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- Herausgeber: Clink Street Publishing
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
- Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2024
Have you ever wondered where Attila the Hun and the Goths fit into History? When was the Renaissance, and the Restoration, and the Reformation, and were they related? Who fought the English Civil War, and why? What were the US Civil War and War of Independence all about? All these questions are answered in this brilliantly simple timeline.
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Bruce’s Timeline of Our World
Bruce Tapping
iii
For my daughters, Ana and Petra, and also for their amazing, wonderful bunch of friends.
When I write this you are all young, but history turns quickly and soon you will be young adults.
As you grow, I hope this book helps you learn that there is a much “Bigger Picture” out there.
Slow down, take your time, and remember what is important.
To Ana and Petra & all their friends. iv
“If you don’t know history, then you don’t know anything. You are a leaf that doesn’t know it is part of a tree.”
— Michael Crichton
This is not a heavy historical book.
It’s an easy to ready, simple, and fascinating timeline of all the major people and events that have made up our world from the beginning of time until today.
It’s the ultimate coffee table, or interesting bathroom browsing, read!
Contents
Introduction
I have written this timeline as I’ve always wanted a perspective as to how we all fit into this world.
I grew up hearing of, and reading about, dinosaurs, Julius Caesar, Jesus, Richard the Lionheart and the Crusades, the Renaissance, the Tsars, the Great Wall of China and many more great events, people and places, but I had no real idea as to how they had shaped the world, or in which order they had occurred.
Humans tend to think we are the only important thing on the planet and this thinking makes us trample on own environment. I hope this book helps to add some perspective as to who we are and how we fit onto this planet, which has been around far longer than we have.
It is a simple timeline from the formation of the universe through to the emergence of humans, our empires, the present day, and covers all the major events along the way including how our countries were formed and when.
It is meant to be an enjoyable, user friendly “guide” to our history – from the beginning of time until now, and our place in it.
In many cases, especially in BCE times, it is not possible for dates to be pinpoint accurate. For example, where scientists may argue exactly how many billions of years ago rocks first formed (4.5–3.7 billion), I have provided a rough guide date of 4.4 billion years ago as probably the earliest date they would have likely started forming. x
CE and BCE date usage
I have decided to use the CE and BCE date usage purely for practical reasons, in that its name is not tied to any group, or religion, but the dates are aligned with AD and BC which is the more traditional western timeline.
CE stands for Common Era BCE stands for Before the Common Era. The CE is the same as AD The BCE is the same as BC
AD means Anno Domini which is Latin for the “Year of Our Lord”, therefore signifying, for Christians, the supposed year that Jesus was born.
BC means Before Christ.
The BC/AD system has been in place since 525 when a 6th century monk by the name of Dionysius Exiguus introduced it as a means of keeping track of how many Easters there had been. As Easter signifies Christ’s death, and as he was a Christian monk, Dionysius wanted to record the number of years since Christ’s death.
It is assumed that Dionysius used the Bible’s detail on Jesus being in his thirties when he died to establish the year of his birth. There is no exact science to establish the exact year Jesus was born, meaning the 1st year of AD (CE) itself is an approximate assumption. Historians now consider Christ’s actual birthday to be probably 7 BCE. xi
There is also no Year “CE Zero”, meaning the day after 1 BCE December 31, is 01 January CE 1.
If you enjoyed this book and are interested in further books I have written, and am writing, or if you want an updated version of Bruce’s Timeline of Our World, please go to www.brucetapping.com for more information.
Bruce.xii
Chapter 1. Universe Creation–Dinosaur Extinction
14 billion years ago – 65 million years ago
314 billion years ago
The Big Bang
The theory is that at the beginning of time, everything was one huge singular mass.
When Edwin Hubble invented the Hubble Telescope in 1929 it was observed that the galaxies were drifting apart. Backward reasoning therefore meant they were once together. A singular mass at the beginning of time, calculated at approximately 13.8–14 billion years ago.
This singular mass is known as “singularity” and why it suddenly started expanding outwards… is a mystery, but the point at which it did is called the Big Bang.
Whilst there is general agreement that the universe has been expanding since that point in time billions of years ago, there is still discussion as to whether there was a Big Bang from singularity before expansion started. In other words, interestingly, it is only the very first second that there is disagreement on. Was it an instant Big Bang, or was it something else? (Creationists could use this unexplained “first second” to bring in their theory of creationism)
If it was the “instant Big Bang” then there must have been the exact amount of matter needed to create our universe at the rate it has been created. Also, our temperatures (in the greater scheme of things) were too perfectly uniform. It seems suspiciously perfect to some, who therefore propose cosmic inflation as another theory. This theory states that if you wanted the universe to have those exact temperatures and amount of matter that it did, you would first need to have set it up that way. In this theory, before the actual 4Big Bang, there was a constant flat universe with uniform properties everywhere. This then rapidly expanded to the point it is at today.
However, as with all hypotheses, the theory as to how it all started is constantly evolving, especially with the introduction of new technologies. In 2022 the James Webb Space Telescope was launched, more advanced than the Hubble Telescope, and can view objects further than previously viewed (and therefore from a time earlier than viewed before) which means new theories are now evolving which may add to, or adapt, our present theories.
13 billion years ago
Galaxies formed
After the Big Bang, gravity caused giant clouds of dust and gas to gather together, which they did in groups, and these groups are what we call galaxies, which are countless.
Stars were formed under further immense gravitational pressure, which caused clouds of gas and dust to shrink together until their matter was so dense, and temperatures so high, that an enormous amount of energy was given off in a nuclear reaction. This reaction created stars, emitting light and heat in a continual reaction thereafter.
This process of galaxy formation took billions of years.5
4.6 billion years ago
Our sun and galaxy formed
Our galaxy is called the solar system and is called that because we gravitate around our sun, which itself is just a normal star among over 1000 million others in our galaxy alone. The only thing that makes our sun special in comparison to any other star, is that it happens to be our closest.
As galaxies are often spiral, including our own, (which is like a flattened spiral plate), when we look out to space at night, we look out across the “plate” and see a tail of grouped together stars. This is our view of the stars within our galaxy – which we have aptly named the Milky Way.
4.5 billion years ago
Earth, planets and our moon formed
In a similar manner to how clouds of gas and dust formed to create our sun and other stars, clouds of gas and dust also created other rocky worlds. These were Earth and the other planets in our solar system.
There are two main theories as to how our moon formed. One theory is that a space collision, from something crashing into Earth, caused fragments to split off into space, with gravity then forcing these fragments to bind together. Earth’s own gravity then caused this newly formed mass to remain circling our Earth, creating our moon.
An alternate theory is that Earth and Moon formed together when two huge objects crashed together and 6then collided again. As the fragments settled under gravitational forces, they clumped together into two separate objects, Earth and our moon, with the moon bound to us by Earth’s gravity.
4.4 billion years ago
Rocks formed, Oceans formed
Initially Earth was so hot it was just a mass of molten magma, but as it gradually cooled, the first rocks were formed.
These are referred to as igneous rocks which are rocks formed from the cooling of molten magma.
After the Earth formed, and over a period of millions of years, and around the time the moon-forming collision occurred, hydrogen and oxygen atoms were escaping from Earth into our atmosphere.
Initially Earth was extremely hot and any water on it would have boiled. Over millions of years however, Earth cooled and the water vapour in our atmosphere started to rain down. This rain occurred for centuries and settled onto the cooler Earth, creating our oceans.
3.7–3.5 billion years ago
First life on earth
It’s not known exactly how life was first formed but it is agreed that some form of chemical change must have occurred.7
Initial forms of life have been found in small rock like objects called Stromatolites – fossils of which from Greenland have been found to contain a type of single celled (prokaryote) bacteria called cyanobacteria within them.1
Further fossils of rocks discovered in Australia found other bacterial forms dating from a similar timeframe.
3.5 billion–600 million years ago
First Ice Ages
Between 2.4 and 2.1 billion years ago the first Ice Age occurred.
Ice Ages are an occurrence of a global temperature drop that creates an expansion of glacial ice sheets.
The second Ice Age occurred 850 million to 635 million years ago.
600–500 million years ago
Multi-celled organisms evolved, fish appeared on Earth
Almost 3 billion years after simple single celled (prokaryote) organisms appeared, the more complex multi-celled (Eukaryote) organisms evolved.
Jellyfish and the first shelled animals occurred after that, at the beginning of what is known as the Cambrian explosion – a period of time, about 550 million years ago, where, within 10 million years, there was an explosion of 8life forms, during which the first chordates appeared (life forms with a notochord, or spinal rod, to support them).
The first fish evolved at the end of this period, about 500 million years ago.
The oceans’ corals also started forming 500 million years ago.
500–300 million years ago
Pangea, first plants, insects and reptiles appeared, first fire
At this time there were no individual continents. There was one Earth mass surrounded by the oceans, and this supercontinent was called Pangea.
Just under 500 million years ago, the first plants appeared on land. It was sometime just after this that the first fire occurred on Earth (we know this from evidence of charcoal, originating 420 million years ago), presumably from a lightning strike, as there was now plant material to burn.2
The third Ice Age occurred 460–430 million years ago.
This was also the period around 400 million years ago when the first completely terrestrial (land) animals appeared. Sharks evolved around 400 million years ago and over the next 100 million years other fish and corals continued to evolve in the sea and, eventually, closer to 350 million years ago, the first amphibious animals evolved.9
Between 350 and 300 million years ago the first carboniferous plants evolved on land and the first insects and reptiles appeared.
300–65 million years ago
Dinosaurs, mammals and the first birds appeared
Between 360 and 260 million years ago the Earth entered its fourth Ice Age.
300 million years ago new types of reptiles evolved, with dinosaurs and the first mammals then making their appearance 250–200 million years ago.
Between 250 million and 100 million years ago the first crocodiles went through various evolutions. By 80 million years ago it had evolved into a ten-metre, ten-ton version.
About 200 million years ago the Earth’s single continent, Pangea, split into two major continents. Laurasia in the north and Gondwanaland in the south.
150 million years ago saw the evolution of our first birds, followed soon after by our first flowering plants. Around 145 million years ago the continents had further split, due to plate movement, into the early formation of our current seven continents, but they were still closely grouped together.10
65 million years ago
The Alvarez event, dinosaur extinction, mammals developed quickly
65 million years ago a huge meteorite crashed into Earth.
This caused a huge change in the Earth’s climate creating a massive tidal wave and sending clouds of dust and other particles into the atmosphere, blocking out sunlight and dramatically dropping temperatures.
This event is known as the Alvarez event after its proponent Luis Alvarez.3
This catastrophic event is thought to have caused the extinction of 75% of all species, including the dinosaurs. This mass extinction is known as the K–T extinction as it marks the end of the Cretaceous (K) period, and the beginning of the Tertiary (T) period.
Evidence of this giant meteorite strike includes the huge crater showing where it impacted, in Mexico.
Chapter 2. Early Primates, Humans – through until the Stone Age
65 million years ago–5000 years ago
1365–35 million years ago
The first primates appeared on Earth, current continents formed
It is estimated that it took 4 million years for Earth to recover its biodiversity after the meteorite impact that led to the K–T extinction. (In the first chapter this was explained as “This mass extinction is known as the K–T extinction as it marks the end of the Cretaceous (K) period, and the beginning of the Tertiary (T) period.”)
With predatory dinosaurs removed from Earth, some birds evolved into large flightless carnivores. Mammals began to flourish and around 60 million years ago the first primates appeared. These primates were more squirrel-like in appearance than ape-like.4
Around this time, 50 million years ago, megalodon, the largest shark to ever exist evolved, and later, approximately 45 million years ago, the ancestor of the great white shark evolved.
Also at this time, 55 million years ago, the ancestor of the modern crocodile evolved from earlier crocodilian forms.
The largest mammal that ever inhabited Earth (Paraceratherium) lived about 40–39 million years ago, a 16 ton, five metre tall, long-necked rhinoceros-type creature.
At this time, our current seven continents formed and slowly drifted apart from each other towards their present day positions. About 40 million years ago, India slowly crashed into Asia, creating the Himalayan mountain range. Africa split from Asia and the Red Sea was formed.14
35–7 million years ago
First monkeys, cattle and hominins appeared
About 33 million years ago world geology changed dramatically. North America and Europe separated and moved closer to their current positions.
During this period there were also great changes in climate as winters in the northern hemisphere became colder. Much of the similar animal life we see today evolved, including large cats and dogs.
Monkeys first appeared about 35 million years ago, and apes about 25 million years ago. 21 million years ago apes were living in Africa and by 14 million years ago had spread up to Southern Europe. Cattle also appeared approximately 14 million years ago.
By 9 million years ago the apes in Africa evolved into two separate lines – one that led to gorillas and the other to humans and chimpanzees.
7–2.6 million years ago
Early man and the Stone Age
Hominidae is the name for the larger family of Primates that includes Hominini which are the specific sub-family that humans belong to.
Generally it is believed that the first Hominids evolved in Africa and from there they spread north, however there is no consensus among experts as to the exact location the 15Hominins first evolved from other primates, with suggestions including Africa and Central Europe, Greece, and Turkey.
However, around 7 million years ago the Hominini line split, one line leading to chimpanzees and the other to early humans.
By about 3.5 million years ago these “early humans” started using stones as tools. This therefore was the beginning of the Stone Age.
Approximately 2.5 million years ago, the early human line evolved into the Homo group, including Homo Erectus and these early humans started to walk upright on two feet.
2.6 million–300,000 years ago
Current ice age. Human development. Human use of fire and clothing
The fifth, last and current Ice Age started 2.6 million years ago and we are still in it. An Ice Age is defined as a period of time when the poles remain frozen year-round. This Ice Age is the one we refer to as “The” Ice Age and it peaked 18,000 years ago
Just over 2 million years ago the early humans’ brain had grown larger, and greater use of tools developed. Early humans then started to walk fully upright and and started spreading northwards into Europe. They also started using fire. By 700,000 years ago these early humans had started cooking.16
The earliest evidence of clothing is from 500,000 years ago, around about the same time as Neanderthal Man evolved – a separate species from modern-day humans. Neanderthal man died out around 40,000 years ago.
Evidence out of Israel shows early humans were regularly using fire 400,000 years ago. Possibly they were using flints to start fires but there is no hard evidence that this is the time when man learned to start fires. It could have been as much as 1 million years ago, or even at a more recent stage.
By 300,000 years ago the early human had evolved into modern-day Home Sapiens, physically the same as modern-day humans, and speech then evolved.
300,000–100,000 years ago
Spread of humans, first structures built
Between 250,000 and 200,000 years ago humans started to inhabit Southeast Europe and West Asia. Approximately 180,000 years ago it appears man started wearing clothes more permanently.
Around 120,000 years ago the woolly mammoth first appeared on earth.
By 100,000 years ago the earliest use of man-built structures occurred in Egypt.517
100,000–16,000 years ago
Modern human development, human art and music, peak of The Ice Age
Some of the earliest evidence of human settlements come from Australia approximately 40,000–30,000 years ago and the movement of people into China and Japan occurred around a similar time.6
Around the same time, music appeared, with the first flutes originating from Germany.
Evidence of the earliest human art occurred around 35,000 years ago–a mammoth ivory carving found in Germany–and dogs became domesticated in Europe and Siberia 20,000 – 30,000 years ago, and the first use of pottery was in China approximately 20,000 years ago.
The most recent glaciation period, often known simply as “The Ice Age,” reached peak conditions some 18,000 years ago, as this was a period when glaciers spread out across large parts of the Earth, not just the poles. The ice grew to more than 12,000 feet thick, as ice sheets reached as far south as Northern America, Northern Europe and Northern Britain.
16,000–5000 years ago
Agriculture started, wheel invented
The first humans in North America are believed to have moved there around 16,000 years ago. 18
Evidence found from the Middle East shows early human agriculture originated there 10,000 years ago.
There is evidence of possible early warfare in Kenya approximately 6000 years ago.
Around 5000 to 4000 years ago the woolly mammoth became extinct.
Roughly 3500 years ago, the wheel was invented in Mesopotamia. Initially it was not invented for transport, but as a potter’s wheel in pottery.
Chapter 3. The Bronze and Iron Ages, the Egyptian and Roman Empires
3000 BCE–CE120
215000–3000 years ago
Egyptian Empire and the Pyramids, the Bronze Age, first writing
5000 years ago (approximately 3000 BCE), the Egyptian Empire began. Egyptians had started farming around the Nile as far back as 7000 years ago (5000 BCE) and over the next 2000 years started to form kingdoms, ruled by pharaohs.7
One of the first civilisations to start writing, the Egyptians used papyrus as early paper and they studied maths and science.
The pyramids began to be built 4650 years ago (2650 BCE) with the largest pyramid, the Great Pyramid at Giza built around 2589 BCE (4589 years ago). The pyramids were finished being built by about 4150 years ago (2150 BCE).
Of the many pharaohs, some famous ones were Tutankhamun who ruled from 1336–1327 BCE, Ramesses I (1295–1294 BCE), and Rameses II (1279–1213 BCE).
Around about the same time, approximately 5000 years ago (3000 BCE), the Bronze Age devoloped as Man started using and trading bronze, an alloy of copper and tin. Bronze had more uses than previous stone age tools, especially for cutting.
During this time, as man became more organised and skilful in using bronze tools, agriculture became more prolific as man kept animals and started storing the food he had grown.
The earliest written records of Chinese civilisation date back to over 3000 years ago, from the Shang Dynasty, which ruled in the Yellow River valley.22
3000 years ago–814 BCE
Iron Age, the Phoenicians, Carthage
The Iron Age took over from the Bronze Age, approximately 3200 years ago (1200 BCE) and lasted until approximately 500 BCE, although in some areas of Europe and Asia it lasted into the early CE years.
The Iron Age was the period when man started to use iron or steel (an alloy of iron and carbon) instead of bronze as it was a stronger alternative.
The Iron age was the last of the three prehistoric Ages – Stone, Bronze and Iron. Although iron continued to be used after the end of the Iron Age, these ages ended at the time when man started to record his own history, and therefore these newer ages are no longer classified as “PRE-historic”.
The Phoenician Empire was established and existed from approximately 1500 BCE to 300 BCE and centred around what is modern-day Lebanon and Syria.
The Phoenicians founded Carthage in 814 BCE8 as a city-state in what would be modern-day Tunisia. The Phoenicians founded many cities along the Mediterranean coastline and the Iberian Peninsula to conduct trade and moor their fleets.23
753 BCE–60 BCE
Rome was founded, Homer, Hannibal, Roman Republic, the Mayans, Carthage independence, Persian Empire, Confucianism, Taoism, Buddhism, Classical Greece, Pythagoras, Socrates, Aristotle, Alexander the Great, Archimedes, Qin Dynasty, the Silk Road
In 753 BCE Rome was founded. Mythology states it was founded by two brothers, Romulus and Remus, with Romulus killing his brother in an argument over deciding the exact location of the city. Various Kings ruled Rome for 200 years until senators took over and Rome became a republic in 509 BCE.9
The word Republic means “public affair” and this Roman Republic is from where we now use the term in its modern sense to denote a country that is run as a public affair by represented officials of the public, rather than a kingdom.
It was around this time, 750 BCE, that Homer supposedly wrote both the Iliad, detailing much of Greek mythology and the Trojan War, and the Odyssey, bringing to life many stories of the Greek gods. These stories and their being attributed to Homer, have not been factually proven, remaining therefore myths.10
Also around this time, Hesiod wrote Theogony which depicted the origin of the world and its creation by the great deities of Greek mythology–first the Titans and then the Olympic gods. As these are myths rather than facts, we don’t cover the supposed dates of these creations in this book, but as a matter of purely interest we can list the gods and events briefly here:24
Gods and Goddesses11
Zeus – King of the Gods and God of the Sky
Hera – Zeus’ wife and Goddess of Marriage
Athena – Zeus’s daughter and Goddess of War and Wisdom
Apollo – God of Music and Arts
Poseidon – God of the Sea and Rivers
Ares – God of War
Artemis – Goddess of Hunting and Chastity
Demeter – Goddess of Earth’s Fertility and of Farming
Aphrodite – Goddess of Love
Dionysus – Greek God of Wine (known as Bacchus to the Romans)
Hermes – God of Trade and Wealth
Hephaistos – God of Fire and Metallurgy
Hades – God of the Underworld and of the Dead (Hades has been included here as a 13th God, but is not considered to be one of the original Olympian Gods)25
Events12
1800 BCE – beginning of the World which is then ruled by the Titans
684–1674 BCE – Zeus fights the Titans and wins
1344 BCE– Pegasus the winged horse is born
1246 BCE – Jason and the Argonauts’ voyage occurs
1203 BCE – Helen is abducted by Prince Paris of Troy
1193–1183 BCE – The Siege of Troy, which is eventually conquered by Agamemnon using the Trojan Horse to break the siege and enter the city.
Although the Mayans had been around since pre 2000 BCE it was between 750 BCE and 500 BCE the first Mayan cities were developed, housing large temples with impressive architecture. The Mayan people were not one specific group but rather the term Mayan is a modern-day term to describe the various peoples of parts of south and central America, from Mexico to Guatemala and Belize.
Carthage gained independence from the Phoenicians in 650 BCE and became a major hub for trade for the western Mediterranean over the next 300 years.
During this period a number of Mediterranean wars ensued, including the Sicilian Wars (Carthage against the Greeks) and the Punic Wars (Carthage against the Roman Republic). 26
It was during the Second Punic War, in 219 BCE, that Hannibal,13 a revered general in the Carthage Army, invaded Italy. To do so he marched an enormous army which included infantry, cavalry and African elephants across the Alps mountain range. In Italy Hannibal won a number of battles but was never able to conquer Rome itself. His army withdrew from Italy in 203 BCE.
In 550 BCE the Persian Empire was formed under Cyrus the Great14, who defeated various kingdoms including Media, Lydia and Babylon. His empire also became known as the Achaemenid Empire. This huge Empire eventually spanned from Europe to North Africa and through to India’s Indus Valley.
In China, Confucius was born in 551 BCE.15 He began a teaching career when in his thirties and later played an important role in promoting the values of teachers. He believed strongly in learning as a means towards self-realisation, but also believed in the concept of serving others and became active in politics to promote these ideas. Frustrated at other politician’s lack of interest in his ideas, he went into self-imposed exile at age 56 for 12 years. He returned at age 67 and concentrated on writing for the remainder of his life. His thoughts and works created followers of Confucianism which spread throughout China. Confucianism centred around ethics as a means to maintain order among people.
Around the same time, approximately 500-400 BCE, with no real known exact origins, Taoism began forming into a religious system. Lao Tzu is often credited with being the person who started teaching Taoism but this is unproven, as is his actual existence. 27
In India or Nepal around 500 BCE, Siddhartha Gautama, born into a wealthy family initially, left his material life behind and engaged in wondering as a holy man seeking truth and meditation, during which he experienced enlightenment and spent the remainder of his life teaching his practices which became known as Buddhism.
In Greece this period (500–323 BCE) was known as the Classical period of Ancient Greece. Between 495 and 429 BCE, Pericles, who was an important Greek statesman, oversaw the development of the Acropolis (the highest point in Athens) and the development of its most important buildings including the Parthenon and the Temple of Athena Nike.
It was in 490 BCE that the Greeks won an important victory against the Persians, and a runner was dispatched to Athens from the site of the battle, a place called Marathon, 26 miles away. This legend gave way to the modern marathon race although the actual modern marathon distance was only formalised for the 1908 Olympic Games in London, supposedly to appease a member of the royal family who wished for the event to start in the grounds of Windsor Castle, and finish at the Royal Box at the Olympic Stadium, which extended the event to 26.2 miles.16
Pythagoras was born and lived in Greece from about 570 BCE through to 490 BCE. One of the most famous philosophers and mathematicians in history, Pythagoras is best known for his mathematical theory stating the opposite side of a right-angle triangle is equal to the other two sides.
Socrates was born in 470 BCE in Athens and became known as one of the founders of Western philosophy. Socrates went on to tutor Plato who in turn, in the 380s 28BCE, founded the Academy in Athens, a research institute for maths, science and philosophy. Plato published, among many publications, The Republic in which he writes about Socrates’ talks and thoughts on justice.
At age 18, Aristotle joined the Academy where he remained for 20 years. Aristotle went on to write across a vast number of subjects but was famed most for his writings on ethics.
356 BCE saw the birth of Alexander the Great who succeeded his father as King of the Greek Kingdom of Macedon at age 20 in 336 BCE. Over the next ten years he created one of the largest empires of its time stretching from Greece down to North Africa and he was undefeated in battle, cementing his place in history as one of its greatest military commanders. Alexander was tutored by Aristotle in his younger years.
In this third Century, Archimedes had his “Eureka” moment when he realised (supposedly whilst bathing) that the weight of water displaced by an object was equal to the buoyant force then created underneath that object. Archimedes was a famed mathematician in Greece at the time who also calculated the value of PI. Eureka means “I have found it” in Greek and Archimedes is said to have shouted it out when he realised his theory of buoyancy.
In 221 BCE the first unified Dynasty in China – the Qin Dynasty – was established by Emperor Qin17. Although work on different walls had begun earlier by various smaller kingdoms who were protecting their territories, it was under the new first unified territory that Emperor Qin ordered that these individual walls be joined together into one great wall, the Great Wall of China.1829
Also constructed around this time, was the Terracotta Army. Qin, whilst in power, started the construction of his own Mausoleum. The Terracotta Army was constructed as an afterlife guard for this Emperor’s tomb. It was believed to be completed by 206 BCE.19
This Qin Dynasty lasted until 207 BCE when it was replaced by the Han Dynasty. Under the Han Dynasty trade increased and the Silk Road trade routes were born.
60 BCE–CE
Julius Caesar, Paris, Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian, Octavia, the Roman Empire
The Roman Republic lasted 500 years until 60 BCE when Julius Caesar, along with Crassus and Pompey, formed a triumvirate of power. Julius Caesar’s powers increased due to his success in the Gallic Wars, during which he twice invaded Britain, in 55 BCE and 54 BCE.
It was also at this point, in 52 BCE that the Romans began their settlement at Paris’ left bank, developing a rich city of baths and theatres. Paris was established although not then named Paris.
Meanwhile, the Roman Senate, threatened by Caesar’s military strength, ordered him to return to Rome, probably to be charged with waging war without their permission. Instead, Caesar crossed the Rubicon River with his armed legion in 49 BCE. At the time it was illegal to enter Rome with an army, with all arms to be laid down and left 30north of the Rubicon. This brought about the expression, to “cross the Rubicon” meaning to cross a line and accept what consequences then occur.
A four-year civil war ensued with Caesar victorious. He took over Rome in 45 BCE and became Rome’s first dictator.
Also in 45 BCE Caesar introduced the 12-month calendar – known as the Julian Calendar. This replaced the previous Roman calendar which was a lunar based calendar, based on phases of the moon.
Further fighting occurred in order to bring back the Republic, and Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BCE (by Marcus Brutus on the Ides of March).
After Caesar was assassinated, Rome was ruled by three of his supporters, who joined forces to create a 2nd Triumvurate. Mark Antony, a general, Marcus Lepidus, another one of Caesar’s generals, and Octavian, Caesar’s great nephew and adopted son. These three rulers then defeated Caesar’s murderers and then ruled separate parts of the Republic.
Mark Antony, as one of the three Roman leaders (along with Octavian and Marcus Lepidus), took control of Egypt which was ruled by Cleopatra.
In 40 BCE, to divert war between Antony and Octavian, Antony married Octavian’s sister Octavia, but he was also involved in a relationship with Cleopatra at the time.
In 36 BCE Marcus Lepidus was thrown out of the triumvirate of rulers, and in 33 BCE Antony and Octavian had disagreements, creating a split between the two.31
Civil war broke out between 32-30 BCE when Octavian declared war on Cleopatra. Antony was defeated in battle and fled to Egypt with Cleopatra where they both committed suicide.
In 27 BCE Octavius declared himself Caesar – meaning Emperor – and changed his name to Augustus meaning “Venerable”. Thus he became Augustus Caesar–first Emperor of the Roman Empire.
The Roman Empire began.
Chapter 4. Jesus – the end of the Roman Empire
CE 1–CE 49933
35CE 1–39
Jesus, Pontius Pilate, the Roman Empire, Xin Dynasty
Both the Roman historian Tacitus and the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus published historical volumes that objectively recount stories of a person known as Jesus that corroborate the New Testament. Both Josephus in CE 93 and Tacitus in CE 116 wrote that Jesus was sentenced to death by Pontius Pilate. Without therefore verifying the other New Testament stories of the resurrection and other miracles, it is at least historically proven that Jesus did exist, was crucified, and had followers.
The estimated date of Jesus’ crucifixion is between 30–37 CE, with his birth being estimated as being between 2 BCE–7 BCE. The period after his crucifixion therefore saw the beginning of Christianity being established.
In China there was a brief rebellion against the Han Dynasty and from CE 8–CE 23 China was ruled by the Xin Dynasty.
CE 40–99
Roman Empire expanded to Britain, London established, Queen Boudicca, The Eastern Han Dynasty, Emperor Nero, Rome burns, Colosseum built, Gladiators, Early Christian teachings by Matthew, Mark, Luke, John and Paul, Mount Vesuvius, Buddhism entered China.
Around this same period, the Roman Empire was expanding across Western Europe, Africa and Eastern Europe. Under orders from Emperor Claudius, Britain was invaded in CE 43. Two major battles occurred before Rome managed to conquer Britain, the Battle of Medway and the Battle of the Thames.36
Between CE 47 and 50 Rome established as its capital the city of Londinium on the Thames at the site of the present-day City of London. London was created.
Over the next 15 years Rome expanded its territory through Britain as far west as Exeter.
In CE 60 or 61 the Roman expansion was briefly halted by the uprising and rebellion of the Welsh Queen Boudicca, before she was defeated.
In China, when the Han overthrew the Xin rebellion and resumed ruling again, the new Han Dynasty became known as the Eastern Han Dynasty.
In CE 64 two-thirds of Rome was burned in a fire.20 The emperor at the time, Nero, was extremely unpopular, and perceived as “decadent”. The myth that followed the fire was that Nero played his fiddle as it burned, but whilst this is not literally true, it is meant to mean he was an ineffective leader.
After the fire, Nero blamed the Christians for the fire, and also went onto build himself a palace on land the fire had cleared, further increasing his unpopularity. Nero’s reign ended in CE 69.
Between CE 70 and CE 75 the Colosseum was built. It held up to 80,000 spectators to watch gladiatorial contests as well as battle re-enactments and theatrical dramas.
After Jesus’ death the initial teachings of Christianity were delivered by his followers, Mathew, Mark, Luke and John, who wrote the first four books of what became the New Testament 37sometime between 70 CE and 110 CE. Further books of the New Testament were written by other Christian leaders some of whom, like Paul, only converted to Christianity after Jesus’ death.
In CE 79 Mount Vesuvius erupted and within the space of 25 hours the volcanic ash and lava completely enveloped and destroyed Pompeii, a city to the south of the volcano.21
Accurate records of the destruction of the city are available because Pliny the Younger, a Rome magistrate and a writer, interviewed survivors and wrote letters to the historian Tacitus who recorded them. The volcanic ash also preserved Pompeii, meaning modern-day archaeologists were able to uncover the city and view life in those times.
In China under the Eastern Han, trade increased, and Silk Road trade grew with it. It was probably through this trade that Buddhism entered China during the 1st century CE.22
CE 100–199
Emperor Trajan, Roman Empire’s peak size, Hadrian’s Wall, Chinese Yellow Scarves Rebellion
The earliest archaeological remains of paper originate from this century in China, invented most likely by Cai Lun, a eunuch in the emperor’s court at the time.
Under Emperor Trajan, the Roman Empire reached its peak size by the time of his death in CE 117. Trajan was a soldier in the Roman Empire rising through its ranks to power. Under his leadership the Roman Empire encompassed most 38of England, Western and Eastern Europe, the Middle East and North Africa.
In Britain, by CE 100 the Roman Empire had extended northwards as far as Tyne. In the areas not controlled by the Romans there were various warring tribes. In CE 122 Emperor Hadrian visited Britain and ordered a wall to be built in order to separate his empire from these warring tribes in the north (Scotland). Hadrian’s Wall was then built and took approximately six years to build. It is 115km/73 miles long.23
From CE 161 to CE 180 Marcus Aurelius ruled as Roman Emperor. In a time when emperors had absolute power and were often therefore corrupted, Aurelius stood out as a Stoic and a philosopher. As a Stoic he stood for a set of individual ethics that could not be corrupted by temptation. As a philosopher Aurelius published various writings, one of the most famous being Meditations, a series of 12 books on self-improvement and his thoughts on Stoicism.
In China, rebellion broke out in 184 CE against the Eastern Han Dynasty. The rebels wore yellow and thus the rebellion is known as either the Yellow Turban or Yellow Scarves Rebellion. Largely suppressed within a year, the rebellion continued in pockets for another 21 years. The cause of the rebellion was the peasants’ disquiet during these times of famine, poor wages in employment, and high taxes.39
CE 200–299
Marcus Aurelius, Pax Romana, Gallic Empire, the Bantu People, the Chinese Jin Dynasty
Marcus Aurelius’ reign was also considered the end of Pax Romana (meaning Roman Peace)24. For 200 years the Empire had seen relatively little strife within its borders. There had been external wars fought as it expanded, but mainly peace within its own borders. However after nearly 200 years, civil war and economic and political troubles were again seen within the Roman Empire in the 3rd century.
During this time from 260 CE to 274 CE, Britain, and most of what is present day France, split off to form the Gallic Empire as various Roman military leaders declared themselves emperors of this region without trying to take power away from the main Roman Empire headquarters of Rome. However the Gallic region was brought back under control of the Roman Empire after the Battle of Châlons in 274 CE.
Further rebellion was seen in the east of the Roman Empire too, with the Palmyra region from Syria through to Egypt breaking away for three years, before also being brought back under control by Rome.
In Africa the spread of the Bantu people from West and Central Africa reached Southern Africa which previously had been inhabited by Khoisan peoples.
In China, after a period of rebellion, two different individuals proclaimed themselves Emperor in three different regions. The Han Dynasty ended and in its place three separate kingdoms were proclaimed in a period that became known 40as the Three Kingdoms Period. Further infighting occurred until power within one Kingdom was usurped by Sima Yan who conquered the other Kingdoms and established the Jin Dynasty in 265 CE.
CE 300–399
Roman Empire became Christian, Roman Empire split
In the 3rd century, the Roman Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity. It is not known whether this was for political or religious regions. Until 313 CE Christianity had been banned but Constantine lifted this ban.
By 380 the new Emperor Theodosius I declared Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire. This religion later came to become Catholicism but at this stage there were not specifically different branches of Christianity. Rather there were numerous Christian churches set up by Paul and other early religious teachers and these churches all taught varied versions and hymns of Christianity.
In Britain between 367 and 399, barbarian groups from Scotland, Ireland and even Germany ran a series of attacks against the Romans and created a state of lawlessness. Rome responded but the attacks grew stronger until 399 when peace was restored as the Romans brought in reinforcements.25
In 395 the Roman Empire split into two parts as it was too large to control from Rome alone. The Western Empire was ruled by Rome whilst the Eastern Empire was controlled by Constantinople.41
CE 400–499
Romans departed Britain, Gaul, Vandals, Visigoths, Huns and Franks, the Byzantine Empire, split between Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church
Between CE 407 and 409 the last remaining Roman troops were either withdrawn from Britain to help out in Italy, or were pushed out of Britain. By 409 Britain was no longer part of the Roman Empire.
During the early 5th century at least four nomadic groups were attacking the (Western) Roman Empire from outside of its borders. These were the Visigoths, the Vandals, the Huns, and the Franks, all Germanic.
The ‘Goths’, as the Visigoths came to be known, were thought to originate in Scandinavia or Poland and the latter’s reputation had them described as a dark force – hence the Goth culture of black attire. In CE 410 the Visigoths managed to invade Rome, previously considered impenetrable.26
In CE 455 the Vandals also managed to invade Rome, led by their king, Geiseric. The Vandals originated in Scandinavia but chose to attack the Roman Empire’s weaker southern borders in North Africa. They defeated the Romans there and took control of Carthage where they settled. The Vandals reputation for attacking the Roman Empire, and its properties, gave way to the modern word for destroying another’s property.
From CE 434 to 453 the Huns, warriors in Northern Europe, were led by Attila who ran a series of assaults on the Roman Empire. These assaults were also instrumental in the gradual fall of the Western Roman Empire. 42
The Franks had settled in Gaul. Gaul was an area that included most of Western Europe including what we now call France, Belgium and Luxembourg as well as parts of Switzerland, Holland, Germany and Italy. Gaul had been under Roman control since the 2nd century BCE. In 486 however the Roman occupation of Gaul ended as the last Roman Emperor there was attacked and defeated by King Clovis I of the Franks. Clovis I went onto establish the Kingdom of the Franks and this area became known as France.
In CE 476 Odoacer, another German barbarian leader, took control of Rome from what was to be the last of the Roman emperors, Romulus Augustulus, and became King of Italy.
The Western Roman Empire had ended. The Eastern Roman Empire continued from Constantinople but as this became known as the Byzantine Empire, in reality, the Roman Empire had ended altogether.
The Byzantine Empire continued as a Christian empire with Greek as its language and lasted until 1453.
