Children whose parents use drugs E-Book

Corina Giacomello

• Herausgeber: Council of Europe
• Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 182

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022

Beschreibung

Parental drug use affects children at every stage of their lives, from before birth and well into their adult lives.

The aim of this report is to shed light on an invisible population: children and adolescents living in families where at least one parent uses drugs. This focus on children exposed to parental dependence on drugs and alcohol implies helping them and their families to overcome dependence and its consequences. Parental drug use impacts children at every stage of their lives, from before birth and well into their adult lives. However, until now, this situation has received very little attention. This report looks at children growing up in families affected by drug and alcohol dependence, as well as the services, programmes and practices that help protect childhood and ensure children’s needs are met, while at the same time addressing the needs of parents.

This project is part of the Pompidou Group’s mission of integrating human rights into drug policy. It was proposed in response to the Council of Europe’s invitation to the Pompidou Group Secretariat to participate in the Inter-Secretariat Task Force on Children’s Rights and to contribute to the discussions on the themes which should appear in the new Council of Europe Strategy on the Rights of the Child (2022-2027).

The contents, conclusions and recommendations presented in the report contribute to the growing knowledge and interest in this topic and serve as a practical reference for the identification of promising practices and international partners. Far from being a conclusion, this report is the first step in a joint effort to give visibility to children of parents who use drugs and a tool to foster cooperation and dialogue that will continue in 2022 with Phase III of the project.

Leseprobe

 

Children

whose parents

use drugs

 

Promising practices and recommendations

 

Corina Giacomello, PhD

Pompidou Group consultant

Associate Professor

Autonomous University of Chiapas, Mexico

Contents

Click here to see the whole table of contents, or go on the « Table of contents » option of your eReader.

About the author

Dr Corina Giacomello is a consultant to the Pompidou Group. In this role, she conducted the research for, and is the author of, the publication Children whose parents use drugs – Promising practices and recommendations.

Dr Giacomello is an associate professor at the Autonomous University of Chiapas, Mexico. She is an academic and international consultant, with expertise in gender studies, children’s rights, criminal justice and prison systems and drug policies. She has more than 15 years of experience in advocacy-oriented research and development of legal, judicial and public policy proposals at the national, InterAmerican and international level.

Her lines of research include women deprived of their liberty, adolescents in conflict with the law, children with incarcerated parents and women who use drugs. She has published extensively on these topics, in Mexico and abroad.

Acknowledgements

The Pompidou Group secretariat and the author of this report, Corina Giacomello, wish to acknowledge Florence Mabileau, Deputy to the Pompidou Group Executive Secretary, for her leadership, and the support of the Permanent Correspondents of the countries participating in this project:

Želijko Petković (Croatia); Constantinos Stylianou (Cyprus); Christos Kouimtsidis (Greece); Rafn Jónsson (Iceland); Karen O’Connor (Ireland); Elisabetta Simeoni (Italy); Eduardo Jaramillo Navarrete (Mexico); Janusz Sieroslawski (Poland); Cătălin-Valentin Negoi-Niţă (Romania); Diane Steber Buchli (Switzerland); and Edibe Sinem Atay (Turkey).

Our gratitude goes to those people who contributed their knowledge, time, enthusiasm and generosity to the multiple activities carried out to create this report:

Peyman Altan; Antri Andronikou; Cristina Azzalini; Lidija Bandić; Mary Barry O’Gorman; Monica Barzanti; Breeda Bell; Niklaus Bieri; Ana Maria Blanaru; Hulda L. Blöndal Magnúsdóttir; Katia Bolelli; Donna Butler; Anne Marie Carew; Miriam Carrillo López; Zrinka Ćavar; Karel Chodil; Leda Christodoulou; Cristina Codeluppi; Catherine Comiskey; Nicola Corrigan; Barry Cullen; Sabine Dobler; Stefanos Eleftheriou; Maura Favetta; Francesca Fracassi; Sheila Gilheany; Héctor Francisco Gómez Estrada; Marisol Gómez Gonzalez; Jacobo Tao Check Yiu González Cinco; Gyða Gunnvör Sigurjónsdóttir; Jóhanna Erla Guðjónsdóttir; Olga Huld Gunnarsdóttir; Dorota Gurgul; Inguun Hansdóttir; Marcin Henek; Þóra Ingimundardóttir; Andri Ioannou; Jadranka Ivandić Zimić; Guðrún Jónsdóttir; Silja Jónsdóttir; Caroline Jordan; Sofia Karavasili; Roksana Karczewska; Eleftheria Kazamia; Martina Killoran; Hrefna Lára; Paula Leonard; Anna Maria Luiso; Suzy Lyons; Etienne Maffli; Mariagiulia Mannocci; Athina Manouka; Mia Mardešić; Margarite Markey; Halla Björk Marteinsdóttir; Stefania Masini; Louise McCulloch; Fiona McDonnell; Pauline McKeown; Paola Milani; Sarah Morton; Geraldine Mullane; Nadia Naibo; Vicky Nelson; María Ólafsdótir; Deirdre O’Donohoe; Carmen Oprea; Tina Pavlou; Lana Peto Kujundzic; Heiðar Pétur; Elisa Pierallini; Ilona Piniaś; Andrea Poffet; Patrizia Pollastrini; Maria Polykarpou; Maria Prodromou; Marion Rackard; Jiří Richter; Regula Rickenbacher; Ricardo Sánchez Huesca; Maria Sfikaki; Carmen Sisti; Julita Szylkiewicz; Danae Trihina; Tiziana Valer; Paulina Vázquez; Federica Vitali; Angela Vignozzi; Inga María Vilhjálmsdóttir; Kevin Webster; Marc Wittwer; Marguerite Woods; and Elena Zarouna.

Special recognition is owed to the women on the path of recovery who shared their experiences and insights with us, from San Patrignano (Italy) and Casa Mimosa (Italy):

Denise, Sara, Anna, Elisa, Teresa, Claudia, Katiuscia and Sara.

Preface

The Pompidou Group provides a multidisciplinary forum at the wider European level where it is possible for policy makers, professionals and researchers to exchange experiences and information on drug use and drug trafficking. Formed at the suggestion of French President Georges Pompidou in 1971, it became a Council of Europe enlarged partial agreement in 1980 open to countries outside the Council of Europe.

On 16 June 2021, the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe adopted the revised Pompidou Group’s statute, which extends the group’s mandate to include addictive behaviours related to licit substances (such as alcohol or tobacco) and new forms of addictions (such as internet gambling and gaming). The new mandate focuses on human rights, while reaffirming the need for a multidisciplinary approach to addressing the drug challenge, which can only be tackled effectively if policy, practice and science are linked.

To better reflect both its identity as a Council of Europe entity and its broadened mandate, the group changed its official name from the Co-operation Group to Combat Drug Abuse and Illicit Drug Trafficking to the Council of Europe International Co-operation Group on Drugs and Addiction. In 2022, it encompasses 41 countries out of the 46 member states of the Council of Europe, Mexico, Morocco and Israel, as well as the European Commission.

The year 2021 marked the launch of a new project concerning children whose parents use drugs. The content, conclusions and recommendations presented in this publication aim to help increase the knowledge base and interest in the topic and to serve as a practical reference for the identification of promising practices and international partners to implement them.

This project was proposed in response to the invitation to the Pompidou Group secretariat to participate in the Council of Europe’s Inter-Secretariat Task Force on Children’s Rights and contribute to the discussions on the themes which should appear in the new Council of Europe Strategy on the Rights of the Child (2022-27). It started with a preliminary assessment including a literature review and quantitative data (Phase I of the project) and continued with online focus groups between the different participating countries: Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Mexico, Romania, Poland, Switzerland and Turkey.

Some 29 experiences by governmental and non-governmental bodies are reported in this publication. They cover family and children-oriented services that take drug use into account; programmes and services for families and children in drug and alcohol treatment services; drug treatment services targeted at pregnant women, mothers and their children; and services for women who are victims and survivors of violence and use drugs.

Findings and recommendations conclude this research conducted for the first time on the children whose parents use drugs, and who have been “invisibilised”, and offer pathways for further research and interventions.

Chapter IIntroduction

“Children blame themselves and they wonder ‘why doesn’t she love me?’ but it’s not true: the mother loves her child, but the substance is too strong.”

“Kids undertake the role of the adults. They want to save their parents.”

“I became my mother’s mom. It is not the child who has ‘to do’ something, it’s the grown-up who has to protect you.”

“I would tell them to not feel ashamed and to look for help. They don’t ask for help because they are afraid and they think they are betraying their parents.”

The testimonies above are extracts of a focus group with women in the therapeutic community of San Patrignano, Italy.1 The participants were in the process of recovering from dependence on alcohol, heroin or other drugs and generously shared their experiences and insights for this research. Some of them grew up in families with substance dependence. They saw how their parents injected heroin and died of overdoses, and as young girls they hid empty bottles in cupboards to protect their parents so that social services would not take them into foster care.

Now, these adult women are faced with the difficult job of overcoming dependence and fully exercising their motherhood, with the aim of sparing their children from experiencing the consequences of growing up in a family where drug dependence turns parenting into a complicated and, sometimes, overlooked task. It goes without saying that parenting is not an easy mission per se, and it is particularly challenging for women dependent on drugs, given the persistence of perceptions around “good mothering”, from which drug use is automatically excluded.

Fathers and mothers who are dependent on drugs can be overwhelmed by the intersection of i. their personal history and history with substances; ii. social, cultural, gender-related and individual challenges in relation to parenthood; and iii. a hostile, stigmatising and not always solidary environment that does not see them as fit for parenting because of their substance use. Concomitant stressors certainly impact parents and, consequently, their children.

Parental drug use affects children at every stage of their lives, from before birth and well into their adult lives, varying according to the children’s age, gender as well as their circumstances and personal resources. The impacts of parental substance use are reflected in children’s development outcomes and their daily lives. Children of drug-dependent parents often have to assume parenting responsibilities prematurely, and as a result feel confused, rejected, burdened and unable to trust their parents (Horgan 2011: 13).

These children can experience anxiety, depression, anger, guilt and shame, and have trouble concentrating at school because they are preoccupied with what might be happening to their parents. They often feel isolated, and are afraid of speaking out and looking for help because they think they would be betraying their parents or face the risk of being separated from them. Sometimes, they simply do not have anybody they trust enough. They think that they are somehow responsible for what is happening to them and that they have to save their parents. Oftentimes they have to take care of themselves and their siblings, carrying out tasks such as getting ready for school, cooking, cleaning and so on, that are their parents’ responsibilities, or they are left home alone when they are too young.

Parents’ drug use can lead to child neglect and maltreatment. This can be aggravated in the case of domestic violence: “[W] here domestic abuse and substance misuse co-occur the health and well-being of family members is severely impacted and the effect on children’s lives compounded” (ibid.: xii). Exposure to violence not only has immediate risks and implications but, as reported in the Pompidou Group’s study “Improving the management of violence experienced by women who use psychoactive substances”, witnessing, “as a child, physical or psychological violence inflicted on another person, one’s mother or a sibling for example, can also be a factor contributing to the start of use” (Pompidou Group, 2016: 30).

As reported in an interview for this study by one of the psychologists working with children affected by parental drug misuse at the Society of Alcoholism and other Addictions (SÁÁ), Iceland:

Children feel ashamed of the situation at home, they have lower self-esteem. In school they face difficulties concentrating, because they are very worried about their parents. In the family we see that children take responsibilities of the adults, like cooking, cleaning, taking care of their siblings. Sometimes they don’t have food at home, they face more neglect, they are left alone at home when they are not in an age of being left alone. Sometimes they are victims of physical violence and they see violence at home. They don’t want to go out because they want to protect their parents or they do not want to invite friends over because they don’t want to show the situation at home. There is still stigma against people with addiction, so sometimes they hear other adults saying mean things about their parents.

Childcare responsibilities often trigger the parents’wish to stop using drugs. Particularly in the case of women, pregnancy and motherhood can be strong motivating forces to help them face up to and overcome their drug problems (EMCDDA 2010: 9). The possibility of combining treatment and childrearing responsibilities is particularly crucial to foster women’s entry and permanency in treatment.

Parents try to reduce the impacts of their drug use by attempting to hide it. For instance, they may avoid sleeping during the day or conceal their drugs and paraphernalia. Despite such efforts, “children are usually aware of their parents’ drug taking, and at earlier ages than the parents may think. The children, however, keep this knowledge to themselves.” (EMCDDA 2012a: 16)

Not all parents with dependence issues have difficulty caring for their children (ibid.), but some parents coping with substance dependence can undergo a multiplicity of feelings and situations strongly affected by their relationships with the substance in question. Some are repeating a history they lived as children, and they involuntarily reproduce dynamics of neglect on their children. The lack of information on the services available for people who use drugs or, in some cases, the fear of criminalisation or past experiences of stigma, added to the dynamic of drug use circuits and the personal paths of trauma and suffering, can impede people from seeking help and drive them deeper into isolation and lack of self-esteem and trust in oneself and others.

While the development of dependence stems from multiple situations, trauma and experiences of alcohol and drug misuse in the family of origin can be conducive factors.

Alcohol and drug abuse are two of the nine categories identified as Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) that can result in long-term harm for individuals. A total of four or more issues increases, according to Morton and Curran (2019: 11):

the likelihood of a child engaging in risky future behaviour, experiencing poor health outcomes (e.g. smoking, alcohol/drug misuse, poor diet and obesity, teen pregnancy, chronic disease, violence or incarceration), and having ‘difficulty in changing course’as they move through adulthood (Felliti et al., 1998; Bellis et al., 2015; Bond 2018; Edwards et al., 2019).

Focusing on children exposed to parental dependence on drugs and alcohol implies addressing an invisible population of children and helping them and their families to overcome dependence and its consequences. It also has a clear preventive aim: to avoid the transgenerational dimension of children’s vulnerabilities and adults’ struggles in relation to substances.

In order to protect children, it is therefore mandatory to address children’s needs as rights holders, and make sure they grow up in a healthy and protected environment that ideally should coincide with the original unit of the family, avoiding separation unless living with their parents puts the child at heightened risk. Parents must be addressed as the individuals accountable for their children’s development and well-being and held accountable if they do not fulfil their responsibilities.

At the same time, interventions with families, while giving voice to children, should always maintain a compassionate, non-stigmatising, trauma-informed, gender-responsive and flexible attitude towards parents.

This is particularly sensitive in the case of women: in the first place, because trauma, gender-based violence, low self-esteem, and at times sexual violence, play a role in women’s development of dependence (EMCDDA 2009). This must be addressed with the same gender-responsive attitude that women victims and survivors of violence should receive. Women who use substances are also more highly stigmatised than men (UNODC 2016), and often live their motherhood in isolation, with little support in taking care of their children when they want to access treatment. Another key aspect, particularly for women, is that the fear of having their children taken away from them is a relevant factor in not seeking treatment or disclosing their drug use. It is a well-founded one: as reported in the study by the Pompidou Group (2016), perceptions of women drug users as “bad mothers” are still very present and can encourage child protection services to remove children from women with drug use disorders. Child removal can have serious consequences for women. Research from Scotland shows that loss of child custody was closely linked to loss of motivation for recovery, feelings of hopelessness and increased risk of drug-related death.

One potential source of trauma among women who use drugs is the loss of child custody due to child protection concerns (Broadhurst and Mason, 2013, Kenny et al., 2015). Some authors have hypothesised that the emotional impact of child removal is exacerbated by its profound stigma, in “disenfranchised grief” that cannot be acknowledged or shared with others (Broadhurst and Mason, 2013). There is emerging research evidence to support front-line reports that child removal often results in worsening mental health, social functioning, and substance use among mothers (e.g. Kenny et al., 2015, Wall-Wieler et al., 2017).… Loss of child custody appeared to be a time of considerable vulnerability: one woman explicitly linked this event to a relapse and another to plans for an intentional overdose. (Tweed, Miller and Matheson 2018: 18)

Services for women in this situation have the dual task of providing women with facilities where they can attend treatment with their children, as well as environments that are non-judgmental and where women feel safe and respected.

This report focuses on children growing up in families affected by drug and alcohol dependence, as well as on the services, programmes and practices that help to protect childhood and guarantee children’s needs while, at the same time, addressing the needs of parents. It comprises a mosaic of interventions aimed at families and children; services for women who use substances and are mothers; dependence treatment services that take into account parental responsibilities, children’s needs and particular situations; and shelters for women victims and survivors of violence who use substances.

Protecting the rights of the child is at the core of the Council of Europe’s mission to safeguard human rights, uphold democracy and preserve the rule of law. As such, this publication is part of a human rights-oriented project that responds to the mission of the Pompidou Group to integrate human rights in drug policy.

The countries (listed in the next section) and practices included in this report have been included because of the commitment of national governments through their Permanent Correspondents to the Pompidou Group and their subsequent involvement in a plurality of activities. Certainly, other experiences and programmes not included here can be illustrative of promising local and national efforts to guarantee children’s rights in families impacted by dependence. Also, other voices that participated in this report but are not included in the description of specific practices have nevertheless nurtured its reflections and recommendations.

This research, rather than representing a conclusion, is the beginning of an ongoing effort to give visibility to children in families affected by drug and alcohol misuse and the practices that target them and their families, and to foster co-operation and dialogue between governmental and non-governmental actors.

At the time of completing this report (October 2021), the project had already led a co-operation initiative between the governments of Croatia and Cyprus and secured the interest of the non-governmental organisation SANANIM (Czech Republic) in contacting other therapeutic communities that host women with their children.

The contents, conclusions and recommendations presented in the following pages are intended to help increase mutual knowledge and interest and to serve as a practical reference for the identification of promising practices and international partners to implement them.

Background

This project was proposed in response to the Council of Europe’s invitation to the Pompidou Group secretariat to participate in the Inter-Secretariat Task Force on Children’s Rights to contribute to the discussions on the themes that should appear in the new Council of Europe Strategy for the Rights of the Child (2022-27). The Pompidou Group made the following proposal to be included in the strategy: “To include actions to develop practical tools to protect children of parents who use drugs under the ‘equal opportunities’ pillar of the draft strategy, as they were deprived of their childhood and had been disproportionately affected by the pandemic”.

Subsequently, a preliminary assessment was developed, based on 16 Pompidou Group countries’2 responses to a questionnaire, a literature review (international legal tools and standards) and quantitative data, corresponding to the first phase of the project. The report and preliminary assessment and proposals (Pompidou Group 2021a) were shared with the 20 countries that expressed an interest in the project, as well as with the non-governmental organisations that contributed by sharing information or perspectives.

In February 2021, the Bureau of the Pompidou Group took note of the developments under this new project and entrusted the secretariat to follow it up as appropriate with the second phase of the project (February to December 2021). Some 13 countries participated in the second phase.3 Between February and September 2021, the consultant responsible carried out three inter-country focus groups,4 national focus groups with five countries,5 and semi-structured interviews with a total of 61 people from 10 countries, namely the Czech Republic, Croatia, Cyprus, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Mexico, Poland and Switzerland.6

The experiences shared in the focus groups between countries can be found in the report “Children whose parents use drugs. Report of focus groups held in February 2021” (Pompidou Group 2021a), while this document includes the findings of the national focus groups and the semi-structured interviews.

All the meetings were carried out virtually on Zoom and the informants had access to the recordings. During the writing of the present report, the consultant shared with each participant or group of participants the text regarding the particular programme, service or governmental or non-governmental entity they represented, to give them the opportunity to comment, make corrections or add further information. The response to the project was collaborative and enthusiastic and the research inculcated an interest in participants to learn about other countries.

Besides conversing with experts and operators, the consultant had the opportunity to draw on the voices of nine women from two therapeutic communities in Italy. While their experiences are not included directly here, they feed into the conclusions and recommendations of the report and will be subsequently analysed with the intention of promoting specific work on gender and motherhood in the context of dependence and the services’ responses and attitudes.

Key concepts and contents

The term “drug use” adopted here does not refer to all forms of drug use, but only to drug use disorders, based on the definition provided by the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) in “International standards for the treatment of drug use disorders” (WHO/UNODC 2020: 4),7 with substance dependence as one manifestation of drug use disorders. Drawing on the same definition, the concepts “drug use”, “drug use disorders”, and “substance or drug dependence” are also associated “with hazardous or harmful use of other psychoactive substances such as alcohol or nicotine, or with alcohol and nicotine dependence”.