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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Launch your career in construction management with thisone-of-a-kind book The construction management industry is expected to increaseemployment by 16 percent over the next decade. This second editionof a bestselling introduction to construction management walks youthrough each stage of the construction management process. Written from the constructor's perspective, this book willfamiliarize you with all the construction management fundamentalsand how Building Information Modeling (BIM) is impacting theconstruction management profession. * Covers interoperability of technology advances in theconstruction industry * Explains how BIM is challenging the traditional approach toproject delivery and how this affects the constructor's role * Elaborates each stage of the design and construction processand the tasks associated with each of them * Shows step-by-step how to estimate project costs, administercontracts, manage job site and construction operations, plan andschedule a project, monitor project performance, manage projectquality and safety, and assess project risks * Provides review questions at the end of each chapter to helpenforce understanding The tried-and-true project management principles presented inthis book will help ensure you a successful start to yourcareer.
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Seitenzahl: 732
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2010
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Contents
Cover
Contents
Title Page
Copyright
Publisher's Note
Dedication
Acknowledgments
About the Author
Introduction
Chapter 1: The Construction Industry
The Scope of the Industry
A Historical Perspective
Industry Sectors
The Project Players
The Industry Image
Career Opportunities
Terms to Know
Review Questions
Chapter 2: What Is Construction Management?
Construction Management Defined
The Construction Project
The Owner Sets the Stage
Project Delivery Methods
Project Delivery Selection
What Does a Construction Manager Do?
What It Takes to Be a Construction Manager
Terms to Know
Review Questions
Chapter 3: How We Get the Work
Finding the Work
The Competition
How We Play the Game
Making the Bid/No Bid Decision
A Final Note
Terms to Know
Review Questions
Chapter 4: The Construction Contract
The Contract Documents
The Construction Specification Institute
Contract Types
Terms to Know
Review Questions
Chapter 5: Project Stages
The Design and Construction Process
The Successful Project
Terms to Know
Review Questions
Chapter 6: Estimating Project Costs
What Is an Estimate?
The Characteristics of a Good Estimator
Factors Impacting Project Cost
Types of Estimates
Understanding Project Costs
The Estimating Process
Putting It All Together
Completing the Estimate
Terms to Know
Review Questions
Chapter 7: Contract Administration
Starting Off Right
Who’s on First?
Coordinating Construction Details
Getting Paid
Schedule Issues
Making Changes
When Things Go Wrong
Terms to Know
Review Questions
Chapter 8: Construction Operations and Job Site Management
Building the Project
Construction Impacts
The Superintendent
Documenting Construction Activity
Public Relations
Company Image and Publicity
Terms to Know
Review Questions
Chapter 9: Project Planning and Scheduling
It’s All About Time!
Types of Schedules
Building the Schedule
Communicating and Updating the Schedule
Terms to Know
Review Questions
Chapter 10: Monitoring Project Performance
The Project Control Cycle
Factors Impacting Project Performance
Tracking Quality, Cost, and Time
Assessing Overall Project Status
Documenting Project Performance
Terms to Know
Review Questions
Chapter 11: Managing Quality and Safety
Attitude Is Everything
Developing the Quality Management Plan
The QA/QC Functions
Safety as a Component of Quality
A Dangerous Business
Developing the Safety Management Plan
The Economics of Quality and Safety
Terms to Know
Review Questions
Chapter 12: Managing Project Risks
A Systematic Process
The Risk Mitigation Plan
The Risk Management Team
You Get What You Plan For
Terms to Know
Review Questions
Chapter 13: Building Information Modeling
What Is a Building Information Model?
Designing in BIM
Using BIM to Manage Construction
Implementing BIM
Implications for the Future
Terms to Know
Review Questions
Appendix A: Common Acronyms Used in Construction
Appendix B: Answers to Review Questions
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Chapter 10
Chapter 11
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Glossary
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 3: How We Get the Work
Table 3-1 Selection Methods
Table 3-2 Weighted Criteria Evaluation Matrix
Table 3-3 Making the Decision to Bid
Chapter 5: Project Stages
Table 5-1 Building Elements and Work Items
Chapter 9: Project Planning and Scheduling
Table 9-1 Level of Detail
Table 9-2 Activity List
Chapter 10: Monitoring Project Performance
Table 10-1 Management Elements and Tracking Tools
Table 10-2 Cost Analysis
Chapter 11: Managing Quality and Safety
Table 11-1 Price Differences Based on Quality
Chapter 12: Managing Project Risks
Table 12-1 Design Risks
Table 12-2 Construction Risks
Table 12-3 Political/Legal/Regulatory Risks
Table 12-4 Financing Risks
Table 12-5 Environmental Risks
Guide
Cover
Title Page
Start Reading
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Construction Management JumpStart
Second Edition
Barbara J. Jackson
Acquisitions Editor: Agatha Kim
Development Editor: Kelly Talbot
Technical Editor: Paul Weber
Production Editor: Angela Smith
Copy Editor: Kim Wimpsett
Editorial Manager: Pete Gaughan
Production Manager: Tim Tate
Vice President and Executive Group Publisher: Richard Swadley
Vice President and Publisher: Neil Edde
Compositor: James D. Kramer, Happenstance Type-O-Rama
Proofreader: Publication Services, Inc.
Indexer: Jack Lewis
Project Coordinator, Cover: Lynsey Stanford
Cover Designer: Ryan Sneed
Cover Image: altrendo images / Stockbyte / Getty Images
Copyright © 2010 by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana
Published simultaneously in Canada
ISBN: 978-0-470-60999-6
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:
Jackson, Barbara J. Construction management jumpstart / Barbara Jackson. — 2nd ed. p. cm. ISBN-13: 978-0-470-60999-6 (pbk); ISBN-10: 0-470-60999-0 (pbk); ISBN: 978-0-470-76806-8 (ebk); ISBN: 978-0-470-76808-2 (ebk); ISBN: 978-0-470-76807-5 (ebk) 1. Construction industry — Management. I. Title. HD9715.A2J32 2010 624.068 — dc22 2010013509
TRADEMARKS: Wiley, the Wiley logo, and the Sybex logo are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates, in the United States and other countries, and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Wiley Publishing, Inc., is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Dear Reader,
Thank you for choosing Construction Management JumpStart, Second Edition. This book is part of a family of premium-quality Sybex books, all of which are written by outstanding authors who combine practical experience with a gift for teaching.
Sybex was founded in 1976. More than 30 years later, we’re still committed to producing consistently exceptional books. With each of our titles, we’re working hard to set a new standard for the industry. From the paper we print on, to the authors we work with, our goal is to bring you the best books available.
I hope you see all that reflected in these pages. I’d be very interested to hear your comments and get your feedback on how we’re doing. Feel free to let me know what you think about this or any other Sybex book by sending me an email at [email protected]. If you think you’ve found a technical error in this book, please visit http://sybex.custhelp.com. Customer feedback is critical to our efforts at Sybex.
Best regards,
Neil Edde
Vice President and Publisher
Sybex, an Imprint of Wiley
To Jim Rodger, for dedicating 26 years of his life to quality construction management education and for always putting the students first.
Acknowledgments
No great accomplishment ever happens in a vacuum. There are always a lot of people behind the scenes who deserve much of the credit for any good thing that makes it to the light of day. I believe this book is one of those good things, and it would never have happened without the hard work and dedication of several people.
I want to start by thanking Sybex for launching the JumpStart series. I believe that it serves a unique purpose by introducing the public to a number of career paths that they may otherwise never encounter. I am especially grateful to Elizabeth Peterson for discovering my web page and making the phone call asking whether I would be interested in writing this book. I want to acknowledge her for recognizing construction management as the untapped career opportunity that it is. Elizabeth, by initiating this book on construction management, you have provided a great service to the construction industry and the clients it serves. Thank you.
I also want to thank the many other talented members of the Sybex team who helped put this book together. I’ll start by thanking my developmental editors, Brianne Agatep and Maureen Adams, for walking me through the writing process and taking care of all of my formatting errors. Next I want to give a special thanks to Suzanne Goraj, who cleaned up all of my grammatical gaffes and helped my message ring loud and clear. And to Mae Lum, the production editor, a special thank-you for keeping everything on track while I traveled around the country teaching seminars and doing consulting work for the construction and design-build industry. I’d also like to thank Agatha Kim, Kelly Talbot, and Angela Smith for all of their contributions to making the second edition of this book even stronger.
Of course, I would be remiss without thanking the rest of the Sybex team responsible for tying up the loose ends and putting the whole thing together: compositor Kate Kaminski of Happenstance Type-O-Rama, illustrator Jeff Wilson of Happenstance Type-O-Rama, proofreader Nancy Riddiough, and indexer Nancy Guenther. For the Second Edition, copyeditor Kim Wimpsett, compositor James Kramer of Happenstance Type-O-Rama, illustrator Richard Sheppard of Happenstance Type-O-Rama, proofreaders Publication Services, Inc., and indexer Jack Lewis.
In addition to the fine folks at Sybex, a number of other supporters must be mentioned. Let me start by acknowledging several authors, most of them good friends and fellow faculty, who have written really good texts used as general references in the writing of this book.
Managing the Construction Process: Estimating, Scheduling, and Project Control
by Frederick E. Gould (2004)
Construction Jobsite Management
by William R. Mincks and Hal Johnston (2004)
Management of Construction Projects: A Constructor’s Perspective
by John E. Schaufelberger and Len Holm (2002)
Construction Management Fundamentals
by Clifford J. Schexnayder and Richard E. Mayo (2004)
BIM and Construction Management: Proven Tools, Methods, and Workflows
by Brad Hardin (2009)
I extend a very special thank-you to my dear friend, colleague, and technical editor Paul Weber for his diligent review of every word in the manuscript for technical accuracy and application. Paul, I greatly appreciate your support and assistance in helping me achieve this goal. And as always, your abilities to communicate graphically were put to good use in several instances throughout the book.
To my department head, Allan Hauck, and to my colleagues and students at Cal Poly State University, thank you for putting up with my mental absences while I was focused on the completion of this book and for encouraging me every step of the way.
And finally, as always and forever, I thank my husband Wayne for his continued support, love, and understanding year after year while I continue to pursue the passions of my heart.
About the Author
Barbara J. Jackson is Director of the California Center for Construction Education and a Professor of Construction Management at California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo. She holds a BS in Housing and Design, an MS in Construction Management, and a Ph.D. in Education and Human Resources. With over 20 years of experience as a licensed contractor and design-builder, she is a nationally recognized speaker and consultant on alternative project delivery.
Introduction
Congratulations! You are about to embark on an adventure. This book is about the processes, the people, and the practices that we call construction management—a term and a profession that may be unfamiliar to many people. Construction, as most individuals understand it, is an activity or a series of activities that involves some craftspeople, building materials, tools, and equipment. But you will learn that there is a great deal more to it than that. If you think that construction is all about brawn and not much about brains, then you probably haven’t been paying very close attention to what has been going on in the built environment in the past several decades. Buildings today can be very complicated, and the building process has become extremely demanding. It takes savvy professional talent to orchestrate all of the means and methods needed to accomplish the building challenge.
This book’s focus is not on construction per se. Its focus is on the construction process and those individuals who manage that process. Construction management involves the organization, coordination, and strategic effort applied to the construction activities and the numerous resources needed to achieve the building objective. Construction management combines both the art and science of building technology along with the essential principles of business, management, computer technology, and leadership.
Construction management as a profession is a relatively new concept, which may explain why you have not heard of it before. Up until the 1960s, the management tasks associated with large construction projects were typically handled by civil engineers. But in 1965, faculty from nine universities gathered in Florida to form the Associated Schools of Construction. What started as a movement to upgrade the status of construction education at universities evolved into a standardized construction management curriculum leading to an exciting new career choice, one for which there was increasing demand. Men and women who love the idea of transforming a lifeless set of plans and specifications into something real—a single-family home, a high-rise office building, a biotech facility, a super highway, or a magnificent suspension bridge—had found an educational program that provided both the academic course work and the practical management tools needed to plan, organize, and coordinate the increasingly complex construction process.
If you are one of the many individuals who desire the intellectual challenges of architecture, engineering, technology, and business, yet long to be outside in the thick of things, getting your hands dirty and ultimately producing a tangible result—something of lasting value—then construction management might just be the ticket for you.
The purpose of this book is to give you a jump-start on understanding what construction management is all about. After reading this book, you will have a good sense of what the job of a construction manager entails and what is needed to be good at it. You will learn about the diverse tasks associated with planning, organizing, and managing a construction project to a successful end. You will also discover the many opportunities available for an individual interested in pursuing a career in CM.
You can continue to explore these opportunities by reading other books about construction management, by taking construction management classes, and by networking with practitioners in the industry. And for those of you who want to take your interests and careers in construction to the next level, you can consider pursuing professional certification through either the American Institute of Constructors (AIC) or the Construction Management Association of America (CMAA). Both of these organizations and their certification programs are introduced in Chapter 1.
And after you’ve read this book, the next time you see some construction, I hope that, besides being fascinated by the activity, you will also be impressed by the ingenuity, creativity, and heart of the people who can achieve such feats. It’s also my goal to give you a new appreciation for the men and women who built this nation in the past and who continue to contribute to the built environment in a significant way. Enjoy!
Who Should Read This Book
If you have picked up this book, I suspect that you have already experienced construction at some level and are curious about what construction management is. You may currently be working in construction on the building side as a craftsperson or laborer and want to know how you can move over to the management side. Or you may be a construction management student wanting a glimpse into the day-to-day challenges faced by the construction professional. On the other hand, you may currently have nothing to do with construction other than having a longtime interest in the building process. Some of you may have had a home built or a room added on and are simply interested in learning what the fuss was all about.
I hope that architects and engineers will pick up this book to get a better understanding of the contractor side of the equation. Some designers, tired of sitting behind a desk all day, may even contemplate giving construction management a try just for the heck of it. I suspect that there will be more than a few real estate agents, mortgage brokers, and interior designers who will use this book to become better informed regarding the construction process, integrating the new knowledge into the services they provide their clients. Then, of course, there are those of you who are already working in construction management but have been looking for a resource that will help explain what it is you do for a living!
No matter what your reason for buying this book, I feel confident that it will be money well spent. For those of you who have little or no experience with construction, I venture to guess that someday you will, and when you do, your knowledge and understanding of construction management will become quite valuable.
As for those of you who already have experience in construction, I have tried to write a comprehensive overview of the construction management process from the constructor’s perspective. I’m sure you will relate to the Real World Scenarios presented throughout the text and enjoy the human aspects conveyed in the pages of this book. They are intended to drive home the challenges associated with construction and express the contribution that construction professionals make to the built environment. This book will assist you in communicating to clients, colleagues, and the public at large the significant role that the construction manager plays in the overall success of a construction project.
What This Book Covers
This book walks you through the construction management process—explaining how you take a project from a set of two-dimensional drawings to a three-dimensional wood, steel, or concrete building, bridge, or highway. Along the way, you will learn about the seven functions of construction management and how each of them contributes to the successful delivery of the construction project. Here’s an overview of what this book covers:
Chapter 1This chapter introduces you to the construction industry and the opportunities that it offers. Here you will learn about the different industry sectors and the roles of the various participants in the construction process.
Chapters 2–5These chapters explain in greater detail what construction management is and how construction work is obtained in the first place. You will also learn about the construction contract and about each of the stages leading from design to post-construction.
Chapter 6Figuring out what a project is going to cost is one of the first steps to getting a construction contract. This chapter deals with the estimating function of construction management. Here you will learn about the different types of estimates and how you price construction work.
Chapter 7In this chapter, you will learn all about the conditions of the contract and what it takes to manage them. Contract administration is all about handling the red tape, business details, and paperwork of the construction project.
Chapter 8Once the contract is signed and everything is a go regarding the project, you are ready to start construction. This chapter deals with organizing the job site and coordinating all of the manpower, materials, and equipment needed to get the work done.
Chapter 9This chapter stresses the importance of good project planning and identifies the various tools used to schedule all of the activities associated with moving the project from startup to completion.
Chapter 10The only way to know whether your project has met its goals for cost, time, and quality is to monitor and track individual components of performance. This chapter gets into the details of project control and explains how to get a job back on track if it should start to go off course.
Chapter 11In this chapter, you will learn the importance of quality control and safety management throughout the construction process. No project can succeed without well-established quality and safety plans.
Chapter 12Bottom line: Construction management is all about managing risk. In this chapter, you will learn about a standardized process for identifying, analyzing, and quantifying project risks so plans can be made to mitigate their impact.
Chapter 13This final chapter introduces you to building information modeling (BIM) and how it is being utilized by contractors today. Building information modeling takes 3D modeling to a whole new level. Although relatively new to the construction industry, the use of this technology is growing fast, and it will transform how construction managers do their jobs.
Making the Most of This Book
At the beginning of each chapter of Construction Management JumpStart, you’ll find a list of the topics that I cover within the chapter.
In addition, several special elements highlight important information.
New terms
provide explanations of important concepts in the margin of the page, where you can easily spot them.
To help you absorb new material easily, I’ve highlighted new terms in italics and defined them in the page margins.
NOTE
Notes provide extra information and references to related information.
You’ll also find a list of “Terms to Know” section near the end of each chapter to help you review the new terms introduced in the chapter. These terms are compiled in the Glossary at the end of the book.
At the end of each chapter, you can test your knowledge of the chapter’s relevant topics by answering the review questions. You’ll find the answers to the review questions in Appendix B.
Chapter 1The Construction Industry
The economic impact of construction
How construction was transformed from a craft to an industry
The five primary sectors of the construction industry
The roles of the project participants
How the construction industry is transforming
The advancement of technology in construction
The construction industry’s impact on sustainability
Opportunities in construction management
The construction industry is vast and varied. Just take a look around—from homes to highways to hospitals—and you see the results of this industry. Starting with the need for shelter, we first built primitive huts and houses. Then we constructed buildings for assembly and churches in which to worship. As our needs expanded, so did our building capabilities. We eventually built political capitals, great cities bustling with business and commerce. Though the means and the methods have changed over the centuries, the construction industry is still about building communities that serve people.
Construction is big business, totaling more than $3.9 trillion annually worldwide, and there is no slowdown in sight. The industry employs about 7 million people directly (plumbers, carpenters, welders, and so on) and hundreds of thousands more indirectly. It gives rise to the steel industry, the lumber industry, the carpet industry, the furniture industry, the paint industry, the concrete industry, the paving industry, and so on. It goes even further than that if you consider the trucking, shipping, manufacturing, and mining industries. Architects, engineers, draftspeople, building inspectors, code officials, and other professionals would not have jobs if it weren’t for construction. As construction projects become increasingly more complex, the challenges associated with managing these projects become more complicated. The need for qualified construction managers is tremendous, and opportunities abound for those interested in the work.
Let’s take a closer look at the construction industry and the position it has in our economy and our lives.
The Scope of the Industry
Let’s first make sure that you understand what construction is really all about. I have found that most people, including many who are already engaged in construction, do not understand the significance of the industry. So, let’s start by considering the scope and the magnitude of construction and take a look at its impact on our society and our economy.
“It’s Just Construction”
In my experience, the average observer of construction regards the process as rather insignificant and inconsequential—nothing special, nothing unique, not an industry of any major importance—mostly filled with noninfluential blue-collar macho types. After all, when compared to medicine or law or even architecture, the common notion is “it’s just construction.” This is why our great buildings and structures are typically identified only with the designer, and not with who built them. The contractor is incidental. Let me give you a few recent examples to drive home my point.
The distinctive architectural designs of Frank Gehry are known all over the world. One of his newest creations, the Walt Disney Concert Hall in Los Angeles, is “the most challenging of all Frank’s buildings … an enormously complicated structure because of the curved shapes and intricate joinery,” according to Terry Bell, project architect for Gehry Partners, LLP, as quoted on the Walt Disney Concert Hall website. The website mentions that “extraordinary state-of-the-art construction techniques” were needed for the Concert Hall—“[o]ne of the most technically advanced structures in the world, [with] its lack of right angles and the overall sculptural quality.” At any one time as many as 550 construction workers were on-site to transform the concrete and steel into one of the most acoustically sophisticated concert halls in the world. However, you would be hard-pressed to find one mention of the building contractor of this magnificent construction feat in the popular press or on the Concert Hall’s website. Not one single mention! This incredible construction challenge was accomplished by the M.A. Mortenson Company.
base isolators
Large shock absorbers made of alternating layers of rubber and steel attached to a building’s foundation to allow movement of the structure without causing damage.
Let’s consider another example. In 2002, the third-largest cathedral in the world and the first cathedral to be built in the United States in more than a quarter of a century was constructed in downtown Los Angeles. Designed by the world-renowned Spanish architect Professor Jose Rafael Moneo, the Cathedral of Our Lady of the Angels stands 11 stories tall and weighs a whopping 151 million pounds. The cathedral rests on 198 base isolators so that it will float up to 27 inches in any direction during an 8-point magnitude earthquake. It has been stated that the design is so geometrically complex that none of the concrete forms could vary by more than 1⁄16th of an inch. Having visited the cathedral several times during its construction and been witness to the extraordinary efforts made by the construction team to ensure the quality of the design along with the requirements for the budget and schedule, I was very disappointed, again, not to find one mention of the contractor, Morley Builders, on the cathedral’s website.
Consider any of our architectural jewels: the Willis Tower (formerly known as the Sears Tower) in Chicago, the Space Needle in Seattle, the Transamerica Pyramid in San Francisco, and the Empire State Building in New York. With a little research, you would find that each of these buildings is easily identified with their designers. However, it would be a real challenge for you to discover that Morse Diesel International, Inc., was the builder of the Sears Tower, that Howard S. Wright Construction built the Space Needle, that the general contractor for the Transamerica Pyramid was Dinwiddie Construction (now Hatheway-Dinwiddie), and finally that Starrett Brothers & Eken, Inc., was the builder of the Empire State Building.
To me, not recognizing and acknowledging the contractor along with the designers of these buildings is a grave injustice—but, unfortunately, indicative of how our society views the construction industry. Apparently, to some people it is not very important. Well, let me explain why it is very important. Drawing a pretty picture on paper or calculating a complex engineering formula does not make a building real—construction does, and that takes tremendous creativity, ingenuity, tenacity, skill, blood, sweat, and tears. So remember, no matter how outstanding the design, it is not architecture until somebody builds it! “Just” construction? I don’t think so!
Construction’s Contribution
Our society does not take the contributions of the construction industry very seriously. But it should, because without these contributions, this world would be a very bleak place. When you walk out of your office, home, or classroom today, just take a good look at the world around you. I want you to notice the houses, the churches, the hospitals, the shopping malls, the theaters, the baseball stadiums, the bridges, the streets, and even the cars driving around. None of these would exist without construction. There would be no cars or any other manufactured products because there would be no manufacturing plants—no Nike shoes, no McDonald’s restaurants, and no iPhones. There would be no commerce, no transportation, and no manufacturing. Progress and construction go hand in hand—we can’t have one without the other. Our society, our economy, and our culture are all dependent upon the construction industry. So, the next time you hear someone complaining about construction workers stirring up dust at the intersection or delaying their trip to work in the morning, I hope that you will take the time to point out what our world would be like without construction.
NOTE
When a building is notably impressive, people ask, “Who designed that wonderful building?” But when a building design is particularly unimpressive, people ask, “Who built that eyesore?” Why aren’t people as curious about who builds the great structures as they are about who designed them?
Construction Statistics
Let’s put it all in perspective. Construction is one of the nation’s largest industries, accounting for approximately 9 percent of the gross national product. It is larger than the automobile and steel industries put together. Housing starts (which are identified by building permits issued) are one of the major economic indicators reflecting the overall health and direction of our economy.
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the year 2008 ended with approximately $1 trillion worth of construction (all private and public sectors) put in place for the year. The U.S. Department of Labor estimates that there are at least 880,000 construction companies employing just under 7.7 million people in the United States. Construction offers more opportunities than most other industries for individuals who want to own and run their own businesses, and statistically an additional 1.6 million individuals do just that.
Construction impacts the quality of life for every human being and plays a major role in all of society and has for a very long time. Anyone who is involved in construction—from the grading laborer to the electrician to the estimator to the construction manager to the construction company executive—needs to understand that what they do makes a big difference in the world.
Construction has been around a very, very long time. Construction means, methods, and motivations have changed over the past 12,000 years or so, and the trek has been absolutely fascinating. Let’s continue this adventure by taking a look at some of the factors that have influenced this very significant industry.
A Historical Perspective
The purpose of spending some time on the history of the construction industry is to further reveal the impact of construction on society. As you read this brief history, imagine the creativity, ingenuity, and tenacity that these early constructors must have possessed in order to achieve such extraordinary building achievements. What started as a craft motivated by necessity (shelter from the elements) gradually turned into building science motivated by curiosity, intrigue, and genius. The building challenges of today are just as complex as in the past and are even more sophisticated, inspiring the same attributes exhibited by the early master builders. Let’s take a brief walk through time and visit some of the world’s greatest construction accomplishments.
Ancient Times
Although agriculture is probably recognized as the oldest industry in history, construction is most likely a close second. The construction industry can trace its roots back to at least the Stone Age, as early as 12000 BC. Using materials readily available—mud, wood, and stone—early man began constructing simple structures for protection from the rain, cold, heat, and snow. During this same period, the development of bronze and iron allowed man to make stronger tools that significantly expanded the possibilities in building construction, allowing builders to develop their skills.
As construction skills and tool development increased, real expertise in the building trades began to emerge. Simple shelter grew into planned settlements, villages, and cities. Soon, the need for common gathering places became part of the building challenge, and this period saw the start of public building for special events, religious ceremonies, manufacturing, and commerce. Small villages became large cities, and large cities grew into great civilizations, and at the heart of it all was construction.
Egypt and the Pyramids
Many of these early civilizations were building with one of the first manufactured building materials, dried mud bricks. However, the Egyptians began to use stone as their primary building material. Although the process of moving these very large masses of rock was difficult, to say the least, the ingenuity of these ancient builders conquered these challenges, resulting in some of the most fascinating building projects in all of history—the great pyramids.
At this time, there was really no distinction between architecture, engineering, or construction. All three disciplines were embodied in one person—the master builder. The master builder concept would survive for many years, until the complexity of structures and construction techniques warranted a separation of disciplines.
It was during the building of the pyramids that the first known building code was recorded, dating back to approximately 1792–1750 BC. These written rules and responsibilities were among the laws carved into stone tablets, collectively known as the Code of Hammurabi. The building code dictated acceptable workmanship standards for the master builder. Failure to meet these standards brought stiff penalties, in some cases including death.
Greek Influence
During the pyramid-building era, the Egyptians used large numbers of unskilled workers to construct their massive undertakings. However, the Greek master builders, who were building many beautiful temples made of marble and limestone (such as the Parthenon in Athens), started to organize and utilize small groups of skilled stonemasons. This idea of congregating workmen around a particular craft represents the beginning of the building trades concept, in which a particular building skill is honed to a level of expertise associated with a master craftsman. Although much of the work was still performed by an unskilled workforce, the use of skilled artisans allowed for a finer detail and design to be applied to the architecture. This is clearly a turning point in construction history.
The Roman Empire
The Roman Empire represents one of the most influential periods of time for architecture, engineering, and building science. During the Roman Empire, significant strides were made in construction techniques. An early form of concrete, a staple in every present-day building project, was invented by the Romans. This early version consisted of a pasty, hydrated lime and pozzolan ash mixture made from rock. In addition to utilizing concrete in the foundations of their structures, the Romans began adding domes and arches to their buildings, achieving engineering and construction feats that were astounding. During this time, some of the world’s most impressive structures were built, including the Colosseum and the Pantheon. The first glass was also incorporated in the first century AD and decorated many Roman structures. Road construction was another highlight of the Roman Empire, and many of these ancient pathways are still carrying travelers today.
Around 40 BC, a Roman writer, engineer, and architect named Marcus Vitruvius Pollio wrote the first design and construction handbook. His writings included topics on building materials, construction processes, building styles, road and bridge design, water-heating techniques, acoustics, and other building physics. With Vitruvius’ writings, the concept of master builder or architect took on even greater distinction. The master builder was responsible for both the design and the supervision of the construction. Surprisingly, Vitruvius’ work was recognized as the authority on building and design for centuries.
The Middle Ages
With the downfall of the Roman Empire came a real decline in building activity and technology. Then around 900 AD, the powerful Roman Catholic Church revitalized stone construction as it intensely pursued church and cathedral building throughout Europe. Even during this somewhat stagnant period, great building efforts were taking place. Glorious Gothic cathedrals highlighted the European landscape, and many other impressive structures were being designed and built all over the world.
Craft training and education became a major focus, and craft guilds were organized, even forming special brotherhoods around specific trades. Building construction became a major industry in and of itself. The two most important building trades were carpenters and stonemasons. Three distinct stages of ability were recognized—master, journeyman, and apprentice. These three stages of organized labor are still widely recognized today among the trade unions.
The Renaissance
Toward the end of the Middle Ages, a renewed interest in architecture, building, and science took place, continuing the transformation and evolution of construction and building design. It was during this time that the concept of the master builder began to be questioned as the most efficient way to build. Leone Battista Alberti, considered by some to be the precursor to the modern-day architect, argued that he could create drawings and models as a way to direct master craftsmen without actually being involved in the building process. Alberti was a theoretical architect rather than a practical hands-on architect-builder. He furnished plans of his buildings but never participated in the actual construction. This was the first application of a new philosophy that would eventually separate design and construction as distinct functions. Interestingly, there is a real push today to return to the master builder concept—but with the recognition that the modern master builder is a collaborative team.
The Industrial Revolution
The Industrial Revolution had a major influence on all of society. The construction industry was no exception. As construction became recognized as separate and unique from design, more theoretical concepts involving physics, mathematics, chemistry, and thermodynamics were being applied, and building science as a discipline began to emerge. The various building professions took on increasingly defined roles—the art of architecture, the science of engineering, and the craft of building became even more distinct. As architecture moved further away from the building process, the engineering disciplines took on a greater role for overall technical coordination, while general contractors were left to assemble, organize, and manage the labor force, equipment, and materials on a project. Cast iron and wrought iron became the building materials of choice. These materials were being used to build bridges, railways, great exhibition halls, and various other buildings. New machinery and equipment such as steam shovels, steam hammers, and pile drivers were being invented to support building. The transformation of construction into a modern industry began during this period of time.
The Age of the Skyscraper
During the late 1800s, the production of steel and electricity really took center stage as factors that would influence the construction industry in a big way. It was a time of immense growth in building technology. Steel framing replaced iron framing and allowed for high-rise building. Portland cement and reinforced concrete were invented. Glass was now being mass-produced and was used to clad many of these new building frames. The dream of constructing tall buildings reaching to the sky became a reality when E.G. Otis invented the first passenger elevator. Building skyscrapers was seen as a way to conserve land as the pace of growth in American cities became a concern. Technological advancements in building science continued, electric power became commonplace in all structures, and advancements in heating and cooling systems made life easier for people in all climates of the world.
Construction started showing up as big business during this time. Although most building was still being performed by small and medium-sized companies, much larger organizations were forming, and the globalization of the construction industry had begun. Opportunities for extensive projects in housing, industry, transportation, and city development were popping up all over the world. The construction industry developed into a major economic sector.
The 20th Century
infrastructure
The basic roadways, bridges, and railroad networks that support a community or society.
specifications
The written instructions from an architect or engineer accompanying the project plans pertaining to the quality of materials and workmanship required for the project.
Although only a few advances in materials or technologies took place during the 20th century, new challenges were being imposed upon the construction industry. After World War II, there was a construction boom in the United States and around the world. The demand for housing, industry, and infrastructure was enormous. Time, cost, and quality became critical concerns for those needing new facilities. The construction industry responded. Mechanized tools, panelized construction, and prefabrication inspired a whole new way to view the building process. New techniques emerged to help regulate and standardize building materials and methods. Building codes, standards, and specifications were established to help regulate and control the quality of materials and methods. Over time, as more residential, commercial, and industrial development started to spring up, new issues such as the environment, energy conservation, sustainability, safety, and workforce diversity started to add to the complexity of the building process in a way that had never been seen before.
The industry began to recognize that the correlation between sound management techniques and successful building practices was very important to the success of a project. The ability to measure and monitor progress and economic effectiveness of the construction process became more important as projects became increasingly complex. Although the discipline of engineering had been tapped to provide the management function for years, a new distinction was being drawn.
As early as 1935, a new educational program that focused specifically on construction was popping up at a few universities across the country. These early programs eventually evolved into what is now recognized as construction management. The idea was to merge management principles, methodologies, and techniques with the art, science, and craft of building and create a unique educational experience. In addition to teaching building science, the program introduced estimating, scheduling, project controls, and project administration techniques.
In 1965, representatives from nine universities met in Florida to form the Associated Schools of Construction (ASC). This organization’s distinct mission was to promote construction management as a legitimate and unique area of study at the university. The organization’s goal was to establish a four-year degree program that clearly identified construction management as a recognized discipline among allied disciplines such as engineering and architecture.
Today, there are approximately 120 four-year colleges and universities listed with ASC offering construction management curricula. The programs are typically identified as construction management, construction engineering, engineering technology, building science, or construction science, and they are often affiliated with colleges or schools of engineering, architecture, or technology. The educational opportunities available today are discussed in greater detail later in this chapter; see the “Educational Offerings” section.
The Age of Technology
New technologies are impacting every aspect of our lives. The construction industry is no exception. There are computer applications across all aspects of the construction management function: programs for estimating, scheduling, project administration, building design, cost accounting, project controls, quality control, and information transfer. Computers are available on every job site, and increasingly we are seeing all kinds of field mobility software and tablet computers being applied to every aspect of the construction management process that can be used to initiate a schedule or purchase order change in an instant. But the technology doesn’t stop there. Technologies such as global positioning systems (GPS), computer-aided earth-moving systems, and building information modeling (BIM) are allowing construction managers to enter and interact with buildings that exist only in cyberspace. These virtual mock-ups are real enough to evaluate things as simple as whether welders have enough room to work in a confined space and more serious issues such as the impact of a powerful hurricane on an entire facility. (You’ll learn more about BIM in Chapter 13, “Building Information Modeling.”)
The technological opportunities in construction methods, materials, and management are endless. In the future, we can look forward to the use of nanotechnology, metallic polymers, and micro-electromechanical systems that will allow for embedded intelligence in building materials and produce products such as interactive, “talking” doors, windows, walls, and even kitchen countertops.
NOTE
If you want to learn more about the history of construction, look for Gyula Sebestyén’s Construction: Craft to Industry (Spon Press, 1998). It is a fascinating read and takes a very comprehensive look at the many factors that influenced the growth of the construction industry from the collapse of the Roman Empire to planning for the global frontiers of the future.
Industry Sectors
The facility needs of a society are vast and varied. People need places to live, worship, work, receive medical care, shop, be educated, exercise, vacation, and generally engage life. From a facilities standpoint, all of these needs taken together are often referred to as the built environment. Although many other industries assist in creating the built environment, construction ultimately delivers it.
Each of these different facility needs is manifested as a different market or sector of the construction industry. There are five basic sectors of the industry:
Residential building
Commercial building
Heavy civil construction
Industrial construction
Environmental construction
Each sector is characterized by different means, methods, and materials of construction. The types of equipment, the type of structural framework, the manufacturers, the suppliers, the specialty contractors, and even the sources of funding vary with each sector. For example, structural steel frames, steel erection, and steel fabrication are all common components of the commercial, but not residential, sector. On the other hand, wood frame structures, rough carpentry, and lumber are common components of the residential, but not commercial, sector of the industry.
Each sector requires specific expertise and familiarity in order to optimize the construction operations and management efforts. Therefore, the majority of builders focus their attention on only one sector or market of the industry. Furthermore, each sector has a particular “personality” or character. Everyone interested in pursuing a career in construction management will ultimately have to choose which sector they are most attracted to. So, let’s take a closer look at each of these sectors.
Residential Building
Residential construction addresses the housing needs of a society. Housing construction takes many forms: individual homes, apartments, condominiums, townhouses, and prefabricated units such as modular and manufactured homes.
NOTE
Individual homes are classified as single-family dwellings. Apartments, condominiums, and townhouses are all referred to as multi-family dwellings.
Residential construction is typically funded by private individuals or developers for their own use or for sale. Builders of individual homes generally fall within one of three categories: they are custom builders constructing one-of-a-kind homes for specific customers on specific lots, they are single-family small-volume builders who build 25 or fewer homes a year, or they are single-family production builders who build more than 25 homes a year.
Although custom and small-volume builders account for approximately 70 to 80 percent of all residential builders, they produce only about 20 percent of the homes. On the other hand, production builders construct almost 80 percent of the homes in the United States.
Although some custom homes may be designed by an architect, many house plans are available from catalogs and plan books. In some cases, the contractor may provide the design for the customer. Engineering services are rarely required, and construction techniques are relatively simple. The project duration for a typical single-family home is in the three- to six-month range. Even high-end custom homes can be built in one year or less. Large production builders focus their efforts by creating communities of 50 to 400 houses in one location. These large projects will build out over several years.
NOTE
Production builders used to be called tract builders. Tract builders gained a reputation in the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s for producing “cookie-cutter” homes—homes that all looked alike. Today’s production builders offer numerous custom options and upgrades while still utilizing standard designs and floor plans.
Means and Methods
Residential construction is relatively low-tech in terms of the means and methods needed to produce its product. Hammers, nails, drills, and saws still make up the primary tools and equipment needed to perform the construction tasks, although the hammers are now pneumatic nailing guns. Many contractors joke that any two guys with a pickup truck, a cell phone, and a dog can start a residential construction company. This exaggeration is not far from the truth. The residential construction market is relatively easy to get into; however, because so many of the companies are very small, they are also at high risk for failure. One bad job can put the contractor out of business in a hurry. However, the large production builders are big business, generating annual revenues and profits surpassing those of many large commercial construction companies. They are engaged in every aspect of home building, from land acquisition to financing, and are often publicly owned and traded on the stock market.
Primary Materials
Residential construction is often referred to as wood frame construction or light framing. The building materials utilized in this sector are typically wood products such as lumber and plywood. Over the past 25 to 30 years, attempts have been made to replace traditional wood framing with light gauge steel framing in an effort to conserve natural resources. The use of light gauge steel is still quite limited in residential framing; however, great strides have been made in better utilizing every piece of a harvested tree: the branches, the wood chips, and even the sawdust. Numerous engineered wood products have emerged, such as roof and floor trusses, laminated beams, oriented strand board, and wood I-beams. These products are now commonplace.
Exterior finishes for residential buildings are usually limited to siding, brick, or stucco. Single-family dwellings are most often designed with pitched roofs utilizing various types of shingles or tiles made of asphalt, clay, concrete, or slate. Interior finishes typically include drywall partitions and ceilings with paint or wall coverings and carpet, tile, hardwood, laminate, or sheet vinyl floors.
Characteristics
Whether the residential construction firm is a small mom-and-pop operation or a huge publicly owned enterprise, there are certain characteristics of this market that anyone contemplating a career in building should understand. Home building is personal. Your client is usually an individual family with individual personalities. This is probably not the sector for you if you are not a people person. Home buyers are spending their personal funds on these projects, and usually it is the single largest amount of money they have ever spent.
As a construction manager, you will be directly involved with the owner on a regular basis. You will get to experience the full range of emotions and temperaments associated with the home-buying public. There is a great deal of personal service and hand-holding that will be required of you. Many construction professionals delight in this aspect of the business, anxious to address every detail and concern that an owner might have regarding the building process, while others cringe at the thought of having to deal with someone at such an intimate level.
Residential construction companies come in all sizes. Some limit their service area to a local market, others might expand operations regionally or nationally, and a few are even building overseas in Europe and South America. Of all the construction industry sectors, the residential sector probably requires the broadest scope of knowledge. Construction is only one facet of the home-building business. An understanding of sales, marketing, financing, land development, entitlement, building codes, purchasing, construction operations, customer service, and warranty are all needed to participate in this sector of the industry.
Commercial Building
This sector of the industry primarily addresses the needs of commerce, trade, and government and makes up about a third of the total construction market. This is the category that includes banks, schools, office buildings, hotels, shopping malls, religious facilities, baseball stadiums, theaters, universities, amusement parks, hospitals, courthouses, government buildings, and other facilities where people gather. These projects may range in size from a small medical office to large high-rise office buildings to state-of-the-art biotechnology facilities. The building costs are significantly higher than with residential construction, and the project duration is much longer. It is not uncommon for a commercial project to last three years or more.
Funding for these types of building projects may be private, public, or combined in a special private-public partnership. Commercial construction companies are usually categorized by their dollar volume per year. For example, a company that does less than $10 million per year might be classified as a small commercial contractor, whereas a large commercial contractor completes more than $250 million of work annually. Of course, everything is relative to a given market. What might be considered a large company in Nebraska could easily be classified as a small company in California.
Commercial projects are very wide-ranging in scope, and it’s difficult to develop expertise in all areas. For example, hospitals and clean rooms, which have very specialized systems, require contractors who possess the special knowledge needed to successfully perform the construction. Therefore, it is not unusual for a commercial contractor to focus their attention on only a few building types.
Commercial projects are typically designed by architects. The building systems can be complex, and various specialty engineers are engaged to support the architect with the electrical, mechanical, and structural design. Additional consultants may also be brought in for unique requirements of the project. For example, a sound and acoustics engineer is a likely participant on a concert hall project but would not be called in for a retail facility. And given the interest in sustainability, a LEED consultant would be a “must-have” member on the construction team. (LEED is discussed in more detail later in the chapter; see the “Sustainability” section.)
Means and Methods
cofferdams
Temporary watertight enclosures erected to prevent water from seeping into an area, allowing construction to take place in the water-free space.
slip forms
Concrete forms that rise up the wall as construction progresses.
