refinery Types.

Refinery Units – Materials of Construction and Operating Conditions

Table

Materials of Construction and Operating Conditions for Various Refinery Units.

Relative Density

Table

Boiling point and density of methane relative to air and water.

Resid Upgrading Technologies

Table 1

Hydroconversion processes.

Table 2

Comparison of different hydroprocessing reactor types.

Table 3

General process parameters for ebullated bed (H-Oil and LC-Fining) processes.

Table 4

Comparison of different upgrading technologies.

Sediments, Reservoirs, and Deposits

Table 1

Types of facies.

Table 2

Characteristics of sediments based on grain size and shape.

Separators – Gas-Oil Separation

Table

Types of liquid-gas separators.

Table

Shale Gas Formations in the United States and Canada.

Shale Gas Reservoirs – Variation in Shale Properties

Table

Variation in shale properties from known reservoirs.

Shale Oil (Kerogen-Derived Oil) – Variation in Properties

Table 1

Properties of shale oil.

Shale Plays – Properties

Table

Properties of various shale plays.

Solubility Parameter

Table

Hansen Solubility Parameters for Selected Hydrocarbons.

Solvents

Table

Properties of common organic solvents.

Sulfur Dioxide

Table

Physical properties of sulfur dioxide.

Supercritical Fluids

Table 1

Critical properties of selected solvents.

Table 2

Comparison of supercritical fluids with gases and liquids.

Surface Tension

Table

Surface tension of selected hydrocarbons.

Sweetening Processes

Table

Summary of the Natural Gas Sweetening Processes

Table 1

Simplified differentiation between conventional crude oil, heavy oil, extra heavy oil, tar sand bitumen, oil shale kerogen, tight oil, and coal.

Table 2

Properties of bitumen from different California tar sand deposits.

Table 3

Specific Gravity, API Gravity, and Viscosity of Various Bitumen Samples.

Test Methods

Table

Standard Test Methods for Petroleum and Petroleum Fractions.

Thermal Conductivity

Table

Thermal Conductivity of Gases at Different Temperatures*.

Thermal Cracking Processes

Table

Comparison of Various Thermal Cracking Processes.

Tight Formations

Table 1

Typical properties of fluids occurring in shale formations and in tight formations.

Table 2

Comparison of selected properties of crude oils from tight formations (Eagle Ford, Bakken) with conventional light crude oils (Louisiana light sweet crude oil) and brent crude oil.

Table 3

implified differentiation between conventional crude oil and crude oil from shale formations.

Table 4

Common characteristics of tight oils.

Unit Process

Table

Examples of unit processes.

Vapor Density

Table

Boiling point and density of methane relative to air and water.

Viscosity

Table

Viscosity Conversion.

Water – Boiling Point Variation with Pressure

Table

Boiling Point Variation of Water.

Water –Common Impurities

Table 1

Common Impurities in Water.

Water – Density and Viscosity in Relation to Temperature

Table

Temperature Variation of the Density and Viscosity of Water.

Weights and Measures – Density

Table

Density of Various Petroleum Products and Materials.

Weights and Measures – Fuels

Table

Properties of Various Fuels.

Wobbe Index

Table

Wobbe Index (kcal/m

3

) ofw Natural Gas and Common Constituents.

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Scrivener Publishing 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J Beverly, MA 01915-6106

Publishers at Scrivener Martin Scrivener ([email protected]) Phillip Carmical ([email protected])

Rules of Thumb for Petroleum Engineers

James G. Speight

This edition first published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA © 2017 Scrivener Publishing LLC

For more information about Scrivener publications please visit www.scrivenerpublishing.com.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ISBN 978-1-118-59526-8

Preface

As worldwide crude oil and natural gas exploration, production, and refining activities increase, there is a continued need for petroleum engineers and natural gas engineers to be aware of the various aspects of the technologies and processes involved within their function to support crude oil and natural gas operations. A competent understanding of technology and various processes that drive the production and refining of crude oil and natural gas is essential.

Another reason for the book is based on observations of young professionals and graduate students as they prepare to enter the fields of natural gas and crude oil development. While many organizations may offer various versions of software to solve engineering problems, many young engineers and students need to hone their fundamental abilities to tackle problems without using a computer. This book, in addition to addressing a variety of engineering issues related to crude oil and natural gas, also provides explanations and equations relating to fundamental chemical, chemical engineering, and petroleum engineering problems. Thus, the book is a compilation of definitions, descriptions, tables, chemical equations, and formulas of use to petroleum engineers.

To this end, the book has been compiled using a variety of information sources that also reflect the major changes that have occurred in the crude oil and natural gas industries over the past 10 to 15 years. Thus the book offers information relevant to the various sectors of the crude oil and natural gas industries and takes advantage of recent publications related to crude oil and natural gas operations. The contents are arranged alphabetically to provide ready access through an all-inclusive index to recover the desired information.

It is the purpose of this book to provide a ready-at-hand reference book for the office, laboratory, or field that the engineer can consult to help him or her in this task. The book will be a valuable asset for petroleum engineers, experts, and practicing professionals working in the crude oil and natural gas industries.

Dr. James Speight, Laramie, Wyoming. October 2016.

About the Author

DR. JAMES G. SPEIGHT

Dr. James G. Speight CChem., FRSC, FCIC, FACS, earned his B.Sc. and PhD degrees from the University of Manchester, England – he also holds a DSC in The Geological Sciences (VINIGRI, St. Petersburg, Russia) and a PhD in Petroleum Engineering, Dubna International University, Moscow, Russia). Dr. Speight is the author of more than 70 books in petroleum science, petroleum engineering, and environmental sciences. Formerly the CEO of the Western Research Institute (now an independent consultant), he has served as Adjunct Professor in the Department of Chemical and Fuels Engineering at the University of Utah and in the Departments of Chemistry and Chemical and Petroleum Engineering at the University of Wyoming. In addition, he has also been a Visiting Professor in Chemical Engineering at the following universities: University of Missouri-Columbia, Technical University of Denmark, and University of Trinidad and Tobago.

In 1995, Dr. Speight was awarded the Diploma of Honor (Pi Epsilon Tau), National Petroleum Engineering Society, for Outstanding Contributions to the Petroleum Industry. In 1996, he was elected to the Russian Academy of Sciences and awarded the Gold Medal of Honor that same year for outstanding contributions to the field of petroleum sciences. In 2001, the Russian Academy of Sciences also awarded Dr. Speight the Einstein Medal for outstanding contributions and service in the field of Geological Sciences and in 2005 he received the Scientists without Borders Medal of Honor of the Russian Academy of Sciences. In 2006, he was appointed as the Methanex Distinguished Professor, University of Trinidad and Tobago as well as awarded the Gold Medal – Giants of Science and Engineering, Russian Academy of Sciences, in recognition of Continued Excellence in Science and Engineering.

Abrasion

Abrasion is the result of wear caused by friction and abrasiveness is the property of a substance that causes surface wear by friction and is also the quality of being able to scratch or abrade another material. Abrasion is the process by which an item or piece of equipment is worn down and can have an undesirable effect of exposure to normal use or exposure to the elements. On the other hand, abrasion can be intentionally imposed in a controlled process using an abrasive.

In operations involving the recovery of natural gas and crude oil, the abrasiveness of the minerals (which may be in the form of highly abrasive particulate matter) in the formation is a factor of considerable importance. Shale, which is the basis for the formation of tight formations, varies widely in abrasiveness and this factor may need to be considered when drilling into such formations for the recovery of natural gas and crude oil. Abrasion taking place in a shale formation can be classified according to the size of the attack angle in places subjected to wear. The attack angle is the angle between the axis of flow and tangent line of the surface. Depending on the angle of fuel moving with respect to contact surfaces, the attacks are classified as straight line attacks (impact to 90°) and oblique or slipping attacks (less than 90°). On the other hand, both carbonate minerals and clay minerals (that also occur in tight formations) have a relatively low abrasive ability while the abrasiveness of quartz is high. In fact, the abrasiveness of shale may be determined more by the nature of its associated impurities, such as the individual grains of sandstone, a common impurity in some shale or formations, which are render the mined shale harder and more abrasive.

Comparison of abrasion index of any formation is an important aspect of the recovery of natural gas and crude oil from tight shale formations. However, some formations are less abrasive than others because the abrasive minerals in the formation may be diluted by comparatively nonabrasive organic matter and relatively nonabrasive mineral matter.

The abrasion index (sometimes referred to as the wear index) is a measure of equipment (such as drill bit) wear and deterioration. At first approximation the wear is proportional to the rate of fuel flow in the third power and the maximum intensity of wear in millimeters) can be expressed:

δpl – maximum intensity of plate wear, mm.

α – abrasion index, mm s3/g h.

η – coefficient, determining the number of probable attacks on the plate surface.

k – concentration of fuel in flow, g/m3.

m – coefficient of wear resistance of metal;

ω – velocity of fuel flow, meters/sec.

τ – operation time, hours.

The resistance of materials and structures to abrasion can be measured by a variety of test methods (Table) which often use a specified abrasive or other controlled means of abrasion. Under the conditions of the test, the results can be reported or can be compared to items subjected to similar tests. These standardized measurements can be employed to produce two sets of data: (1) the abrasion rate, which is the amount of mass lost per 1,000 cycles of abrasion, and (2) the normalized abrasion rate, which is also called the abrasion resistance index and which is the ratio of the abrasion rate (i.e., mass lost per 1,000 cycles of abrasion) with the known abrasion rate for some specific reference material.

Table Examples of selected ASTM standard test method for determining abrasion*.

ASTM B611 Test Method for Abrasive Wear Resistance of Cemented Carbides

ASTM C131 Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Small-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine

ASTM C535 Standard Test Method for Resistance to Degradation of Large-Size Coarse Aggregate by Abrasion and Impact in the Los Angeles Machine

ASTM C944 Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Concrete or Mortar Surfaces by the Rotating-Cutter Method

ASTM C1353 Standard Test Method for Abrasion Resistance of Dimension Stone Subjected to Foot Traffic Using a Rotary Platform, Double-Head Abraser

ASTM D 2228 Standard Test Method for Rubber Property – Relative Abrasion Resistance by the Pico Abrader Method

ASTM D4158 Standard Guide for Abrasion Resistance of Textile Fabrics, see Martindale method

ASTM D7428 Standard Test Method for Resistance of Fine Aggregate to Degradation by Abrasion in the Micro-Deval Apparatus

ASTM G81 Standard Test Method for Jaw Crusher Gouging Abrasion Test

ASTM G105 Standard Test Method for Conducting Wet Sand/Rubber Wheel Abrasion Tests

ASTM G132 Standard Test Method for Pin Abrasion Testing

ASTM G171 Standard Test Method for Scratch Hardness of Materials Using a Diamond Stylus

ASTM G174 Standard Test Method for Measuring Abrasion Resistance of Materials by Abrasive Loop Contact

*ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pennsylvania; test methods are also available from other standards organizations.

Acid Gas Removal

Natural gas, while ostensibly being hydrocarbon (predominantly methane) in nature, contains large amounts of acid gases such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and carbon dioxide (CO2) as or even process gas that contains significant amounts of hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, or similar contaminants. Acid gas removal (acid gas treating, sometimes also referred to as acid gas scrubbing) is the removal of acidic gases such as hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide from natural gas or from process gas streams. The process for removing hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide from sour gas is commonly referred to as sweetening the gas.

To sweeten the high acid content gas, it is first prescrubbed to remove entrained brine, hydrocarbons, and other substances. The sour gas then enters an absorber, where lean amine solution chemically absorbs the acid gas components, as well as a small portion of hydrocarbons, rendering the gas ready for processing and sale. An outlet scrubber removes any residual amine, which is regenerated for recycling. Hydrocarbon contaminants entrained in the amine can be separated in a flash tank and used as fuel gas or sold. Process efficiency can be optimized by mixing different types of amine to increase absorption capacity, by increasing the amine concentration, or by varying the temperature of the lean amine absorption process.

Acid gas removal (i.e., removal of carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide from natural gas streams) is achieved by application of one or both of the following process types: (1) absorption and, (2) adsorption (Figure 1). The processes for acid gas removal involve the chemical reaction of the acid gases with a solid oxide (such as iron oxide) or selective absorption of the contaminants into a liquid (such as ethanolamine) that is passed countercurrent to the gas. Then the absorbent is stripped of the gas components (regeneration) and recycled to the absorber. The process design will vary and, in practice, may employ multiple absorption columns and multiple regeneration columns.

Figure 1 Acid gas removal processes.

Liquid absorption processes (which usually employ temperatures below 50 °C (120 °F) are classified either as physical solvent processes or chemical solvent processes. The former processes employ an organic solvent, and absorption is enhanced by low temperatures, or high pressure, or both. Regeneration of the solvent is often accomplished readily. In chemical solvent processes, absorption of the acid gases is achieved mainly by use of alkaline solutions such as amines or carbonates. Regeneration (desorption) can be brought about by use of reduced pressures and/or high temperatures, whereby the acid gases are stripped from the solvent.

The most well-known hydrogen sulfide removal process is based on the reaction of hydrogen sulfide with iron oxide (iron sponge process or dry box method) in which the gas is passed through a bed of wood chips impregnated with iron oxide:

The bed is then regenerated by passage of air through the bed:

The bed is maintained in a moist state by circulation of water or a solution of soda ash. The method is suitable only for small-to-moderate quantities of hydrogen sulfide. Approximately 90% of the hydrogen sulfide can be removed per bed but bed clogging by elemental sulfur occurs and the bed must be discarded, and the use of several beds in series is not usually economical. Removal of larger amounts of hydrogen sulfide from gas streams requires continuous processes, such as the Ferrox process or the Stretford process.

The Ferrox process is based on the same chemistry as the iron oxide process except that it is fluid and continuous. The Stretford process employs a solution containing vanadium salts and anthraquinone disulfonic acid. Most hydrogen sulfide removal processes involve fairly simple chemistry with the potential for regeneration with return of the hydrogen sulfide. However, if the quantity involved does not justify installation of a sulfur recovery plant, usually a Claus plant, it is will be necessary to select a process which produces elemental sulfur directly:

The conversion can be achieved by reacting the hydrogen sulfide gas directly with air in a burner reactor if the gas can be burnt with a stable flame.

Other equilibria which should be taken into account are the formation of sulfur dimer, hexamer, and octamer as well as the dissociation of hydrogen sulfide:

Carbonyl sulfide and carbon disulfide may be formed, especially when the gas is burned with less than the stoichiometric amount of air in the presence of hydrocarbon impurities or large amounts of carbon dioxide.

Equilibrium conversion is almost complete (approximately 99 to 100%) at relatively low temperatures and diminishes at first at higher temperatures, in accordance with the exothermic nature of the reaction. A further rise in temperature causes the equilibrium conversion to increase again. This is a consequence of the dissociation of the polymeric sulfur into monatomic sulfur.

Catalysis by alumina is necessary to obtain good equilibrium conversions: the thermal Claus reaction is fast only above 500 °C (930 °F). There is also a lower temperature limit which is not caused by low rates but by sulfur condensation in the catalyst pores and consequent deactivation of the catalyst. The lower limit at which satisfactory operation is still possible depends on the pore size and size distribution of the catalyst; with alumina-based catalysts having wide pores, the conversion proceeds satisfactorily at approximately 200 °C (390 °F).

In all configurations of the Claus process (Figure 2), several conversion steps in adiabatic reactors are used, with intermittent and final condensation of the sulfur produced. There are three main process forms, depending on the concentration of hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur compounds in the gas to be converted, i.e., the straight-through, the split-flow oxidation process. The straight-through process is applicable when the gas stream contains more than 50% v/v hydrogen sulfide. Feed gases of this type can be burnt with the stoichiometric amount of air to give sulfur.

Figure 2 The Claus process.

The combustion reactor is followed by a combined waste heat boiler and sulfur condenser from which liquid sulfur and steam are obtained. The gases are then reheated by in-line fuel combustion to the temperature of the first catalytic convertor, which is usually kept at about 350 °C (660 °F) to decompose any carbonyl sulfide and any carbon disulfide formed in the combustion step. A second catalytic convertor, operating at as low a temperature as possible, is also employed to obtain high final conversions.

If the gas stream contains sulfur dioxide (also an acid gas), as is often the case when sulfur-containing fuels have been combusted, the typical sorbent slurries or other materials used to remove the sulfur dioxide from the flue gases are alkaline. The reaction taking place in wet scrubbing using a limestone (CaCO3