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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
- Sprache: Englisch
Understand the beliefs, customs, and rituals of each faith The fun and easy way to know the common elements of these widespread religions Want to know more about the faiths of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam? This plain-English guide traces their evolution from their commonorigin - Abraham - and explains their different, yet linked, beliefs.You'll see how each religion developed, endured setbacks, and became a fixture in modern society - and you'll learn how members havedeveloped similar approaches to worship. Discover: * How the belief in one God originated * The roots of Abraham's family tree * The sacred texts of each faith * Major similarities and differences * How these religions influenced the world
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Seitenzahl: 561
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2011
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Comparative Religion For Dummies
by William P. Lazarus and Mark Sullivan
Comparative Religion For Dummies®
Published byWiley Publishing, Inc.111 River St.Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774www.wiley.com
Copyright © 2008 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana
Published by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana
Published simultaneously in Canada
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About the Authors
A native of Maine who grew up in northeast Ohio, William Paul Lazarus began studying religious history as a child and has never stopped. By age 13, he was teaching Sunday school. After moving to Florida in 1986, he branched out by teaching at various institutions, including Daytona Beach Community College and Stetson University. A professional writer, he regularly speaks at churches and synagogues around Florida, and had a successful radio show on 1340-AM, WROD, in Daytona Beach. This is his ninth book on various aspects of religious history. He and his wife live in Daytona Beach, Florida.
Mark Sullivan was born in Greenwich Village, Manhattan, and grew up in a traveling, academic family, something like a fantastic traveling circus. He returned to NYC for college, at Columbia University, where he studied Comparative Literature and European Languages. He later attended the Juilliard School of Music for studies in composition.
He has worked in book publishing, in various roles, and as an author, for the past 17 years. His interests include languages, music, swimming, and travel. He lives in Manhattan with his wife, Mariko.
Dedication
Bill’s dedication:
This book is dedicated to all the people who encouraged me both professionally and academically from the first time I decided to write and to learn about religious history: my wife, Kathleen; daughter, Maia; my parents; my three brothers, all of whom write and are published, although no one knows where the writing gene came from; and friends like Cynthia Schuster-Eakin, Jon Swebilius, Michael Silverstein, Tom Nimen, and Susan Cerbone.
Mark’s dedication:
To my mother, Maureen, and my father, Art, whose love of all things interesting opened my mind from the very beginning of my life. And to my wife, Mariko.
Authors’ Acknowledgments
Bill’s acknowledgments:
This book could not have been written without the witting efforts of editors and colleagues, and the unwitting efforts of educators like Arthur Tirson, Herbert Mermelstein, and Rabbi Dov Pikelny. They devoted so much effort to helping a young boy learn about faith, even when they realized the knowledge would eventually carry him far away from their beliefs. I couldn’t be more grateful for their unselfish — and given my attention span, often heroic — work. I also want to thank Mark Sullivan, who suggested this book and has been unflinchingly encouraging in our collaboration.
Mark’s acknowledgments:
Many thanks, first, to Amine Bouchentouf for leading the way at Wiley. His hard work and desire for excellence in his own writing were exemplary.
My appreciation and thanks, also, to Tim Gallan and Vicki Adang for their editorial skills that made this a better book, and to Lindsay Lefevere for getting it all started.
And to my teachers — my parents, Ed Tolk, Edward Said, Michel Riffaterre, Frank Camper, and others — thank you so much for helping me become a better thinker and more appreciative of art and ideas.
To Bill Lazarus, the most industrious writer I know — it was a real pleasure working on this book with you and learning from your prodigious knowledge of these religions.
Finally, to my beloved wife, Mariko, thanks for putting up with “the process” one more time!
Publisher’s Acknowledgments
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Contents
Title
Introduction
About This Book
Foolish Assumptions
Conventions Used in This Book
How This Book Is Organized
Icons Used in This Book
Where to Go from Here
Part I : History Is a Happening Thing
Chapter 1: One God, Three Faiths
Holy Toledo! How Many Gods Are There?
Monotheism Develops
Following Abraham’s Lead: Judaism
Christianity: Crossing in a New Direction
Islam: Submitting to God
Chapter 2: Following Abraham’s Path
What We Do and Don’t Know about the Historic Abraham
Abraham’s Early Years
The Beginnings of Judaism
In Islam, Ishmael Finds a New Way
Jesus Joins the Genealogy
Three Faiths: One Founder
Part II : The Development of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
Chapter 3: Judaism: Oy Vey, What a History!
From Abraham, Judaism Takes the Long Road
Moses, Receiver of God’s Laws
The Days of the Judges
The Time of Kings
Getting Conquered: The Jews Find Themselves in Hot Water
Christianity’s Emergence Puts the Jews on the Defensive (Yet Again)
How Jews Have Influenced Society
Flying the Blue and White Banner of Israel
Chapter 4: Judaism Finds God in Everything
A Little of This, A Little of That
Maintaining Daily Practice
Observing Jewish Holidays
Understanding Jewish Rituals
Understanding Jewish Symbols
Chapter 5: Jesus and the Origins of Christianity
Jesus’s Life and Death
The First Believers
A New Religion Grows
It’s Hard to Keep Everyone Happy
Christianity Today
Chapter 6: Christian Beliefs and Practices
The First Noel: Christmas and the Roots of Christianity
Other Christian Holidays
Happening upon Christianity’s Holy Sites
Rituals: Outward Expressions of Faith
The Different Symbols of Christianity
Many Christians, Many Sects
Chapter 7: The Birth of Islam: The Prophet Submits to Allah
Islam, Born in the Desert
The Prophet Arrives
Muhammad Takes Command
Breakdown at the Start-Up: Sunnis and Shi’ites Can’t Get Along
The Ottoman Turks Dominate Islam
Chapter 8: Islam: Submission of the Faithful
The Core of Islam: One God with Muhammad as His Last Prophet
Allah: The Almighty of Islam
The Pillars of the Faith
Meeting Some Muslim Sects
Gender Equality in Islam
Observing Muslim Holidays
Getting to Know Saints in Islam
Common Rituals and Daily Practices
The Story Behind Symbols and Colors
Part III : Shared Aspects of the Faiths
Chapter 9: Reading the Holy Words
The Hebrew Bible
The Christian Bible
The Koran
Understanding the Texts
Unrolling the Dead Sea Scrolls
Perusing Other Sacred Books
Chapter 10: Houses of Prayer
Early Sacred Sites: Stone Mounds and Altars
The Many Lives of the Temple in Jerusalem
Christians Choose Churches
Mosques Reflect the Prophet
Who’s Welcome for Worship?
Chapter 11: Religious Leaders: Keeping the Faith
Great Jewish Leaders of the Past
Rise of the Rabbi
Modern Jewish leaders
Christian Leaders
Church Leaders from the Early Days Until Now
Following Muhammad
Chapter 12: Sacred Sites
Jerusalem: Important to All Three Religions
Sacred Sites of Judaism
In Islam, All Roads Lead to Mecca
Christian Sacred Sites
Chapter 13: Thy Kingdom Come: The Messiah Concept
The Origins of the Messiah Concept
Christians Adopt Jesus as the Messiah
Islam Develops a Messiah: Madhi
Chapter 14: Holy Catastrophe: End of the World
Where Did the Idea of the End of the World Come From?
Judaism’s Belief in the End and Its Influence on Christianity
Islam’s View of the End
How the End of the World Will Take Place
Part IV : Shared Ideas Among the Faiths
Chapter 15: Dealing with Sin
What Is Sin, and Where Does It Come From?
Facing Punishment for Sins
Receiving Redemption
Excommunication: When Redemption Isn’t an Option
Chapter 16: Good Heavens: Life after Death
Where Do Ideas about the Afterlife Come From?
What Is Heaven?
Angels: God’s Helpers
Chapter 17: Hell in a Nutshell
Starting with the Roots of Hell
What Is Hell Like?
Speaking of the Devil
Watching Out for Devilish Assistants
What Happens to Satan?
Chapter 18: War and Peace: Why Can’t We All Get Along?
A Shared Heritage
Differences, Disagreements, and Conflicts
War and Not So Much Peace
The Jews Struggle
Finding Solutions in Secularism
Part V : The Part of Tens
Chapter 19: Ten Misconceptions about Jews, Christians, and Muslims
Judaism Struggles against Anti-Semitism
Christianity Focuses on Fundamentals
Islam Emerges to Slow Understanding
Chapter 20: Ten Films Drawn from Biblical Accounts
The Ten Commandments
King of Kings
The Greatest Story Ever Told
Jesus Christ Superstar
The Passion of the Christ
The Prince of Egypt
The Last Temptation of Christ
Solomon and Sheba
David and Bathsheba
Samson and Delilah
Chapter 21: Ten-Plus Ways Religion Influences the World
Read All About It: Literature
Music as an Expression of Faith
Politics and Religion: Not Always Easy to Separate
Bringing the Bible to Life through Art
Recording Biblical Stories on Film
Spreading the Word through Television
Seeking Insight into God through Science
Education: Wearing a Skullcap and a Thinking Cap
Being Holy Improves Your Health and Well-Being
Social Welfare: Doing unto Others
Disagreeing about Environmental Issues
Part VI : Appendixes
Appendix A: Timelines for Religions
Judaism
Christianity
Islam
Appendix B: Genealogies
Judaism and Christianity
Islam
End User License Agreement
Introduction
High school students in Ohio — and maybe elsewhere as well — used to take a course that introduced them to many of the world’s religions. In classes filled with children of many beliefs, teachers would talk about how a particular faith developed and how it spread.
Today, when it seems that the faithful in one religion can’t resist taking potshots at believers in another religion, people may have forgotten how life was in past eras. People of different faiths used to live and work side by side with little concern. At one time, Jews served as advisors and heads of state in Muslim countries. Christians and Jews labored together to build the culture in Catholic Spain. Christians lived in harmony with Muslims in the Middle East.
Less than 1,000 years ago, Catholic Roger II of Sicily relied on Arab scholars and financiers to run his widespread Mediterranean kingdom.
At one time, Jewish and Christian icons were included with the Ka’baa, the holiest religious monument in Islam, located in Mecca, the holiest city in Islam. Even today, Jerusalem is home to the Dome of the Rock, a sacred Islamic mosque, and the Wailing Wall, the last surviving piece of the great Jewish Temple that once existed there.
Visitors to Jerusalem can see religious Jews wrapped in prayer shawls, trudging along ancient streets alongside Muslims and Christians. Overhead, the cry of the Islamic muezzin, calling the faithful to prayer, rings out along with the tolling bells of Christian churches. The flag of Israel flutters in the breeze with the Star of David in its center.
Such situations are too rare. Members of the three religions seem to fight more than they pray together. Over time, the three great religions have become separated by seemingly unbridgeable chasms. Actually, they are very much alike.
Judaism, Christianity, and Islam share a common heritage. They each tie their history to a single event and a single person, Abraham, who lived maybe 4,000 years ago.
The three religions all worship the same God and shun the pagan concepts of multiple deities. In Judaism, his name is Yahweh. In Islam, the name is Allah, which means God. Christians simply call him God.
They have similar holidays. Easter, for example, the holiest day in the Christian calendar, is tied directly to Passover, one of the most significant holidays in Judaism.
Each religion believes Jerusalem is a sacred city.
There are many more links among the three faiths — they share many likenesses and have fewer differences.
But in spite of the similarities between these primary Western faiths, fissures between them continue today. These disputes can be seen in the Roman Catholic pope’s apologies for comments he made about Islam, as well as Jewish and Arab fighting over Israel, American battles in Iraq, Iranian insistence that the American president is the “devil,” and more acrimonious and violent behavior.
Maybe it’s time to review the histories of these religions and use this understanding as a way to create a peaceful path into the future.
About This Book
This book examines and compares the three great religions that believe in the same God. They are among the oldest and most widespread religions on earth. Jews, Christians, and Muslims can be found on almost every continent and in every country.
Each chapter in Comparative Religion For Dummies will bring you closer to understanding what each faith’s followers believe, how their beliefs compare with their counterparts, and how each religion reached this point in time.
“Dummies” is actually an affectionate term. This is a book for people who don’t know about these three great faiths, but want to find out more. All three of these religions encourage education. They can claim most of the world’s greatest scholars — some who devoted their lives to helping others understand the world. This book continues that honorable process.
All the topics in these pages, of course, have been extensively researched by many people over the centuries. You can find books that devote thousands of pages to tiny aspects of each religion, as well as whole libraries focused on the founders of each faith. This book gives you an overview, with each chapter standing on its own. You can pick and choose what you want to know. Then when you need additional information, you’ll know where to go to find what you’re looking for.
Foolish Assumptions
You don’t have to be a religious scholar to understand or appreciate this book. We don’t assume that you have a background in Judaism, Christianity, or Islam. But if you are familiar with or believe in one of these religions, we think you’ll find the comparisons presented in this book to be enlightening. The three religions are more similar than most people realize, and we hope that developing an understanding of the similarities and differences can only improve the current state of affairs in our world.
Conventions Used in This Book
Historians today are moving toward connoting time by using CE (of the common era) and BCE (before the common era.) The old way — BC, meaning “before Christ,” and AD, standing for “the year of our Lord” in Latin — was seen as too religious. With so many scholars from so many different faiths working together, no one wanted to offend anyone else’s beliefs.
We don’t either. However, BC and AD are such a part of our lives and the lives of our readers, we decided to stick to them. We don’t want to offend anyone. We’re just trying to reduce chances of misunderstanding. We are sure our readers will agree.
A note about translations: Nothing is harder than taking an ancient text and trying to convert it into modern English. It’s worse than wrestling pudding. At least, if you do that, everyone agrees that you’re talking about pudding. With the ancient documents, particularly those seen as holy, some people even object to the concept of translating.
In Chapter 9, we try to explain why it’s so hard to translate the Bible and the Koran, the two principal sacred documents of the three faiths. Nevertheless, they are often the only texts that deal with the oldest portions of religious history, and we relied on the best translations we could find. Other writers may translate the words in a different way, but the gist is the same.
Finally, we use the following conventions to help you understand new words and concepts:
We italicize all new words and terms that are defined.
We boldface keywords or the main parts of bulleted lists.
We use monofont for Web addresses.
We’ve put quick little stories or fun trivia facts in shaded boxes called sidebars. The stuff in these sidebars is interesting, but you don’t have to read them to gain an understanding of the topic at hand.
How This Book Is Organized
The book is divided into six parts.
Part I: History Is a Happening Thing
This section introduces the origin of religion and explains the rise of a belief in one God. That’s when the curtain opens on Abraham, a nomadic tribesman who is credited with fathering the three faiths. Little is known about him, but historians have uncovered lots of information about his time and beliefs.
The section also explains how all three religions link their history back to Abraham.
Part II: The Development of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam
This partexplains how three different religions were nurtured on Abraham’s vision. Each developed in a separate environment, endured hardships and setbacks, and then became firmly entrenched in the mind of man.
Chapters 3 and 4 concentrate on Judaism, the oldest of the three religions. The next two chapters, 5 and 6, look at Christianity, which developed directly from Judaism. The third section, Chapters 7 and 8, discuss Islam, which is younger and was born about 600 years after Jesus lived.
You’re introduced to beliefs, customs, traditions, and rituals that characterize each faith. In many cases, you see how one belief influenced another or was the source for some idea.
Part III: Shared Aspects of the Faiths
In this section,you get the scoop on howmembers of the three religions have developed similar approaches to worship and to expressing their faith. You discover their sacred texts that serve as a bedrock to their beliefs, and you tour their holy cities.
Part IV: Shared Ideas Among the Faiths
This part focuses on similar religious ideas and concepts that help link the three religions. They all look to a messenger from God (called a messiah), foresee the day when the world ceases, provide ways to forgive sin, and propose ideas of what comes after death.
Part V: The Part of Tens
Like all For Dummies books, the last few chapters are top-ten lists. This part lists the main misconceptions about the three religions, our favorite religious films, and the top ways that the religions have influenced the world.
Part VI: Appendixes
We conclude the book with two appendixes. The first provides a timeline so you can see when events happened. The second attempts to trace Abraham’s family tree back to Adam, the first man, and ahead to Jesus and Muhammad.
Icons Used in This Book
Information in the book has been highlighted to help you pinpoint exactly what you need to know.
This icon denotes an important point to keep in mind as you read on. It will help you understand what follows.
This icon indicates information that reflects some disagreement among scholars or even within a particular faith.
Where to Go from Here
You don’t have to read this book from cover to cover. The chapters can stand alone, so check out the Table of Contents and read whatever topic interests you.
Finally, please let us know what you think about this book. It took a long time to write and produce this book, so we’d love to hear your thoughts. You can write us through the publisher at www.dummies.com. You are also welcome to write the authors at [email protected]. We’ll try to respond to all legitimate comments.
Part I
History Is a Happening Thing
In this part . . .
Say hello to Abraham, a simple shepherd who moved away from his own country and faith possibly 4,000 years ago. Abraham’s quiet announcement of a belief in a single God rocked his own society and still reverberates through the centuries. His revelation inspired three great religions — Judaism, Christianity, and Islam — that now dominate the world.
Those religions developed in the heat and turmoil of the Middle East. Each one centered on the idea of one God, and then diverged in ways of worship. Abraham’s genealogy includes two distinct branches that both link and divide Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Chapter 1
One God, Three Faiths
In This Chapter
Revealing how religions worked prior to Abraham
Uncovering the origins of monotheism
Discovering how one God led to three religions
In New York City alone, there are 6,500 or so Christian churches, according to the Internet. The Boston area is home to around 6,000 Christian churches. In fact, every American community features many different churches serving Christian residents of various denominations.
When you include buildings for Jews, Unitarian Universalists, Muslims, and other worshippers, our country seems awash in religious structures.
There are so many sects, so many denominations, so many beliefs, that the number of religions seems to multiply daily.
Yet, all of them have an origin. Everybody’s religion, whatever anyone believes, started somewhere. In this chapter, we explore some of these starting points and show how they’ve affected the three major monotheistic religions of today: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
Holy Toledo! How Many Gods Are There?
Originally, ancient people believed in magic. Their holy men, called shamans, practiced various rituals and had magical sayings that were supposed to heal illnesses, stop storms, grow crops, or change the future.
The people soon realized that these actions and spells didn’t work, so they decided that great, distant beings, called gods, watched over all aspects of life and controlled everything. These deities could only be reached through rituals and prayer. The ancient people developed thousands of gods, each of whom was responsible for some aspect of human life.
Religion was born. Religion began as a way for people to understand lightning, thunder, good or bad fortune, birth, death, and all the other events in their lives.
Religion quickly became an integral part of life. For example, Egyptians, who originated one of the earliest civilizations, began to create rituals to “guarantee” that the Nile River flooded on time every year. When the Nile flooded, it brought rich, fertilizing soil to their farmland. Without it, they would starve. The Egyptians developed calendars based on the stars so they would know exactly when their gods would send the floods.
Not that far away from Egypt, Babylonians built large pyramid-like structures to their gods and invented a style of writing to record the amount of grain and beer that worshippers donated to their temples.
Every early religion worshipped many deities. Scientists call that belief polytheism, which means “many gods.” Still, some people began to believe that there was only one God who controlled everything.
The religions that believe in one God practice monotheism — the opposite of polytheism — which comes from the Greek for “one god.”
Monotheism Develops
Monotheists have never been the majority of humans. Even today, roughly half of all humans accept the idea that there is only one God. But the followers of one God belong to two of the world’s largest religions, Christianity and Islam. They developed their faith by building on ideas generated by an older religion, Judaism. Table 1-1 shows how the number of believers in each monotheistic faith compares to the others.
Ancient gods get a new life
Although few people today worship the ancient gods, their names live on in our everyday lives. Here are a few examples:
Wednesday is named for Wodin, the chief god of the Norwegians.
Thursday is named for Thor, another Norse god. He carried a big hammer, and when he threw it, it made a loud noise humans called thunder.
Saturday is named for Saturn, a Roman god of agriculture.
March is named for Mars, the Roman god of war.
June is named for Juno, the chief Roman goddess.
There are many more: All the planets are named for Roman gods. Neptune, covered by a blue methane haze, got its name, for example, because Neptune was the Roman god of the deep blue sea.
Many companies today have taken symbols from ancient religions and use them in their logos. For example, the winged feet featured in the Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. logo comes from the shoes worn by Mercury, the swift messenger of the Roman gods.
Egypt tries the one-god concept
Historians think the first people to be monotheists were the Egyptians, although their belief didn’t last long. Egyptians developed several important gods, including one named Ptah. He was once the chief deity of a city, but eventually became the main god of the country. The other gods were seen as manifestations of Ptah. All people had to do was pray to Ptah, regardless of other gods.
Later, after the god Amon had replaced Ptah in the Egyptian belief system, an Egyptian leader (called pharaoh) named Amonhotep IV became tired of having his rule interfered with by priests. So, he changed his name to Ikhnaton around 1300 BC and declared that the god Aton was the only god.
Ikhnaton is the first person known in history to have declared that his god was the only god. In many ways, he had no choice.
If he suffered a defeat in a war, or if there was a natural disaster, people in his country would say that another god was stronger than Aton. If there were no other gods, Ikhnaton wouldn’t face that problem.
If something did go wrong, Aton could be called on to reverse the situation. If there were other gods, and the problem disappeared, Ikhnaton would have faced competition from the priests of the rival god. Having only one god prevented that.
Egyptians thought that Ikhnaton was the living embodiment of god. It was far easier for him to perform the proper rituals and observe holidays for one deity than for a multitude.
Ikhnaton destroyed the power of the priests of Amon, while creating a priesthood of Aton that was totally beholden to him.
Human nature tends to narrow down the list of gods anyway. Even the Romans, who had multiple gods, often combined them, paring down the total.
Ikhnaton’s religion was the first-known true monotheism and occurred about 1,300 years before Jesus. The belief in Aton was recorded in pictures on temple walls and in letters. Ikhnaton’s reign today is best known for the magnificent bust of his beautiful wife, Nefertiti, which is considered the finest statue to survive from ancient Egypt.
Ikhnaton ruled for a handful of years, and his religion died with him. Only when ancient letters from his reign were dug up in the 1900s did we know how much confusion he caused.
Sigmund Freud, who developed psychology in the late 1800s, suggested that the priests of Ikhnaton may have taken their dying faith to the slaves, helping generate Judaism. Later scholars don’t think that happened. For starters, the Jews worshipped a God named Yahweh, not Aton.
Yahweh steps down from the mount
One group of people who lived in the middle of all these religious ideas was called Semites. Semites are credited with developing modern monotheism.
Most non-Egyptian residents of the ancient Near East were Semites. Several times, they invaded Egypt and conquered the land. At other times, they built great empires. The Babylonians, the Assyrians, and the Israelites were all Semites.
The first famous Semite who promoted monotheism was a man we know as Abram, who would later have his name changed to Abraham. He would identify his God as Yahweh.
Yahweh means “I am that I am” or “I was what I was.” Yahweh was originally viewed as a mountain deity who appeared in thunder and lighting. His “still, small voice” was heard by those who believed in him and who listened to him (1 Kings: 19:2).
Yahweh’s commands and directions were eventually written down in books that were collected in what we call the Bible.
When did Abraham live?
One famous historian, American archaeologist William Albright, suggested Abraham was born about 4,000 years ago. Albright based that dating on contracts that Abram signed with the Hittites and the Philistines, people who lived in neighboring countries. Those contracts are mentioned in the Bible.
Today, historians believe the biblical contracts resemble contracts from around 900 BC rather than the older ones Albright cited.
Unfortunately, the Philistines and Hittites aren’t around to ask. The Philistines probably showed up in Israel about 3,200 years ago. The Hittites, who lived in what is now Turkey, were really important 3,400 years ago. Both disappeared from history before the first books of the Bible were written down around the sixth century BC.
Today, historians have no idea when Abraham lived, but 4,000 years ago is a convenient place to start (which is what we decided to do for the timeline in Appendix A). People then didn’t have a universal calendar like we do, so dates are difficult to figure out.
Following Abraham’s Lead: Judaism
The children of Abraham believed in Yahweh, but they weren’t true monotheists for centuries. They had other gods. We see that fact in people’s names, which contained the names of other deities. For example, an ancient Israelite prince’s name included the name of the Canaanite fertility god, Baal, and so on.
Some of the names endure today: Daniel, Nathaniel, and Rachel, among others, contain the name of the bull god of the Canaanites, El. Later, followers of Yahweh borrowed that name and gave it to their God. In time, Yahweh was known by many names.
Josiah and his faith: The beginnings of Judaism
Eventually, all the other gods disappeared in the Jewish land. In the seventh century BC, the followers of Yahweh lived in the small country of Judah and were threatened by armies from Babylonia. The Judean priests then claimed to have found a book that reported the history of the people and how God didn’t accept other gods. The king of Judah, Josiah, was so moved that he ordered the other religious symbols stored in the temple to be destroyed.
From that time on, monotheism was the only belief of these people, whom we know today as Jews.
Their name was derived from the country, Judah, which was once the name of a mountainous region around their capital city, Jerusalem. The people living there were known as Judahites. When the Judahites became the largest tribe, their name evolved into the name of their religion, Judaism.
Josiah really felt that by worshipping one god, he and his people would be protected against the Babylonians. In those days, a people’s deity was responsible for shielding his people against the wrath of other gods. If the enemy conquered, that meant the losers had a weaker god, so they gladly accepted the stronger deity as their own.
That’s what happened after the ten tribes north of Judah had banded together under the name of Israel. When they were conquered by the Assyrians around 722 BC, they adopted the Assyrian gods and disappeared from history. We know them as the Ten Lost Tribes. They probably accepted the Assyrians gods when their deity failed to shield them.
The priests of Judah had other ideas. They said that, win or lose, Yahweh was god. The priests made several important decisions that helped guarantee that their religion would survive:
They said there were no other gods. Other monotheists accepted the existence of different gods, but said their god was watching over them. Jews simply argued there were no other gods. In a way, they had no choice. If they accepted the existence of other gods, and their country was conquered, their people would believe the other gods were stronger. Eliminating other gods, as Ikhnaton had done in Egypt (see the earlier section, “Egypt tries the one-god concept”), erased that threat to their belief.
The priests banned images of God. Previously, people always made idols to represent their deities. Jews did not. Their God was invisible and would always be with them. Ironically, perhaps because of this ban, few Jews have ever excelled in the visual arts.
The priests insisted that their God was not responsible for just the Jews, he was universal. Previously, deities were assigned different countries as their “portion.” With no other gods, Yahweh was responsible for everyone.
God becomes universal
The Bible contains a book, dated to the sixth century BC, that tells us when the Jews decided Yahweh was God, wherever they lived.
The prophet Jonah, in the text that bears his name, was ordered by God to go to Nineveh to preach to the people there. Nineveh was the capital of Assyria, so the people Jonah was to talk to were the members of the ten conquered Israeli tribes now living in their conqueror’s land. Jonah didn’t want to go, so God sent a “great fish” (today we believe it was a whale) to swallow him and deposit him on Assyrian soil. Jonah reluctantly preached to the people, and, to his amazement, his audience listened. (Check out Jonah 1:15–4:2 for the story of Jonah’s ordeal.)
This is the first recorded incident where God is seen as universal; that is, not limited by any borders, nor even by the condition of his believers.
The many meanings of “Semite”
The name Semite is derived from a story in the Bible about a great flood. In the story, Noah, his three sons, and their families escape the rising water by building a large boat (better known in the story as an ark) and filling it with animals. Everyone else in world drowned, so everyone living now must be related to Noah’s family.
One of his sons was called Shem. All the people supposedly related to him today are still known as “Semites.”
Scholars who study language eventually used the term Semitic to refer to anyone who speaks Hebrew, Arabic, and related tongues. Today, Semite means Jewish to most people. This is the main usage, versus a general term for a group of people who created a civilization in and around the ancient Middle East.
God provides protection and an identity
The idea of a universal God shielded the Jews from adopting rival religions when they were conquered. The Babylonians were the first to enslave the Jews. After Josiah was killed fighting the Egyptians, the Babylonians had little trouble taking Jerusalem in 597 BC. The Jews, like the Israelites in the north, were required to leave their homeland.
However, they carried the idea of monotheism with them. As a result, they weren’t tempted to follow the Babylonian gods. When the Persians defeated the Babylonians about 60 years later, the Jews were free to return home. They were convinced that God had acted on their behalf. Monotheism was now firmly entrenched.
Jews were the only monotheists then, but they soon had company. For more on the history and practices of Judaism, see Chapters 3 and 4.
Christianity: Crossing in a New Direction
Jesus and his new religion, Christianity, arrived about 600 years after the Jews became total monotheists. By then, the Jews had escaped control by the Babylonians, Persians, and Greeks, only to be overtaken by the newest world power, the Romans.
Some Jews saw the Roman conquest as a decision by God to punish the Jews for failure to follow his laws. They looked for someone to lead them back into God’s good graces.
In time, they saw Jesus as that person, the Messiah, or anointed king. Born in Galilee, the northern part of the Roman state of Judea, Jesus was crucified on a cross around AD 30. That cross became a symbol of a new religion, which took its name from the Greek word for “messiah,” Christ.
Paul finds a way to link beliefs
Christians argued that they had replaced the Jews as God’s “chosen people.” They also were sure that the world was coming to an end and that only people who followed Jesus’s teaching would be taken into heaven (see Chapter 14).
That message was spread by a man we know as Paul. Like Abraham, though, we don’t know what he looked like, but he left behind letters written to small congregations he founded around the Roman Empire.
Paul’s letters, known by their Greek name, epistles, were combined with four biographies (called Gospels) of Jesus to create another Bible, called the New Testament.
Eventually, Christians combined the Jewish Bible, what they called the Old Testament, with their book to create a single sacred text. Jews don’t recognize the New Testament because they don’t believe Jesus is the Messiah or that God shifted his protection from them to Christians.
The Christian message spreads through the empire
The second great monotheistic religion took a while to win acceptance. The Romans hated the Christians, because, among other reasons, they refused to worship the emperor like a god.
Dodging arrest, Paul traveled widely and was able to reach many people. He and his companions spoke at Jewish religious houses (called synagogues) and convinced many people to follow Jesus. He taught monotheism, but said God sent Jesus to lead people to the truth.
Then in AD 70, the Romans who were fighting Jewish rebels destroyed the Temple (see Chapter 10), the central religious site of ancient Jews. To many people, this was proof that God had deserted the Jews. Paul was dead by then, but his message now took on new urgency. Christianity began to grow. Roman emperors fought against Christianity before Constantine embraced it. By the end of the fourth century, it had become the only legal religion of the empire.
The second great monotheistic religion was in place. It is also the second religion (after the first, Buddhism) that would attempt to become a world religion. We cover the history and practices of Christianity in more detail in Chapters 5 and 6.
Islam: Submitting to God
In the desert land southwest of Judah, another religion began to develop in the seventh century AD. Eventually, it would become the third large monotheistic faith, and the third attempt (after Buddhism and Christianity) at a world religion spanning the globe.
Its founder was Muhammad, a herder who listened to the stories of Jewish and Christian travelers. He lived in Mecca, a crossroads city in the desert far south of Jerusalem. Nearby was a stream that local residents insisted had been visited by Abraham. Mecca also housed the most sacred object in the region. Called the Ka’baa, it was a stone believed to have come from heaven (for more on the Ka’baa, see Chapter 7).
Around his 40th birthday, Muhammad began to tell his relatives that the angel Gabriel had visited him and called on him to become a prophet of God. In his language, the word God was pronounced Allah.
Muhammad called this new monotheistic religion Islam, which means “submission.” The name is derived from the Arabic word for peace, salaam. Members of the new faith are called Muslims, which means “he who submits.”
Muhammad said that Ishmael, Abraham’s oldest son, was the father of the Arabs. Jews claim they descend from Isaac, Abraham’s second son. Therein lies the split between the two religions, traced back to a favored son.
Islam started slowly, like Christianity, but surged in strength in only a few years when Muhammad and his small band surprised and routed a bigger, more seasoned army of Meccans. The next hundred years after Muhammad lived saw Islam spread with amazing rapidity, reaching faraway borders.
Convinced by the victory that Muhammad’s deity was stronger than their pagan gods, many Arabs flocked to Muhammad’s banner. The third of the great monotheistic religions had taken its place under the sun. Chapters 7 and 8 cover the history and practices of Islam.
Chapter 2
Following Abraham’s Path
In This Chapter
Brushing up on Abraham’s life
Following Jewish heritage through Isaac
Discovering how Abraham’s other son led to Islam
Seeing how Christianity traces its roots to Abraham
Abraham is an appropriate guide into religious history for anyone. He is the forefather of three great monotheistic faiths. Today, the three faiths touch lives worldwide. Together, about 40 percent of all humanity worships the same God
Since the seventh century, however, members of the religions have continued to battle for the minds and hearts of mankind. This often open warfare has resulted in virtually nonstop crusades, massacres, terrorism, and death, right up to the present.
Yet, at the core of each religion stands the same man, Abraham, a simple Chaldean who was inspired to greatness and sired a gigantic family tree. (You can see just how big Abraham’s family tree is in Appendix B.) This chapter looks at what is known about the patriarch and how Judaism, Christianity, and Islam are tied to him.
What We Do and Don’t Know about the Historic Abraham
Because all three religions claim Abraham as their patriarch, it would be nice to know something about him. Unfortunately, few records have survived. He does appear in the Bible, which contains the history of the Jewish people and covers an estimated 1,000 years of history. The stories there are all that remain of Abraham’s extraordinary life.
The name “Abraham” does appear in other ancient texts, but they only indicate it is a relatively common name. None of the citations could refer to our Abraham. They appear in the wrong time period or cite specific people unrelated to any account of the biblical Abraham.
Still, historians can make some educated guesses about Abraham and what he may have looked like based on various images of Semites that were carved into rocks and left in the ground.
In Abraham’s day around 1900 BC, men wore thick, braided beards, so he would have sported one of those. And he would have been dressed in a robe. Pants wouldn’t come along for another 1,500 or so years.
He lived during a great time for his region. A powerful king named Hammurabi had finally ousted the Elamites, who had conquered the area a few hundred years earlier. Hammurabi (or as he is also known, Amraphel) founded a new capital in a city he named Babylon, which means “Gate of God.” He then renamed the area Chaldea, where Abraham would live.
But was Abraham real? Good question. Historians today are divided on whether the tales about Abraham are mythology. The problem is a lack of archeological records. For example, in one biblical account, Abraham leads an army against a coalition of seven kings. None of the names of the kings has ever been uncovered in any ancient document from that region.
In the secular view, however, Judaism had to begin somewhere, and someone had to believe that God had spoken to him. Why not call that person Abraham?
Taking a tour of Father Abraham’s neighborhood
Abraham lived in Ur in the southern part of Chaldea. (Today, that land is part of Iraq.) Ur was located southeast of the city of Babylon. As best as archeologists and historians can piece it together, the Sumerians, who lived farther to the valley’s south, founded the country of Babylonia. Eventually, Babylon gave its name to the whole area.
No one actually put down a wooden stake and surveyed the land. Boundaries were kind of irregular. Real estate in those days usually only had a definitive border if it was along a river, and most property lines were described simply as “we live over here” and “they live over there.”
Chaldea, a southern region of Babylonia, was located on rich delta land created by the deposits of the two great rivers of the area, the Euphrates and Tigris. At the time, this region of the Middle East wasn’t crowded. Populations are hard to estimate, but there probably weren’t more than a few million people alive worldwide then.
Ur is long gone, but it was quite a place in its time. People left stories about visiting Ur, making it seem like a kind of Las Vegas of the ancient world. Today, it’s just rubble, but you can imagine what a thriving city looked like:
Stone houses.
Lots of tents for the many nomadic tribesmen making brief stops on their endless journeys.
A palace or two for any royalty.
A mansion for the governor.
Unpaved, rocky streets.
Plenty of roaming dogs and pigs, as well as herdsmen with sheep.
Carts pulled by small, overburdened donkeys and horses. Camels would not be tamed until much later.
Open-air food markets where a shopper could pick through figs, dates, pomegranates, and grains like wheat, barley and rye.
Here and there would have been impressive temples. One or two would have been shaped like a layered triangle, called a ziggurat, with stones laid on top of each other so a priest could climb to the top.
Following the laws of Abraham’s time
Babylonian history is complex, with many kings coming and going. Abraham would have had to be very careful not to get crushed in the onslaught of various armies.
A stone tablet records that King Sargon of Akkad destroyed Babylon about 4,350 years ago, and put the city under new management. Then Hammurabi came along. The king decided to clean up so many years of misrule by writing down laws for the land. He called the laws the Chaldean laws, also known as the Code of Hammurabi. Abraham, then, grew up under Hammurabi’s laws.
This was the first time a king had written down the laws so all of his subjects would know them. This system meant the local priests and judges could not change the rules at will. In the past, different people in power created their own rules and regulations. The king’s laws superseded all of that.
From the Code, we get the Judeo-Christian biblical statement “an eye for an eye” without crediting the source. That phrase had become so much a part of the language by the time it was written into the Bible that its origins had been forgotten.
Speaking Abraham’s language
Abraham would have spoken Babylonian, as well as Aramaic (from Aram). Aramaic was a group of languages, really, and contained many dialects. Old Aramaic is long gone, but it remains the language of half of the Talmud — the record of rabbinic discussions pertaining to Jewish history, customs, ethics, and law.
No one remembers the country of Aram anymore, but at one time, it was very important to business (today the area is called Syria). It sat in between Chaldea and the rich and ancient land of Egypt. Everyone who wanted to be a successful businessman in those days had to learn Aramaic, just as corporate leaders worldwide these days have to learn English. Just a handful of people speak Aramaic today, making the language endangered.
Practicing religion before Abraham came on the scene
Before Abraham came along, people believed in many gods. They had a god of fertility; a god responsible for storm, for rain, and for many other aspects of life. The names varied according to the region: Baal, Thoth, Ishtar, Elul, Isis, and many more.
Stone images, or idols, of the gods who Ur residents worshipped were everywhere. You could buy small ones from the idol shops on the street. Large idols stood at some city gates, outside rich people’s houses, and, of course, at the different temples around town.
Most idols were made of clay, baked and painted or enameled. Having an idol was a reminder of and a sign of respect for the god it represented, much like some people have crosses or menorahs on display in their homes or offices today. It was also a public display that showed how the owner of a big idol might be a little bit more religious than the guy who had a smaller idol outside his doorstep.
People knew the idol wasn’t a god, but figured that having the god’s image around couldn’t hurt. After all, these deities sometimes did some pretty awful things, like send terrible storms, fires, or invasions. You wanted to be on their good sides.
Of course, an idol was due the same respect as the god it represented. That meant sacrifices. Babylonian gods demanded and received lots of sacrifices. In fact, ancient records about beer were actually made by priests keeping track of donations and sacrifices.
The priests spoke for the gods. They told everyone the rules. How did the priests know the rules? They received the word directly from the gods in divine inspiration, or they read holy scrolls and interpreted the texts. Typically, the priests worked for the king, and the king was granted his right to rule from the gods. Kings were usually related to the gods somehow, as a son of a god or as the human manifestation of a god on earth. This was a pretty cozy situation.
Abraham’s Early Years
Abraham would have known all about the gods. His father, named Terach, made idols, the stone and/or wood representations of the various gods. No one knows for sure that idol carving was Terach’s occupation, of course, because no one has ever found an idol with any trademark from the manufacturer. Still, old Jewish stories claim that Terach produced idols in his shop.
Under normal conditions, Abraham would have stayed in Ur and, eventually, taken over his father’s business.
There were many reasons for a young man to stick around Ur. Ur was a big, prosperous city, even when Abraham lived there. It had been bigger and greater hundreds of years earlier when its reputation was pretty wild, but Ur would have been more than a country outpost 4,000 years ago.
It wasn’t Babylon, of course, the capital a few hundred miles to the northwest. Abraham may have dreamed of going there, like young people today dream of living in New York, Los Angeles, or some other major city. People didn’t travel much in those days, but an adventurous young man like Abraham would have had no trouble getting wherever he wanted to go. The whole region was linked by canals and waterways. Some provided water to crops; others carried travelers around the bustling metropolis.
If Abraham was a homebody and not inclined to float off anywhere, he might have dreamed of taking over his dad’s business. Or he might have wanted to own land and have his own flock of sheep. Maybe he considered becoming a salesman and setting up deals with companies in Aram or in Egypt.
In some ways, it really doesn’t matter what Abraham thought, because his future changed right along with his dreams. Urged on by a divine voice, he left Ur. He left his father. He left his idols.
There’s a lovely Jewish story that, before leaving home, Abraham smashed his father’s idols.
One day when Abraham (then called Abram) was left alone to mind the store, he took a hammer and walloped all the idols except the largest one. He placed the hammer in the hand of that giant idol. When his father returned and asked what happened, Abraham said, “The idols got into a fight, and the big one smashed all the other ones.”
“Don’t be ridiculous,” his father said. “These idols have no life or power. They can’t do anything.”
“Then why do you worship them? They have eyes but see not,” Abraham told his father. “They have ears and hear not.”
With that, Abraham rejected the faith of his father, his grandfather, and all the Chaldeans who preceded him.
The Beginnings of Judaism
Abraham is called “the first Jew.” However, Abraham wasn’t a Jew. He lived long before there were Jews. Instead, according to Jewish Scripture, God spoke to Abraham and promised him that if he obeyed the will of God, he would become the “father of many nations.” So Abraham rejected idolatry and obeyed the one God.
However, Abraham didn’t exactly become the father of nations. Instead, he became the father of Western religions. Three faiths trace their origins to him. He is their patriarch. Muslims consider Abraham the first monotheist (a person who believes there is only one God), and therefore the first Muslim who “submitted to the one, true God.”
Agreeing to the covenant
Abraham rejected everything in his own culture. Instead, he chose to believe in a God who later identified himself as Yahweh and made Abraham an offer: If Abraham would leave his home and his family, then God would make him a great nation and bless him.
Abraham accepted this offer, and the b’rit (covenant) between God and his descendants, who became known as Jews, was established. (Genesis 12 in the Old Testament tells the full story.)
The idea of a b’rit is fundamental to Judaism. Jews believe they have a special contract with God, which involves rights and obligations on both sides. In the biblical book of Exodus, God revealed the law, and the entire nation responded, “Everything that the Lord has spoken, we will do” (Exodus 24:7). According to Jewish tradition, every Jewish soul that would ever be born was present at that moment and agreed.
By that same tradition, Abraham was subjected to ten tests of faith to prove his worthiness for this covenant. Leaving his home was one of these trials.
Before Abraham was called by God, he was known to his family and friends as Abram, which means “My father is Ram,” a reference to a pagan god. But just as God was changing other things in Abraham’s life, he changed his name, too:
“Neither shall thy name any more be called Abram, but thy name shall be Abraham; for a father of many nations have I made thee.” —Genesis 17:5
Historians can only guess what the changing name meant. Perhaps the wanderer’s new name symbolized his new relationship with God. The “H” in Hebrew is the symbol of life. Perhaps that’s what the additional letter meant.
Isaac’s close call demonstrates Abraham’s love for God
Judaism traces its lineage through Abraham’s youngest child, Isaac. He was the only legitimate (no: Ishmael was legitimate, too: Jews just don’t accept him; Isaac was the only son of Sarah; that is the distinction bill) son of Abraham and his wife, Sarah, who could carry on the family name.
Isaac is involved in one of the most crucial stories in Jewish literature. God tells Abraham to take Isaac to the top of Mount Moriah and sacrifice him. Abraham and Isaac go to the mountain where Abraham places his son on an altar and ties him up. Just as Abraham is about to stab Isaac, God stops the sacrifice and substitutes a ram instead. (See Chapter 22 in the biblical book of Genesis for all the details.)
The story is heralded as demonstrating pure obedience to God, even to the point where Abraham was willing to kill his child. Followers of Judaism, Islam, and Christianity are expected to demonstrate the same sort of obedience and do whatever God asks of them.
Isaac the risen god?
Some scholars note that Isaac vanishes from the sacred text for a while after the attempted sacrifice. He doesn’t return until much later and then only duplicates his father’s activities. It’s as if the authors didn’t know anything else about Isaac.
Some scholars argue that Isaac actually was sacrificed, and the story was changed later when Jews banned human sacrifice. That claim is supported by the existence of an idol found by archaeologists identified as “the great Isaac.”
Could Isaac have been a risen god, as existed in almost every other ancient culture in the Middle East except Judaism? Ancient religions invariably had a god who died and was reborn as a way of symbolizing the conquest of death by true believers. This idea eventually will seep into Christianity.
Judaism, however, only has one God. As a result, there is no risen god. Historians have suggested that Isaac was a risen god incorporated into early Judaism, and then shed after the faith became truly monotheistic in the seventh century BC.
Following the family tree
Isaac’s son, Jacob, was renamed Israel and is considered the father of the 12 tribes of Israel. Judah, the sire of the Jews, was one of the tribal leaders.
The tribes accepted Abraham’s vision and followed his God. They produced the earliest literature collected in the Bible and continue to be faithful to God, who first called Abraham from his father’s shop perhaps four millennia ago.
The followers of Abraham called themselves “the chosen people,” a designation that meant not that they were special, but that they were designated by God to carry his message to the rest of the world.
Here is the list of Jacob’s 12 sons. Most of these men became a patriarch to the 12 tribes of Israel:
Reuben
Simeon
Gad
Dan
Asher
Judah
Levi
Issachar
Zebulun
Naphtali
Joseph
Benjamin
The list of the 12 tribes of Israel varies from the list of Jacob’s 12 sons because his son Joseph was given land in the name of his two sons, Ephraim and Manassas. The tribe of Levi was given responsibility for the religion but not accorded any land. Today’s Jews identify themselves with the tribes of Judah and Benjamin.
