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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
This book analyses the development of Collective Intelligence by a better knowledge of the diversity of the temperaments and behavioural and relational processes. The purpose is to help the reader become a better Collective Intelligence Leader, who will be able to capitalize on the specificities and the differences of the individuals present in its collective, and transform these differences into complementarities, which are a source of wealth.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title
Copyright
Introduction
I.1. Importance of the subject: why does the question of Collective Intelligence warrant a book?
I.2. The logic of our approach
1 Relevance and Foundations of Collective Intelligence
1.1. Adapting to a world in complete transformation
1.2. The pillars of a company in development, the foundations of Collective Intelligence
1.3. Conclusion
2 People: The Heart of the Collective Intelligence Development Process
2.1. Collective Intelligence: a largely untapped resource
2.2. Lack of Collective Intelligence: causes and consequences
2.3. Five good reasons to raise the level of Collective Intelligence
2.4. Collective Intelligence: an obvious choice faced with a fundamental paradox
3 Developing Collective Intelligence: Understanding People and Diversity
3.1. Diversity? A matter of interpretation!
3.2. Understanding people through perception filters
3.3. Diversity and stress: different survival behaviors
3.4. Conclusion on the elements of diversity
4 What is Leadership? A Note on Works about Leadership and a Tentative Definition of Leadership
4.1. A note on works about leadership
4.2. Tentative definition of leadership
4.3. Three premises of leadership
4.4. Links between Collective Intelligence and Leadership
4.5. Leadership, to mediate between opposing sides
4.6. Leadership: transcending organizational or cultural differences
4.7. Conclusions about leadership
5 Postures and Roles of a Leader to Develop Collective Intelligence
5.1. Introduction: learning to be a leader
5.2. The postures of a leader
5.3. The roles of a leader, in the service of Collective Intelligence
6 The Skills of a Leader in the Service of Collective Intelligence
6.1. Being a leader: a sum of personal skills for self-control
6.2. Being a leader: the sum of relational skills to influence
6.3. Being a leader: creating sense
Conclusion
Bibliography
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
1 Relevance and Foundations of Collective Intelligence
Figure 1.1. The three pillars of a Company in Development (inspired by the work of Ikujito Nonaka [NON 95])
2 People: The Heart of the Collective Intelligence Development Process
Figure 2.1. The development mode of organizations since the Industrial Revolution
Figure 2.2. Causes and consequences of Collective Unintelligence
3 Developing Collective Intelligence: Understanding People and Diversity
Figure 3.1. The mechanism of interpretations
6 The Skills of a Leader in the Service of Collective Intelligence
Figure 6.1. The Johari Window
Figure 6.2. The logical levels
Figure 6.3. The curve of change
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
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Series Editor
Jean-Charles Pomerol
Collective Intelligence Development in Business
Patricia Bouvard
Hervé Suzanne
First published 2016 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd27-37 St George’s RoadLondon SW19 4EUUKwww.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USAwww.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2016The rights of Patricia Bouvard and Hervé Suzanne to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016952059
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-84821-981-6
Introduction: The Secrets of Collective Intelligence
I.1. Importance of the subject: why does the question of Collective Intelligence warrant a book?
It takes several elements to answer this question.
First of all, let us start at the beginning: who is this book intended for? Generally, for any person who needs a group to reach their objectives; so, mainly people working in a business, whether it is private or public. That is the framework of our contributions. Peripherally, this book may also benefit people in charge of the development of a sports team. Lastly, it would also be possible to apply our comments to private affairs, like marriages and families.
That said, why are we discussing Collective Intelligence and the mechanisms that can bring it about?
Several of our readers, who include salaried workers, entrepreneurs, employees, executives and managers, have diplomas that provide their employers or partners some assurance of their knowledge of business and the ins and outs of producing results in a team. This is to be expected; however, when it comes to Collective Intelligence, there is still tremendous room for improvement. Why?
We know that:
– The success of a business depends on the quality of its collective functioning.
– We cannot always choose the people we work with, and even if we can, there are always surprises: some people’s behavior changes drastically due to stress, egocentric behavior, bad faith, etc.
– There are people who are easy to get along with, while with others it is practically “mission impossible”! That is the challenge, because it may be with these people that we need to “create wealth”, despite our differences.
Faced with this unavoidable difficulty, a business requires its professionals to work together cooperatively and seek out solutions collaboratively, especially given the high economic stakes. You might think that this requirement is rarely satisfied, and that we would instead find many situations of Collective Unintelligence as we move forward in a supposedly practical universe in an ongoing quest for optimization.
In fact, as soon as the success of functioning “together” depends on reaching objectives – on the capacity to remain married to the success of a transverse international project – it becomes necessary to study the causes of success or failure in Collective Intelligence, because failure is only acceptable insofar as we get the most in terms of learning.
So, this subject is crucial and is located at the heart of a major concern: to connect individuals according to their skills with the goal of creating something that neither of them could have created alone. In other words, what is the best way to take advantage of the skills or personality of an “Other”, who is inherently and very fortunately diverse, in order to complete a collaborative project? The question of producing Collective Intelligence is at the core of the entrepreneurial task, particularly in the globalized context in which we are now all developing, whether we are aware of it or not.
Unfortunately, as you well know, there are several reasons why we are clearly starting from the bottom in this respect.
Again, let us start at the beginning: when did the subject of Collective Intelligence and its rules come into your childhood, adolescence or adulthood? Do not think too hard, your memory is not mistaken: almost never! We have had the opportunity to mix with very diverse groups of people: students, young entrepreneurs, senior executives, etc. At the risk of not making any friends, it is clear that there is little awareness about the factors that produce group success – much lower than in group sports, for example. Is this normal?
Another reason for the lack of development in Collective Intelligence is the reluctance to question the status quo. Oh, of course, some readers will say, “I’m not worried about that, myself, because as a senior executive, I’ve completed many training sessions, which taught me a lot about people”. Of course you have, and we do not doubt the quality of this training for a second. But do you really apply this? Yes? Really? Alright, if that is the case, we would like to speak with your team and get their feedback!
Similarly, we know that an effective team is a group that expresses itself, and does not hesitate to bring up any and all information that seems relevant, even when this information seems to contradict the general policy of a company. We can cite several great industrial failures that are due to insufficient information gathered from people who are otherwise competent and engaged. Why? These people did not want to take the risk of damaging the ego of management, whose directions and/or decisions would be challenged by handing over this information. On this point in particular, we will demonstrate that certain types of Ego are especially detrimental to the development of Collective Intelligence. For example, an executive, a patron of the company who complains about not getting enough feedback, should start by questioning himself about his own influence, and then make inquiries to obtain feedback from his partners. Unfortunately, our education entirely ignores or seems to ignore this issue: what impact do I have on the group around me?
This alone should position the subject of Collective Intelligence at the center of all concerns. Even more so, the system of consumption, which has prioritized immediate satisfaction, has added to a growing “every man for himself” attitude, as well as the quasi-canonization of both spontaneity – which implies that everything that is not spontaneous lacks honesty – and victimization: “I had nothing to do with it and it was all someone else’s fault”. These are all bricks contributing to the building of Collective Unintelligence.
The effects of Collective Unintelligence are devastating for people working within these systems. It is not for nothing that several large companies, although most often in accordance with legal requirements, which have issued so many fascinating managerial training sessions to their executives, employ full-time staff to handle the psychosocial well-being of employees. That is the leading indicator: the level of psychosocial risk. In France, the risk is higher than ever. Consequently, how can we claim that a team functions intelligently in such a context of perceived psychosocial danger?
These issues are found at all levels of management, and accentuate the difficulties of working collectively – that is, working among a variety of individuals. In short, developing Collective Intelligence is essential in a context where we are constantly seeking to increase the margins of companies. On a related note, the cost of Collective Unintelligence is something every manager faces: the cost of absenteeism, unproductive meetings, information retention, minimum contributions, etc.
As you can see, Collective Intelligence needs to be given the attention it deserves because it can contribute many solutions and gains in productivity.
I.2. The logic of our approach
The subject of Collective Intelligence is huge and complex; rushing through it and not doing it justice is out of the question. What logic does our work center on?
More specifically, the three major parts stand out:
– The first section is dedicated to raising awareness and understanding human diversity; we propose a new, more objective perspective on the analysis of diversity. Thanks to this work, you will know much more about “human capital” – primary material for all companies – and its properties. Why begin with this subject? Because not understanding people and their natures, and thus what makes up their diversity, is the first obstacle to the development of Collective Intelligence. Indeed, this lack of understanding unfortunately leads to limiting the breadth of diversity in a Business by only recruiting individuals who easily fit into a pre-existing collective functioning and excluding many more atypical profiles. However, these individuals could prove to be very useful in the search for new solutions brought on by a global economic context that is increasingly complex (see below, “Collective Intelligence, adapting to a world in complete transformation” (
section 1.1
)). How can we avoid the natural tendency to reduce the field of Diversity? On the one hand, by understanding the characteristics that make up this diversity and by being able to situate yourself at the center of this diversity. On the other hand, by understanding why you do not get along well with certain personalities, as well as what is required to work alongside these “difficult personalities” who may be, depending on the context, indispensable to a group. Importantly, you should be able to evaluate how each personality type described can enrich the group with which you are interacting. Beyond helping you recruit with more accuracy depending on the context, this approach will allow you to be calmer, more objective, and less emotional and judgmental toward the Other.
– Having identified and understood the “agents of Diversity”, in the second section we will help you transform this diversity into complementarity using Leadership. How? First of all, by bringing together the notions of Leadership and Collective Intelligence. With this in mind, we will begin by studying what Leadership is in order to demonstrate how the development of a global culture of leadership – notably by training relay leaders – can contribute to Collective Intelligence. Further to this, we will concern ourselves with the roles and personal skills of a Leader to help you develop
your
unique identity as a Leader. On this issue, we will set aside the traditional, generic persona of the Leader that many people in business feel obliged to take on, putting to rest several limiting popular beliefs. On the one hand, we will do this by separating the ideas of Leader and Boss – because yes, you can be a leader without being the boss – and on the other hand, by demonstrating that
everyone can be a leader
, regardless of personality, experience, etc. How? To start with, by working on ourselves, on our Egos and what they are made up of, on the control of emotions, etc. – to become an authentic and inspiring Leader that followers want.
– In line with this, the third part will be dedicated to the study of the positions, roles and skills of a Leader for the development of Collective Intelligence. You will reflect on the development of your personal influence using new and tangible approaches, and find answers that will undoubtedly guide your development while also benefitting your comfort level in interactions with others, in challenging situations, and with your team’s Collective Intelligence. We will also present the question of your
personal skills
as a Leader – mainly self-control – and your relational skills by giving you tips and techniques so that you can facilitate the complementarity of a Diversity with many actors. Similarly, we dedicate a large section to mechanisms of influence and we consider a few concrete cases of Collective Intelligence, notably including: how do you establish a Vision? Implement a change? Solve a conflict? Conduct a mediation?, etc.
Now, to the heart of the matter: examining the foundations and relevance of Collective Intelligence.
2People: The Heart of the Collective Intelligence Development Process
Understanding People is essential, because it is a question of better understanding the quality of relationships between individuals on a foundation of heterogeneity – diversity. Despite the fact that they are the source of all wealth creation, especially through collective abilities, People are the most neglected topic in studies about Business and, more generally, the economy. It may seem obvious, but despite being creators, producers, consumers and managers, People are still only very superficially approached in these studies. For example, how is it possible to teach consumer behaviors without an in-depth study of human behavior in general? It is illuminating to note that from business schools to engineering schools to first-year MBA programs, the subject of understanding People is barely touched, leaving people whose profession requires understanding the ins and outs of individuals and relationships – managers, vendors, etc. – in complete confusion. Nature abhors a vacuum, so this desert of knowledge gives way to prejudices, oversimplification and reproducing ill-adapted mechanisms of collective functioning (such as those from military or school models).
We are going to focus on the reasons for the incredible absence of knowledge of the “supervisors” in the Social Sciences, especially behavioral ones, that has gone on for such a long time that it is now a historical fact.
Next, we will analyze the causes and consequences of Collective Unintelligence to assess the gravity of the situation.
Finally, we will discuss a few of the reasons in favor of developing Collective Intelligence and conclude with a central question: why is Collective Intelligence so difficult to develop?
In the next section, we will get into the heart of the matter: understanding People and how they work.
2.1. Collective Intelligence: a largely untapped resource
Consider the schema given in Figure 2.1.
Figure 2.1.The development mode of organizations since the Industrial Revolution
To understand why it is so difficult to increase the level of Collective Intelligence in Business (cf. psychosocial risks, which we said are a clear testimony to a lack of Collective Intelligence), the schema above provides us with invaluable information. Contrary to popular belief, understanding productive mechanisms of Collective Intelligence has never been a part of business culture, which is a bit like ignoring its DNA.
Let us dig a little deeper to understand this schema…
“Tasks” are all activities that are involved in the realization of labor or a deliverable: production, standards, process, inspections, finances, etc. This is the domain of the technical, the tangible and what is known as the “hard” sciences.
“Relationships” covers all connections between people and departments, as well as the ability to explain, give direction, prepare people for a change or a project, integrate diverse team members, and so on. This is a domain of the intangible and the “soft” sciences, but also, against all odds, it is no less technical than the domain of Tasks when it comes to making it possible to understand how different, mismatched groups of people are able to work together.
If we look through the Task/Relationship lens, what can we observe? Since the Industrial Revolution, Business has greatly increased its capacities for production, learned to manage its costs, developed mass marketing, grown its aptitude for financial forecasting, etc. This is all acknowledged and indispensable progress, but it is all centered on a single domain: that of the task, technique and its expertise.
During the same time period, how did Business advance its understanding of Relationships, the social sciences, or even that which makes up its basic body: the men and women who work within it? Alas, in the realm of Relationships, nothing – or almost nothing – has been accomplished. Nothing that would allow us to distance ourselves from a spontaneity that can be destructive or emotions that we do not know how to deal with, and nothing that would allow us to head toward a relationship like the one described above, which is understandable, manageable, and which fosters the diversity of resources and team members that is so necessary for the adaptation of a Company faced with frequently and substantial changes in the contemporary context.
The following remarks, made by a participant in one of our training sessions at an aeronautical company, seem to illustrate this point: “In the end, the toughest problem that we encounter is rarely technical. We are confronted with incidents that cause us difficulties and there are definitely significant technical challenges to overcome. But to solve them, what is even more complicated, is to unite an effective collective that is oriented toward the solution; this effectiveness depends uniquely on the quality of the interactions between people”.
This is what it means to understand the domain of the Relationship: understanding what causes interactions to fail or succeed, recognizing situations, mastering techniques and putting them into practice, permanently.
By explaining the foundations of Collective Intelligence through the necessary optimization of the relationships involved in the Vision–Structure–Skills triptych, we also explain the basic reason that Collective Unintelligence is too often encountered: Business is not interested in its driving force, People; the consequence of this disinterest is directly related to the fundamental synergy of the basic pillars of Business.
Next we will examine the causes and consequences of Collective Unintelligence in detail.
2.2. Lack of Collective Intelligence: causes and consequences
These are just a few causes and consequences, and our readers will no doubt be able to identify others. However, the goal here is not to portray an exhaustive list, but rather to raise awareness about the necessity of avoiding Collective Unintelligence.
Figure 2.2.Causes and consequences of Collective Unintelligence
2.2.1. The causes of Collective Unintelligence
Ego is probably the foremost cause. We do not expect you to banish Ego, which would be absurd. Instead, we will explain how Ego can produce Collective Unintelligence. Ego becomes counter-productive when it is built on the wrong bases, making it so that we always want to establish our power by demonstrating that we are correct, that we know more than others, and, as a result, that we are superior to others and supremely indispensable. “You cannot be right, because I am right!” From that moment on, it becomes a question of opposing the action of whoever is in a position to challenge our authority, regardless of the domain. In this case, any objection is seen as an aggression. In other words, this person will impoverish the group in order to distinguish themselves and reassure themselves of their inherent value. This method of affirming oneself in a Company is as common as it is destructive for the wealth of the system. The problem is even more critical because it is not simply individual and behavioral, in the sense that it is not an isolated and unfortunate event. These authoritarian behaviors find their source in the global education system and are still largely practiced today, contributing to a culture of innovation that is particularly fallible (see the notions of Knower/Learner). For example, did you ever receive a good grade at school for asking a good question? School conditions us to always show that we know how to find answers, never that we know how to think about these questions intelligently, work in groups, be a contributor, help others to develop their own skills, tolerate and encourage difference, seek out alternatives and plurality, etc. Unfortunately, all throughout their professional life, many people endeavor to reproduce a teacher-student relationship. Fortunately, nowadays, some teachers are making a difference by putting more emphasis on group work in their teaching methods, for instance. On this subject, we think that things are still moving too slowly, and not definitively enough.
The particularities of an internal spirit of competition result directly from these poorly constructed Egos. We are not opposed to competition in general, which can, in some contexts, be considered as positive. In fact, as for all competition, everything depends on the rules of the game and a respect for them by the participants. Much could be said on this topic. In short, for things to go well, competition needs rules, which must be respected, that make it possible to avoid the following: winning, not by being better than others, but by neutralizing others, and making them lose. When we find ourselves in the second case, the collective power is considerably diminished and the Company is weakened. Alas, the current standard is an absence of explicit and respected rules for team work. So, everything is permitted, and when combined with the Ego described above, in desperate quest to be all-powerful, the Collective Unintelligence cocktail can be explosive! In addition, there are often other multiplying factors of “collective stupidity”: challenges, accompanied by stress, as well as individualism, money, risks…
A lack of values follows naturally. You might object, saying that your company has worked on these values … Alright. In that case, we have a few questions for you. How do these values “exist” effectively in the Company? How are they represented as behaviors? Who is in charge of ensuring they are followed? What does this person do when these values are not respected? What happens to these values in tense situations? Having worked on values means having answered all of these questions and ensuring that these values are anchored and represented in everyone’s daily behaviors. What is more, working on values (and answering these questions) is an extensive project. On this subject, we usually advise our clients to start by setting up (with a special group) the rules of team work and then bring them to the attention of everyone (see “Elaboration and Implementation of the Rules of Collective Functioning”). Then, the question of values can be approached with greater ease. For example, group sports teams know how to follow the rules of their sport (if not, they are excluded from participating), while also developing their own values over time.
Poor risk management stems from two distinct elements: Egos that want to assert their superiority, heedless of other approaches and a precautionary principle that penetrates the nooks and crannies of our society, often leading to shy and conservative solutions, to the detriment of innovation. On the topic of the Ego once again, the way in which certain managers conduct themselves can lead a group to an approach that is subject to risk, tending to favor the recommended (or imposed) routes that their bosses suggest. Of course, people must adopt and respect the strategic choices of the company they work for. However, watch out for this danger: during a collaboration with two large companies (one European and one French) we learned about the concept of “watermelon culture”. What is that? Consider the performance or success indicators for a project. The closer the team gets to realizing their goals, the more the indicators are said to “turn green”. The further the team gets from the realization of their goals, the more the indicators are said to “turn red”. In theory, this is how the “green culture” of companies works. In practice, confronted with the Egos in the hierarchy and the submission of N-1s, “green culture” transforms into “watermelon culture” – that is, the higher we climb in the hierarchy, the more the indicators, which were initially red, “turn green” when they are reported! So, the indicators, which were really red on the ground, are by some miracle changed green when they are presented to a management committee, in order to cater to the initial directions decided on by that very committee!
We also often observe compartmentalized infrastructures. Even worse than this, opposing departments – when not engaged in open war (internal competition) – are incapable of collaborating or even working under the same direction. So competitive with each other, they are veritable companies within companies, and these rival infrastructures are extremely detrimental to the efficiency of the collective.
In the same vein, people can have contradictory objectives, even when they are supposed to be working together (for the purpose of promoting internal competition). This means that if one person reaches their goals, the other person necessarily does not! We may think that they do this out of negligence. Why not… Nevertheless, when we observe the persistence of this negligence, there is no question: internal competition is privileged to an absurd degree, since it cannot achieve anything except at the expense of one side of the teams!
Finally, one of the main obstacles to the development of Collective Intelligence is a fear that grips many people, a fear of not being recognized for their personal contribution. So, although aware of the harmful effects of their attitude on the group, they “play for their own team” and spend most of their time taking all the credit. They worry that their individual contributions will be diluted by the group, and they will no longer manage to assert their “indispensability”. It is essential that a system establishes measures for people with egocentric behaviors, especially in terms of career, and organizes evaluation and promotion processes that rely mainly on people’s contributions to a group (see “The Traditional Criteria of Leadership Evaluation”). Similarly, it would be useful to design a tangible validation for managers, in which one of the collaborators would be promoted.
2.2.2. The consequences of Collective Unintelligence
The loss of direction and consistency is often cited by staff: “I know that I am working to earn my salary, but what else?”. Between changes, means that justify the ends, changes to professions and careers, and restructurings that seems absurd to most (sometimes coming from a distant corporate decision, without any explanation), many workers lose their bearings and become demotivated.
Here is a recent example. A manager in the insurance sector had been through three restructurings in 6 months, and each one came with a new hierarchy and new objectives, established without any regard for the previous ones and without any other explanation than, “I am your new manager, and here are your new objectives. Forget the old ones!”. Smart, right? We will not go any further into detail here, because the issue is addressed in the section dedicated to Vision, but it is important to remember that losing direction for actions and work, and consequently personal value, is a significant cause of anxiety, demotivation, and sometimes, confusion, directly related to the psychosocial concern. What a waste of energy!
Moreover, Collective Unintelligence strongly compromises the circulation and management of information in a Company. How many managers have said to us, “I am not informed about anything, and I’m always the last one to find out!” Sure, but there it is… So many errors in group operations lead members of what should be a community to see it as a personal risk to communicate information which might be considered essential by the bearer, but whose very communication might be considered a personal risk by the same bearer because it challenges an aspect of the Company’s general policy and might shake up some ill-founded Egos. Consequently, the information is abandoned out of fear. Who is responsible? Everyone, really, but to varying degrees. To a small degree, the individuals who too easily perceived themselves at some risk if they communicated the information, and to a much greater degree, the person or people who are guilty of not encouraging free speech enough and making it so that staff members feel at ease, even if they must pass on “politically dissident” information. It is everyone’s responsibility to share important information, not to eliminate potentially crucial elements from the company’s field of knowledge simply because this information might be disruptive.
An illustrative example of the inability to manage information
A pharmaceutical laboratory was about to market a galenical variation of one of its best-selling products. This useful variation promised an easier way to take the medicine, which meant better treatment, because it was more varied: the product could be swallowed like a pill, or diluted in a glass or water, or dissolved under the tongue. During the launch seminar, a medical representative decided to try this new version by dissolving it under the tongue, as recommended, in order to get an idea of the taste (do not worry, such a dose was perfectly harmless). There was no issue with the taste, but to the representative’s enormous and disagreeable surprise, when placed under the tongue, the product produced a considerable burning sensation (a real burn in fact, perceptible long after), so bad as to deter anyone from taking the treatment this way. The “courageous” representative passed on the information and suffered taunting and bad-mouthing in return from the hierarchy, from sales to marketing; so, the laboratory decided to ignore this information, which was so out of tune with the “party line”. A few months later, faced with many criticisms from doctors, the laboratory took a step back and advised clients against taking this product by dissolving it under the tongue. What a shame to have wasted so much time!
Report of this unfortunate example:
– Failure at the level of the task and the relationship, due to loss of time, money, reputation and credibility, internally and externally.
– A demotivated medical representative who is not prepared to provide more feedback.
– A considerable sign for collaborators within the company in question: better off keeping it to yourself!
That sets the tone…
The disappearance of creativity
