Creation and the Courts (With Never Before Published Testimony from the "Scopes II" Trial) E-Book

Norman L. Geisler

• Herausgeber: Crossway
• Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 637

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2007

Beschreibung

With the explosion of the Intelligent Design movement, many Americans are once again forced to take sides in the long-standing battle between creation and evolution. Yet many feel inadequately educated on the judicial process of this battle. In Creation and the Courts, Norman Geisler offers a behind-the-scenes look at the testimonies and arguments of the prosecution and defense of the major creation versus evolution court battles. Geisler offers a compelling look at the erosion of Christian influence in America's public schools. Creation and the Courts encourages readers to learn from the past judicial fights and to take their rightful places in the battle. These conflicts in today's classrooms and courtrooms must continue to be fought, and anyone willing to be a soldier must be equipped with the knowledge found in this book.

Leseprobe

“Norman Geisler has always been a ‘trail-blazer’ for people who want to speak out about their faith, and Creation and the Courts blazes a trail into the truth of creation vs. evolution. Through his firsthand personal experience in the ‘Scopes II’ trial and his exhaustive research into other similar trials, Geisler will draw you into the world of our legal system, better preparing you to address issues of creation and evolution.”

—Josh D. McDowell,author and speaker

“Norman Geisler has provided a compilation and commentary on the issue of evolution, public education, and the courts that will serve as an important resource for decades to come. Dr. Geisler convincingly shows that much of the debate over this issue is a jurisprudential mess resulting from philosophically confused though well-meaning scientists and jurists. He offers just the sort of clarity this debate requires.”

—Francis J. Beckwith,Professor of Philosophy and Church-State Studies, Baylor University

Creation & the Courts

Creation & the Courts

Eighty Years of Conflict in the Classroom and the Courtroom

With Never Before Published Testimony from the "Scopes II" Trial

Norman L. Geisler

Creation and the Courts: Eighty Years of Conflict in the Classroom and the CourtroomCopyright © 2007 by Norman L. Geisler

Published by Crossway Books a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers1300 Crescent StreetWheaton, Illinois 60187

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher, except as provided by USA copyright law. Crossway® is a registered trademark in the United States of America.

Cover design: Josh Dennis

Cover art: Courtesy of Bridgeman Art Library; typewriter illustration, iStock Photos

First printing 2007

Printed in the United States of America

Trade paperback ISBN: 978-1-58134-836-1ePub ISBN: 978-1-4335-1960-4PDF ISBN: 978-1-4335-0151-7Mobipocket ISBN: 978-1-4335-0792-2

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Geisler, Norman L.Creation and the courts : eighty years of conflict in the classroom and the courtroom : with never before published testimony from the “Scopes II” Trial / Norman L.Geisler.p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN-13: 978-1-58134-836-1 (tpb)ISBN-10: 1-58134-836-31. Creationism—Study and teaching—Law and legislation—United States. 2. Evolution—Study and teaching—Law and legislation—United States. 3. Religion in public schools—United States. I. Title.

KF4208.5.S34G45 2007344.73’0796—dc22

200603267

Contents

Foreword by Duane T. Gish

Preface by Wayne Frair

Acknowledgments

Introduction

1. The Scopes Trial (1925)

2. The Epperson Supreme Court Ruling (1968)

3. The McLean Trial (1982)

4. The Testimony They Refused to Transcribe

5. The Edwards Supreme Court Ruling (1987)

6. Scalia’s Dissenting Opinion in the Edwards Case (1987)

7. The Dover Case (2005)

8. Should Creation Be Taught as Science in Public Schools?

9. Lessons to Be Learned

Appendix 1. Secular Media Coverage of the McLean Trial

Appendix 2. Christian Media Coverage of the McLean Trial

Appendix 3. My Christianity Today Article on the McLean Trial

Appendix 4. ACLU Mockery of Creationist Beliefs: The Cross Examination They Refused to Transcribe 349

Appendix 5. The Webster Case

Appendix 6. Only Two Views of Origin Events

Bibliography

Foreword

Duane T. Gish1

No one is better prepared than Dr. Norman Geisler to write an account of the Arkansas creation/evolution trial of 1981. Geisler was not only present during the trial; he was the lead witness for the creationist side and one of its most brilliant witnesses. His testimony, in my view (I was present during the entire trial), effectively demolished the most important thrust of the case by the ACLU. Unfortunately, in my opinion, no testimony, and no effort by any team of lawyers, no matter how brilliant, could have won the case for the creationist side. Judge Overton accepted the ACLU mind-set that anything that hints of God, even scientific evidence for creation, must be barred from public schools. Secular humanism will be our official state-sanctioned religion, if Judge Overton’s decision is allowed to stand.

Geisler’s account of the trial (see chapter 3) is carefully and thoroughly documented. His description of the actual course of the trial is interesting, and his critique of Judge Overton’s official decision is incisive, thorough, and accurate. Geisler’s account is in refreshing contrast to the usually (though not always) distorted and biased accounts that appeared in the mass media and a relief from the sophistry that appeared in so many scientific journals. No eyewitness account can be accurate in all details, but I can certainly recommend this book’s fair and thorough account of the famous 1981 Arkansas creation/evolution trial.

1. Dr. Gish, a leading scientist defender of creation, was present for the entire 1981 “Scopes II” trial in Arkansas. He was an expert advisor to the defense and is a noted author and debater on behalf of scientific creationism. With only minor editing, this is the foreword he wrote for The Creator in the Courtroom (Norman L. Geisler with A. F. Brooke II and Mark J. Keough [Milford, Mich.: Mott Media, 1982]).

Preface

Wayne Frair1

Geisler on the Stand

In McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education (1982) the court considered an Arkansas statute that required balanced teaching of both evolution and creation when the subject of origins was discussed. After a two-week trial, December 7–17, 1981, the court ruled on January 5, 1982 that the statute was unconstitutional because it essentially would promote a biblical religious view. This Arkansas statute was a forerunner of the subsequent one in the state of Louisiana.

The December 1981 trial effectively was a travesty of justice, as is made clear in the only book by a person who was there for the entire trial (Norman Geisler, The Creator in the Courtroom, 1982). The federal court judge, William Overton, was from the start biased against the defense.

I personally arrived in the courtroom on Friday, December 11, the final of five days of testimony by the plaintiffs, who were represented by the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). The first witness for the defense, Dr. Geisler, was on the witness stand in the afternoon of December 11. At that time I was sitting next to Dr. Duane Gish, who was known as a leading creationist and an unexcelled debater in the modern creationist movement.2 Geisler’s presentation was superb (see chapter 4), and at its end Gish was absolutely exuberant (see foreword). In no uncertain words he declared to me that Geisler successfully had demolished every one of the arguments presented by ACLU witnesses during their preceding five days of testimony.

Then in the cross-examination (see appendix 4), ACLU lawyer Anthony Siano began to mock Dr. Geisler based not on his court testimony but rather on some comments dealing with spaceships that Geisler had made in a pretrial deposition. Geisler tried in vain to be straightforward and honest as the cunning lawyer goaded him with superfluous mockery—a pitiful miscarriage of justice that was not opposed by Judge Overton.

My Testimony

On the following Monday I had the opportunity to be on the witness stand for about one and a half hours. Coverage of my testimony is given in chapter 7 of The Creator in the Courtroom. I said that Arkansas was “on the very cutting edge of an educational movement” that would improve the quality of U.S. education. Without hesitation I added that if Charles Darwin were alive today he would be a creationist. I backed up that statement with quotations from L. S. Berg, A. H. Clark, H. Nilsson, G. A. Kerkut, and S. Lovtrup. These date back to the 1920s.

The final material I used was from the famous British paleontologist Colin Patterson, who had spoken about a month earlier (November 5, 1981) in New York City at the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH). Patterson had expressed strong feelings against evolution, and I quoted from his talk. The ACLU lawyer objected, but fortunately 13 Judge Overton overruled because I had been there for that AMNH presentation.

I felt that my testimony would have a positive impact for truth in opposition to what had been heard from the plaintiffs and their witnesses. They all had been coached thoroughly to stress two issues. These were (1) there is no science supporting a creation position, and (2) creation is religion, which should not be intruded into science. They said this repeatedly, even though the Arkansas law at issue in the trial prohibited religious instruction and clearly defines “creation science” as “the scientific evidences for creation and inferences from these scientific evidences.”

Newspapers and magazines across the country thrived on articles about the trial—some very fair and others misleading (see appendices 1 and 2). A generally quite accurate newspaper coverage of the whole trial was written by reporter Cal Beisner and appeared in the weekly Pea Ridge (Arkansas) County Times, Wednesday, December 30, 1981. One very biased and inaccurate report was written by Roger Lewin and was published in the January 8, 1982 issue of Science,3 arguably the world’s leading weekly publication of scientific information. A major portion of the report was a gross misrepresentation of my testimony. After reading Lewin’s article I wrote a letter to the magazine, from which I quote:

Roger Lewin’s treatment (Science 215:142) . . . of the Little Rock creation trial falls somewhat short of the quality of reporting I would consider the readers of Science should expect....

My presentation until cross-examination emphasized scientific data; and among other things I endeavored to make clear that from literature dating back into the 1920’s and up to the present time there is a body of information published by respected scientists who have theorized and speculated in ways more consistent with a creation model than a macroevolutionary model. A Russian book, Nomogenesis or Evolution Determined by Law by Leo S. Berg (original edition 1922), was republished by Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press in 1969. The [foreword] to the recent edition was written by Theodosius Dob­3. zhansky, who described Berg as “one of the outstanding intellects among Russian scientists” and further that “the depth as well as the amplitude of his scholarship were remarkable.” (p. xi) In this 477-page book Berg demonstrates that living things have developed polyphyletically.

There have been other scientific (and “non-religious”) writings including [British] Kerkut’s Implications of Evolution, Pergamon Press, 1960, which have cast doubt upon a monophyletic model. I quoted from this book at the trial because much of what Kerkut says currently is very pertinent. For instance:

Most students become acquainted with many of the current concepts in biology whilst still at school and at an age when most people are, on the whole, uncritical. Then when they come to study the subject in more detail they have in their minds several half-truths and misconceptions which tend to prevent them from coming to a fresh appraisal of the situation. In addition, with a uniform pattern of education most students tend to have the same sort of educational background and so in conversation and discussion they accept common fallacies and agree on matters based on these fallacies.

It would seem a good principle to encourage the study of “scientific heresies.” There is always the danger that a reader might be seduced by one of these heresies but the danger is neither as great nor as serious as the danger of having scientists brought up in a type of mental strait-jacket or of taking them so quickly through a subject that they have no time to analyze and digest the material they have “studied.” A careful perusal of the heresies will also indicate the facts in favour of the currently accepted doctrines, and if the evidence against a theory is overwhelming and if there is no other satisfactory theory to take its place we shall just have to say that we do not yet know the answer.

There is a theory which states that many living animals can be observed over the course of time to undergo changes so that new species are formed. This can be called the “Special Theory of Evolution” and can be demonstrated in certain cases by experiments. On the other hand there is the theory that all the living forms in the world have arisen from a single source which itself came from an inorganic form. This theory can be called the “General Theory 15 of Evolution” and the evidence that supports it is not sufficiently strong to allow us to consider it as anything more than a working hypothesis. It is not clear whether the changes that bring about speciation are of the same nature as those that brought about the development of new phyla. The answer will be found by future experimental work and not by dogmatic assertions that the General Theory of Evolution must be correct because there is nothing else that will satisfactorily take its place. (156–157).

It certainly is true that there are differences of opinion among creationists as there are among evolutionists, but both creation and evolution models can be presented in a broad sense within biology classes without this being a “religious” exercise. Neither evolutionists nor creationists need be paranoid regarding this issue, but we should realize that in our country we enjoy freedom of religion, not freedom from religion.

The causes of science education will not be served well by namecalling and misrepresentation or distortion of the ideas being presented by those with whom we disagree. It is true that most scientists today believe that macroevolution is a well-established concept; however, for improving scholarship and understanding, especially those promoting only macroevolution probably will profit from perceptively heeding what responsible creationists are trying to say.

The editors of Science did not print any portion of my letter or even acknowledge having received it. Their published write-up of my testimony at the Arkansas trial was so inaccurate that I wondered if the author, Roger Lewin, even was in the courtroom when I gave testimony.

I had written the letter to Science rather quickly and soon realized that there was a lot more I could have said; so I composed the following to present a more accurate account of what I actually had said during the trial:

I have been researching in biochemical taxonomy of reptiles since 1960, and did discuss some of my research from the witness stand. This write-up mentions three books which were earlier ones referred to; however I also quoted from a 1960 book, a 1969 book and other literature reaching into the 70’s. These authors basically did not just have some misgivings about some aspects of evolutionary theory, they had serious objections.

My own studies on erythrocyte size indicated that an evolutionary progression is anything but obvious from the facts. Blood cells have not become smaller as animals have climbed the evolutionary tree because the largest cells are found among amphibians and some birds have larger cells than some fish.

With regard to the matter of my stating that considerable progress has been made in past decades, this is completely obvious. In my crossexamination ACLU lawyer Bruce Ennis mentioned in a somewhat casual way several fields of endeavor; and he said: “Haven’t we made progress in these?” The answer was obviously, “Yes;” and I was not thinking of myself in an adversarial relationship to the lawyer at this point. I recognize now that I should have showed how in these fields the evidence has pointed more toward a creationist position than a macroevolutionary one. For instance, genetic drift. Genetic drift does not help in understanding macroevolution. It is one of their problems, because it runs counter to what would be anticipated on the basis of natural selection. . . . So what to me was an extremely minor concession to this lawyer has been made to look as though it were a big concession on my part.

During my testimony I indeed stressed the “limited change model”; and I referred to the natural groups which are found in nature. Act 590 used the term “kinds”. This concept, by the way, is not a new one because it was commonly held 150 years ago. In fact, a recent book (Pitman, Michael Adam And Evolution. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House: 1984) presents nature as consisting of archetypes, which was the term used more than a century ago.

The question about the number of these “kinds” is a very good on. At present we do not know. I would estimate perhaps somewhere in the vicinity of 8,000. It is not easy to be concrete regarding “kinds” any more than it is for systematists to give a definition of any of the taxonomic categories other than species. One cannot readily define an order except in relation to class and family; and I tried to make this clear to the court. Our taxonomic schemes are human inventions; they are not rigid, but they are practical. A scientist who understands taxonomy is not deeply concerned about having precise definitions for his categories. The same holds for the “kinds” concept.

As a matter of fact, I did define “kind” in terms of reproduction, which is at least a partially acceptable definition. If organisms can reproduce hybrids, they may be considered to belong to the same kind. (See Lester, Lane P., Bohlin, Raymond G. The Natural Limits to Biological Change. Grand Rapids. MI: Zondervan Publishing House, 1984.) My current opinion, which was established after my research reported in 1985 (Frair, Wayne. “Biochemical evidence for the origin and dispersion of turtles.” Proceedings of the 11th Bible-Science Association National Conference; 1985 August 14-16; Cleveland, OH. Harley Hotel: 97-105; and Frair, Wayne. “The enigmatic plateless river turtle, Carettochelys, in serological survey.” J. Herpetology. 19(4):515–523: 1985), is that turtles represent a single kind....

Next, the matter of the “ancestry” for man and apes. Lawyer Ennis referred to a quotation in our book from theologian Leupold; and he tried to make it look as though I had said this. I did not say it; and even though I may have agreed with the statement, I indicated to the court that I was there to talk about scientific matters and not my own personal beliefs about the Bible and what it says.

Lastly, with regard to the matter of faith, it certainly is true that faith is involved whether a person holds to an evolution or a creation position. Often the distinction is not made clearly between the faith commitment to a belief in supernaturalism or naturalism. One takes either of these two positions; one also takes the position either that there was an abrupt appearance of unrelated groups in nature or that all types of organisms are related in a single tree (see Frair, Wayne. Biochemical evidence for the origin and dispersion of turtles.) . . .

It is my hope that future scholars will obtain a copy of the trial transcript; but if this is not possible, at least my opinion regarding some of these matters now should be clearer.

Transcript Blockage

Because of other commitments, I did not try seriously to obtain a transcript of my trial testimony until the summer of 1998. I contacted the attorney general, who referred me to the Federal District Court Clerk’s Office in Little Rock. He called me saying that the records had been transported to Fort Worth, Texas. But my efforts to learn how to locate the records there were unsuccessful.

My next step was to contact a very capable and experienced lawyer. After considerable effort, she reported a level of frustration similar to my own. I then suspended my efforts to obtain the transcripts, pending further time and resources for following through with other possible options.

Even though I and other defense witnesses so far have not been able to obtain copies of our defense testimonies, Dr. Geisler has subsequently obtained his, which is presented in this book (see chapter 4 and appendix 4). I not only listened to his oral testimony as it was given at the trial but also heard all the other nine defense testimonies, each of which produced valuable information supporting Act 590.

But it was Geisler’s penetrating presentation that exposed the fallacies of the plaintiffs’ underlying philosophical positions. His trial testimony, now published in this book, stands as a monument of powerful and persuasive logic. This material had an important historical impact, but now that it is in print many years later, it will serve to enlighten and encourage many of us who still are facing similar challenges today.

1. Dr. Frair was present at the Arkansas McLean trial (1981–1982). He was an expert witness who spoke in favor of teaching both evolution and creation. Dr. Frair is a longtime science teacher, author, member of the prestigious American Association for the Advancement of Science, and a world-renowned expert on turtles.

2. See Marvin L. Lubenow, From Fish to Gish (San Diego, Calif.: Creation-Life, 1983).

3. Roger Lewin, “Where Is the Science in Creation Science?” Science 215 ( January 8, 1982): 141-146.

Acknowledgments

I wish to express deep appreciation to my wife, Barbara, my assistants Christina Woodside and Lanny Wilson, and to my friend Doug Van Gordon for their valuable help in the preparation of this manuscript.

Introduction

Creation versus evolution is in the news again. In fact, it has never left the news since the Scopes trial of 1925. It has only gone through mountain peaks and valleys.1 The most important of these “peaks,” as far as the courts are concerned, include the following decisions.2

The Scopes Trial (1925)

The case of State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes is one of the most famous trials in American history. The issue was whether or not it was constitutional to teach evolution instead of the biblical account of creation in public schools. The law in question read: “It shall be unlawful for any teacher . . . to teach any theory that denies the story of Divine Creation of man as taught in the Bible, and to teach instead that man has descended from a lower order of animals.” The decision rendered by the Dayton, Tennessee court was that it was illegal to teach evolution, and John Scopes was found guilty of doing just that. The resulting fine of $100 was later overturned on a technicality: only a jury, not the judge, had the authority to assess the fine.

The Epperson Ruling (1968)

Tennessee was not the only state that had anti-evolution laws. Similar laws were passed in Oklahoma, Florida, and Texas. Between 1921 and 1929 such bills were introduced in some twenty states. Oklahoma repealed their law in 1926, but the Tennessee law stayed on the books until 1967. Arkansas too was a holdout, but their law was finally addressed by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1968. In this Epperson v. Arkansas decision the Court struck down the last state anti-evolutionary law. From the Court record we read:

Appellant Epperson, an Arkansas public school teacher, brought this action for declaratory and injunctive relief challenging the constitutionality of Arkansas’ “anti-evolution” statute. That statute makes it unlawful for a teacher in any state-supported school or university to teach or to use a textbook that teaches “that mankind ascended or descended from a lower order of animals”. . . . The statute violates the Fourteenth Amendment, which embraces the First Amendment’s prohibition of state laws respecting an establishment of religion. . . . The sole reason for the Arkansas law is that a particular religious group considers the evolution theory to conflict with the account of the origin of man set forth in the Book of Genesis. . . . The First Amendment mandates governmental neutrality between religion and religion, and between religion and non-religion. . . . A State’s right to prescribe the public school curriculum does not include the right to prohibit teaching a scientific theory or doctrine for reasons that run counter to the principles of the First Amendment. . . . The Arkansas law is not a manifestation of religious neutrality. . . .3 The Supreme Court ruled that it was a violation of the First Amendment to forbid the teaching of evolution in public schools.

The Segraves Ruling (1981)

In Segraves v. State of California, a California superior court ruled that the California State Board of Education’s Science Framework provided adequate accommodation to Kelly Segraves’s views, contrary to his argument that the discussion of evolution violated his children’s freedom of religion. Further, the court demanded a policy that included all areas of science, not just origins. This ruling did not penetrate to the heart of the issue of whether teaching creation was a violation of the First Amendment. Determination of this issue would await the next two decisions.

The McLean Ruling (1982)

In McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education, the issue was whether it was legal for the state to mandate that, whenever evolution is taught, creation should be taught as well in a balanced treatment of both. The U.S. District Court ruled that this would constitute “. . . an establishment of religion prohibited by the First Amendment to the Constitution which is made applicable to the states by the Fourteenth Amendment.” Why? In the judge’s words, because, “In traditional Western religious thought, the conception of a creator of the world is a conception of God. Indeed, creation of the world ‘out of nothing’ is the ultimate religious statement because God is the only actor.”4 The case was never appealed, since Jon Buell of the Dallas-based Foundation for Thought and Ethics, which eventually produced a textbook (Of Pandas and People)5 for teaching creation alongside evolution in public schools, requested that the Arkansas attorney general not appeal the case. The Foundation believed that a similar law that had been enacted in Louisiana was better worded, had less baggage, could be better argued, and, therefore, had a better chance of success when appealed to the Supreme Court. I personally felt that the downside of this was that the McLean court decision, with all of its problems and weaknesses, would become a bad precedent for future decisions if left unappealed. This is precisely what happened when a case involving this issue went to the Supreme Court (Edwards v. Aguillard, 1987).

Mozert v. Hawkins County Board of Education (1987)

Students and parents had claimed that it was a violation of their First Amendment rights of free exercise of religion for the school board to be “forcing student-plaintiffs to read school books which teach or inculcate values in violation of their religious beliefs and convictions.” Evolution was one such view to which they objected. This was upheld by the District Court but overruled by the Sixth Circuit Court. The latter court argued that even though students were offended, there was no evidence that anyone was “ever required to affirm his or her belief or disbelief in any idea or practice” taught in the text or class. The court insisted that there was a difference between “exposure” and being “coerced” to accept the ideas. They noted that the only way to avoid all offense was not to teach anything. They insisted that: “The lesson is clear: governmental actions that merely offend or cast doubt on religious beliefs do not on that account violate free exercise.” They insisted that this exposure to offensive views was simply a matter of “civil tolerance” of other views and did not compel anyone to a “religious tolerance” whereby they were compelled to give equal status to other religious views. “It merely requires a recognition that in a pluralistic society we must ‘live and let live.’”6

The Edwards Ruling (1987)

The Louisiana law was shorter, but it too mandated that creation be taught in a balanced way whenever evolution is taught in public schools. When this law was tested in the highest court, the justices ruled (7 to 2)7 in Edwards v. Aguillard (1987) that it was an unconstitutional violation of the First Amendment to mandate teaching creation in a balanced way whenever evolution is taught in public schools. In the Court’s own words, “The Act impermissibly endorses religion by advancing the religious belief that a supernatural being created humankind.”8

Since the time of Edwards, many creationists have clung to wording in the decision which allows for teaching “all scientific theories about the origins of humankind” or “any scientific theory that is based on established fact.”9 This they see as grounds for allowing creation (or intelligent design, as many now prefer to call it) along with evolution. However, focus shifted from state mandated laws to working with local school boards. Others have been satisfied with the Edwards court’s statement that “We do not imply that a legislature could never require that scientific critiques of prevailing scientific theories be taught.”10 Thus, they have attempted a negative path of getting textbooks and schools to admit that evolution is only a theory, not a fact, and/or to allow critique of evolutionary views. Still other efforts have settled for simply getting creationist material into public school libraries and hopefully into the hands of biology teachers with the hope that they will voluntarily teach both evolution and creation.

More positive efforts to teach design alternatives to evolution have been organized under the name of the “intelligent design” (“ID”) movement. Under the initiative of University of California at Berkeley law professor Phillip Johnson in his book Darwin on Trial (Regnery, 1991), the pace was set for attacking the naturalistic grounds for evolution with the hope that some form of intelligent design could be taught alongside evolution in public schools. Michael Behe’s landmark volume, Darwin’s Black Box (Free Press, 1996), gave a scientific defense of intelligent design on the microbiological level. This, combined with a series of volumes by William Dembski (see his Mere Creation: Science, Faith, and Intelligent Design [InterVarsity, 1998]), forms the basis for this growing movement.

Differences between the ID movement and the earlier “scientific creationism” movement include several things.11 First, ID as such is not committed to teaching a specific view of the age of the earth. The question is simply left open. Second, ID makes no affirmations about the nature or scope of Noah’s flood. Third, ID advocates make no identification of the cause of intelligent design with God or any supernatural being. Fourth, they oppose laws mandating the teaching of creation or intelligent design. Rather, they concentrate only on showing that some intelligent cause (whether in or outside the universe) is a more likely cause for first life and new life forms. In this way they hope to escape the religious baggage of the “scientific creation” movement and avoid the wrath of the high court against mandating teaching about a creator or any supernatural cause. However, this hope was dashed in the first test of ID in the courts (Dover, 2005).

The Webster Ruling (1990)

In Webster v. New Lenox School District (see appendix 5) the tables were turned. Ray Webster, who taught social studies at the Oster-Oakview Junior High School in New Lenox, Illinois, sued the school for forbidding him to teach “creation science” in his social studies class. Webster claimed this was a violation of his First and Fourteenth Amendment rights.

The superintendent of the school claimed Webster was advocating a Christian viewpoint that was prohibited by the high court, and that he was instructed not to teach “creation science, because the teaching of this theory had been held by the federal courts to be religious advocacy. . . . In Edwards v. Aguillard . . . (1987), the Supreme Court [had] determined that creation science, as defined in the Louisiana act in question, was a nonevolutionary theory of origin that ‘embodies the religious belief that a supernatural creator was responsible for the creation of humankind.’”12

The district court concluded that Webster did not have a First Amendment right to teach creation science in a public school and determined that the school board had the responsibility to ensure that the “Establishment Clause” of the First Amendment was not violated. “By relying on Edwards v. Aguillard (1987), the district court determined that teaching creation science would constitute religious advocacy in violation of the first amendment and that the school board correctly prohibited Mr. Webster from teaching such material.” Strangely, the court added, “Webster has not been prohibited from teaching any nonevolutionary theories or from teaching anything regarding the historical relationship between church and state.”13 This failure on the part of the courts to see that the only “nonevolutionary” view is some form of creation (see appendix 6) continues to be a problem for the creationist cause, as is evident in the Dover decision (see chapter 7).

On the surface, it would appear that Webster, if left standing, would eliminate all possibility of teaching creation in public schools. However, there were mitigating circumstances in Webster (see appendix 6) that left a crack in the door for teaching ID in science classrooms. But that door was later slammed shut by the Dover decision (2005).

The Peloza v. Capistrano Ruling (1994)

In Peloza v. Capistrano the Ninth District Court of Appeals upheld the ruling that a teacher’s freedom of religion was not violated by a school district’s requirement that evolution be taught in biology classes. It ruled that the school district had the right to require a teacher to teach a scientific theory such as evolution in biology classes. Of course, this ruling did not state that creation could not be taught. For evolutionists, this had already been decided by the Edwards decision (1987). Most creationists disagreed, claiming that creation could be taught as one of the alternate theories of origin allowed by Edwards. Other creationists, like myself, feared that the courts would see this as applying only to alternate naturalistic theories. The Dover decision (2005) confirmed this fear, at least on a local scale.

The Freiler Ruling (1997)

In Freiler v. Tangipahoa Board of Education the U.S. District Court of Louisiana rejected a policy that required that a disclaimer be read whenever evolution is taught, ostensibly to promote critical thinking. The court noted that this disclaimer applied only to evolution, not to creation, and therefore that, “in maintaining this disclaimer, the School Board is endorsing religion by disclaiming the teaching of evolution in such a manner as to convey the message that evolution is a religious viewpoint that runs counter to . . . other religious views.”14 Later, in 2000, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed the decision. The chilling effect of this ruling goes beyond this particular disclaimer and discourages other disclaimers as well, even though the actual decision does not rule out the possibility of other disclaimers regarding origins.

The LeVake Ruling (2000)

LeVake v. Independent School District came from the District Court for the Third Judicial District of the State of Minnesota. Rodney LeVake, a high school biology teacher, had argued for his right to teach “evidence both for and against the theory” of evolution. The school district contended that his proposal did not match the curriculum, which required teaching evolution. Given the precedent case law requiring a teacher to teach what he is hired to teach, the court ruled that LeVake’s free speech rights did not override the required curriculum and the school district was not guilty of religious discrimination in denying his right to teach both for and against evolution. Interestingly, this is exactly the opposite of what evolutionists argued at the Scopes trial in 1925.

The Dover Ruling (2005)

The first test for teaching intelligent design (ID) hit the courts in the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District case. The Dover Area School District near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, had adopted a policy requiring that students be read a statement that included the following:

The Pennsylvania Academic Standards requires students to learn about Darwin’s theory of evolution. . . . Because Darwin’s theory is a theory. . . . the theory is not a fact. . . . Intelligent design is an explanation of the origin of life that differs from Darwin’s view. The reference book, “Of Pandas and People,” is available for students who might be interested in gaining an understanding of what intelligent design actually involves.15

This policy was not put forward by any group connected with the ID movement, such as the Seattle-based Discovery Institute, nor by the producers of the ID text for public schools, Of Pandas and People.16 Indeed, the associate director of the Discovery Institute, John West, released a statement which read in part, “Discovery Institute strongly opposes the ACLU’s effort to make discussions of intelligent design illegal. At the same time, we disagree with efforts to get the government to require the teaching of intelligent design.”17

The Dover policy was opposed by the ACLU and Americans United for Separation of Church and State and defended by the Thomas More Law Center, a Christian law firm based in Ann Arbor, Michigan. The Dover case was heard by U.S. District Court Judge John Jones III between September 26 and November 4, 2005. The decision was rendered on December 20, 2005. It ruled that (1) the Dover School District policy is unconstitutional, (2) intelligent design and creation its progenitor are not science and should not be taught in Dover science classes, and (3) intelligent design and other forms of creation are essentially religious and are, therefore, a violation of the First Amendment establishment clause. In the words of the court, “For the reasons that follow, we hold that the ID [intelligent design] Policy is unconstitutional pursuant to the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment of the United States Constitution and Art. I, § 3 of the Pennsylvania Constitution.”18

The Dover decision has not been appealed because the school board, which now has an anti-creation majority, does not want to appeal it. However, the issue inevitably will be raised again and eventually will be brought before the U.S. Supreme Court. How the Court will rule no one knows for sure. But if precedent is followed, it is unlikely that the high court will (1) allow any creation or design view to be mandated for schools, or (2) allow any view to be taught that implies a supernatural creator.

Meanwhile, the lessons of history may be gleaned to guide the future of this discussion. Having been an eyewitness of the famous “Scopes II” (McLean, 1982)19 trial, I feel compelled to cast what light I can on this very important issue. Indeed, since the Arkansas courts refused to publish my testimony (given in 1981), which was crucial to the outcome of the trial, until after the Supreme Court ruled against teaching creation six years later (in 1987), there is a vital part of history that has been hitherto unknown that is now being revealed for the first time in this publication (see chapter 4). It is to these ends that I present this important but missing link in the history of the creation-evolution controversy, in the hope that it may cast some light on the issue as it is now again coming into the courts and—hopefully—have a positive influence on the outcome.

1. The battle has recently reached such a fevered pitch that one writer described the March 2006 meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science as a “call to arms for American scientists, meant to recruit troops for the escalating war against creationism and its spinoff doctrine, intelligent design” (Richard Monastersky, “On the Front Lines in the War over Evolution,” Research and Books, March 10, 2006).

2. Other court cases bearing on the issue include Washington Ethical Society v. District of Columbia (1957), Smith v. Mississippi (1970), Wright v. Houston Independent School District (1972), Moore v. Gaston County Board of Education (1973), Steele v. Waters (1975), and Van Orden v. Perry (2004).

3.Epperson v. State of Arkansas, 393 U.S. 97 (1968).

4.McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education, 529 F. Supp. 1255 (E.D. Ark. 1982).

5. Percival Davis and Dean H. Kenyon, and Charles B. Thaxton, Of Pandas and People: The Central Question of Biological Origins (Dallas: Haughton, 1993).

6.Mozert v. Hawkins County Board of Education, 827 F. 2d 1058 (1987).

7. Rehnquist and Scalia dissented. See chapter 6.

8.Edwards v. Aguillard, 482 U.S. 578 (1987).

9. Ibid.

10. Ibid.

11. Also, because ID is less defined than most creationist efforts in the courts, it has a more diverse constituency, including proponents of Eastern Orthodoxy, Judaism, Roman Catholicism, and the Unification Church. Most creationists, however, would consider themselves Christian fundamentalists or evangelicals.

12.Webster v. New Lenox School District, 917 F. 2d. 1004 (7th Cir. 1990).

13. Ibid.

14.Freiler v. Tangipahoa Board of Education, No. 94-3577 (1997).

15.Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, 400 F. Supp. 2d 707 (M.D. Pa. 2005).

16. See note 5, above.

17. See John G. West, “Discovery Institute’s Position on Dover, PA ‘Intelligent Design’ Case,” September 21, 2005, at http://www.discovery.org/scripts/viewDB/index. php?command=view&id=2847.

18. Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, 400 F. Supp. 2d 707 (M.D. Pa. 2005).

19. See our eyewitness account in Norman L. Geisler with A. F. Brooke II and Mark J. Keough, The Creator in the Courtroom: “Scopes II” (Milford, Mich.: Mott Media, 1982).

1: The Scopes Trial (1925)

Background of the Controversy

Charles Darwin started the evolution revolution. There were evolutionists before Darwin, even in ancient times, but Darwin was the first to propose a plausible scientific mechanism by which evolution could have occurred. Between the 1859 publication of his landmark volume On the Origin of Species and 1900, the naturalistic macroevolution theory literally conquered the intellectual scientific world of the West.

From the beginning, serious religious and moral implications were apparent in Darwin’s theory. Darwin himself called it “my deity ‘Natural Selection.’”1 The very subtitle of his book, referring to the “preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life,” has racial implications. Alfred Wallace, the “coinventor” of natural selection, deified the very evolutionary process. “Wallace put more and more emphasis on the spiritual agency, so that in The World of Life it is described as ‘a Mind not only adequate to direct and regulate all the forces at work in living organisms, but also the more fundamental forces of the whole material universe.’ For many years Wallace was interested in spiritualism and psychical research.”2 Darwin’s friend Karl Marx declared, “But nowadays, in our evolutionary conception of the universe, there is absolutely no room for either a creator or a ruler.”3 Henri Bergson deified the evolutionary process in his work Creative Evolution (1898), calling it a Life Force. Herbert Spencer, whom Darwin called “our great philosopher,” made evolution into a cosmic process. In Germany, Ernst Haeckel, who developed social evolution from Darwin’s theory, claimed that “the idea of ‘design’ has wholly disappeared from this vast province of science.”4 As Harvard paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould would later explain, “Evolution substituted a naturalistic explanation of cold comfort for our former conviction that a benevolent deity fashioned us directly in his own image. . . .”5

In America a few strong voices spoke against Darwin. In 1860 the famous Harvard zoologist Louis Agassiz wrote a critical review of On the Origin of Species.6 At Princeton, Charles Hodge wrote a strong critique in 1878 titled What Is Darwinism? His answer was straight to the point: “What is Darwinism? It is Atheism. This does not mean that Mr. Darwin himself and all who adopt his views are atheists; but it means that his theory is atheistic, that the exclusion of design from nature is . . . tantamount to atheism.”7The logic is impeccable: no design, no designer; no creation, no creator. Evolution as a theory is atheistic, even though not all evolutionists are atheists.

Perhaps the most frightening consequences of Darwinism were the ethical ones. In 1924 a young Adolf Hitler wrote Mein Kampf, in which he proposed following the example of evolution and weeding out the weaker breeds of mankind. And he proceeded to put his proposal into action, exterminating those he considered less fit. Hitler justified his action by evolution, claiming, “If Nature does not wish that weaker individuals should mate with the stronger, she wishes even less that a superior race should intermingle with an inferior one; because in such a case all her efforts, throughout hundreds of thousands of years, to establish an evolutionary higher stage of being, may thus be rendered futile.”8

The implications of Darwinism were not perceived quickly in America by the religious community in general.9 In fact, it took some sixty years and a World War. But by the time of Hitler the implications were becoming clear. One year after Hitler’s racist book, the people of Tennessee passed the Butler Act on March 13, 1925, forbidding the teaching of evolution in the public schools. Interestingly, the biology textbook that had been used in the schools before this taught a racism similar to Hitler’s views. To quote from the book:

At the present time there exist upon the earth five races. . . . These are the Ethiopian or negro type, originating in Africa; the Malay or brown race, from the islands of the Pacific; the American Indian; the Mongolian or yellow race, including the natives of China, Japan, and the Eskimos; and finally, the highest type of all, the Caucasians, represented by the civilized white inhabitants of Europe and America.10

Although such racist implications did not come out at the Scopes trial, it was clear from the speech prepared for the trial by William Jennings Bryan, leader of the anti-evolution movement, that both the theological and ethical implications of evolution were paramount in the minds of the anti-evolution forces. Two citations from the speech will make the point: “But it is not a laughing matter when one considers that evolution not only offers no suggestions as to a Creator but tends to put the creative act so far away as to cast doubt upon creation itself ” (325).11 Indeed, Bryan pointed to statistics showing that half of all scientists did not believe in God (329–330). He concluded: “If all the biologists of the world teach this doctrine—as Mr. Darrow says they do—then may heaven defend the youth of our land from their impious babblings” (333). Further, Bryan saw the serious ethical implications of evolution. He cited agnostic Clarence Darrow’s defense of a young man who allegedly had committed murder. Darrow had argued that it was the influence of the atheist and evolutionist Friedrich Nietzsche on the young man that led him to do it (330–331). Bryan also cited Darwin himself (in The Descent of Man) approving of savage and barbarous acts in emulation of nature which weed out the weak and inferior breeds (335). Bryan summed up the issue this way: “Let us, then, hear the conclusion of the whole matter. Science is a magnificent material force, but it is not a teacher of morals. It can perfect machinery, but it adds no moral restraints to protect society from the misuse of the machine” (338).

Evolutionists, on the other hand, saw creationists’ efforts as an attempt to squelch freedom and scientific progress. Darrow’s concluding comments at the trial sum up their feelings: “I think this case will be remembered because it is the first case of this sort since we stopped trying people in America for witchcraft because here we have done our best to turn back the tide that has sought to force itself upon this—upon this modern world, of testing every fact in science by a religious dictum” (317).

Background of the Scopes Trial

It is in this context that what has been called “the world’s most famous court trial”12 occurred. The ACLU, eager for an opportunity to challenge the Tennessee law forbidding the teaching of evolution, advertised to get someone to break the law. John Scopes, a young teacher, volunteered to do so,13 and the rest is history. Little Dayton, Tennessee, became a circus. The media of the world converged on the Rhea County Courthouse, where on a sultry July 10th the trial began. For the rest of the story, rather than referencing the popular movie Inherit the Wind, we can consult the actual stenographic record of the proceedings published in The World’s Most Famous Court Trial: Tennessee Evolution Case.14 Another excellent source is Edward J. Larson’s Pulitzer Prize–winning book Summer for the Gods,15 one of the best books ever written on the trial.

The Tennessee Law Forbidding the Teaching of Evolution

The focus of the Scopes trial was the Tennessee law forbidding the teaching of evolution which was enacted on March 21, 1925. It read in part:

Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Tennessee, that it shall be unlawful for any teacher in any of the Universities, Normals and all other public schools of the State, which are supported in whole or in part by the public school funds of the state, to teach any theory that denies the story of the Divine Creation of man as taught in the Bible, and to teach instead that man has descended from a lower order of animals (5).

The case (No. 5232) was called State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes. The trial lasted for eight days, from July 10 through July 21. Clarence Darrow, famous agnostic ACLU lawyer, was lead attorney for the defense. William Jennings Bryan, one-time Democratic presidential candidate and defender of creation, was a visiting attorney for the state.

Highlights from the Trial

While the entire trial transcript is well worth reading, certain highlights are important for the ongoing saga of creation in the courts. The actual legal issue was: did or did not John Scopes “[teach] any theory that denies the story of the Divine creation of man as taught in the Bible, and . . . teach instead that man has descended from a lower order of animals” in violation of the law of the state of Tennessee?

First Day (Friday, July 10)

OPENING PRAYER16

The court was opened in prayer by Rev. Cartwright, who besought “God, our divine Father . . . the Supreme Ruler of the universe” for wisdom for the court and jury, justice for the defendant, reminding all in attendance that there is a day coming when “all of the nations of the earth shall stand before Thy judgment bar.” The prayer was offered in “the cause of truth and righteousness.” It concluded, “to Thy glory and grace for ever more. Amen” (3).

INTRODUCTION OF ATTORNEYS

Judge John T. Raulston asked Attorney General Tom Stewart to introduce the outside counsel for the state, William Jennings Bryan and his son (who was unnamed in the court transcript, since he “need[ed] no in­troduction”). For the defense Mr. ( Judge) Neal, Clarence Darrow, Arthur Hays, Mr. Dudley Field Malone, and Mr. Thompson were introduced (4). Other attorneys for the state included Mr. McKenzie and Mr. Hicks.17

THE LAW THAT SCOPES IS ALLEGED TOHAVE VIOLATED WAS READ

The law in question was Chapter 27 of the Acts of 1925 of the State of Tennessee, enacted on March 21, 1925. The act was read as follows:

Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the State of Tennessee, that it shall be unlawful for any teacher in any of the Universities, Normals and all other public schools of the State, which are supported in whole or in part by the public school funds of the state, to teach any theory that denies the story of the Divine Creation of man as taught in the Bible, and to teach instead that man has descended from a lower order of animals (5).

THE READING OF GENESIS CHAPTER ONE

Judge Neal then said, “Since the act involved in this investigation provides that it shall be unlawful to teach any theory that denies the divine creation of man as taught in the Bible, it is proper that I call your attention to the account of man’s creation as taught in the Bible, it is proper that I call your attention to the first chapter of Genesis.” The chapter was read in its entirety. The crucial parts are repeated here from the court record:

In the beginning the Lord [sic] created the heaven and earth. . . . And God created great whales, and every living creature that moveth. . . . And God made the beasts of the earth after his kind, and cattle after their kind, and everything that creepeth upon the earth after his kind. . . . So God created man in His own image, in the image of God, created He him; male and female created He them (vv. 1, 21, 25, 27) (5–6).

THE CHARGE OF THE JUDGE TO THE GRAND JURY

Judge Neal charged: “You will bear in mind that in this investigation you are not interested to inquire into the policy or wisdom of this legislation. . . . Our constitution imposes upon the judicial branch the interpretation of statutes and upon the executive branch the enforcement of the law” (6). He told them the violation would only be a mis­ demeanor, but reminded them there are serious misdemeanors, such as those involving “the evil example of the teacher disregarding constituted authority in the very presence of the undeveloped mind whose thought and moral he directs and guides” (7).

A NEW INDICTMENT IS RETURNED

Both sides agreed to quash the original indictment (No. 5231) and replace it with a new one (No. 5232). This was apparently to avoid its being overturned on a technicality. The judge named it Case No. 5232 State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes (7).

The only other significant occurrence the first morning was concerning the competency of the witnesses. Darrow expressed his belief: “I think that scientists are competent evidence—or competent witnesses here, to explain what evolution is, and that they are competent on both sides” (8). Attorney General Stewart responded: “we think that it isn’t competent as evidence; that is, it isn’t competent to bring into this case scientists who testify as to what the theory of evolution is or interpret the Bible or anything of that sort” (8–9). He suggested, therefore, that they go immediately to qualify jury members so as not to pollute the jury pool by the discussion.

The rest of the day was spent interviewing potential jurors. When one prospective juror, Rev. Massingill, was asked by Darrow if he ever preached for or against evolution, he answered: “Well, I preached against it, of course! (Applause).” At this outburst the judge warned: “if you repeat that, ladies and gentlemen, you will be excluded” (14). There ensued a short disagreement over whether they should swear in the jurors immediately or wait until Monday morning.

Second Day ( July 13)

OPENING PRAYER

The invocation on the second day of the trial was offered by Rev. Moffett to “God, our Father, Thou Who are the creator of the heaven and the earth. . . .” He prayed for “wise decisions” to be made and for “blessing” of the jury, the lawyers, the media, all involved in this case “in the name of our Lord and Saviour, Jesus Christ” (45).

SWEARING IN OF JURY

Before the jury was sworn in, the judge had to call for order in the courtroom (45), saying, “we cannot proceed in the courtroom, as many people as there are without absolute order” (46). Before the jury could be sworn in the judge considered the motion to quash the indictment. The indictment was read first. In part it charged that: “John Thomas Scopes, heretofore on the 24th day of April, 1925, in the county aforesaid, then and there, unlawfully did wilfully teach in the public schools of Rhea county . . . a certain theory and theories that deny the story of the divine creation of man as taught in the Bible, and did teach instead thereof that man has descended from a lower order of animals . . .” (47).

THE DEFENSE ARGUMENT

The defense then made a motion to quash the indictment. They argued against both the indictment and the anti-evolution act on which it was based, citing a long list of reasons divided into three broad categories. First, they discussed constitutional issues:

a) The act is in violation of Section 17, Article II of the state constitution, which states that all bills must have only one subject and it be clearly stated in the title (47–48);

b) It violates Section 12, Article XI: “Education to be cherished,” since it does not cherish a student’s education in science.

c) It violates Section 18, Article II, which says, “No bill shall become a law until it shall have been read and passed, on three different days in each house, and shall have received, on its final passage, in each house, the assent of a majority. . . .” (48);

d) It violates Section 3, Article I, “That all men have a natural and indefeasible right to worship Almighty God according to the dictates of his own conscience” (48);

e) It violates Section 19, Article I, which states, “That the printing presses shall be free to every person. . . . The free communication of thoughts and opinions is one of the invaluable rights of man, and every citizen may freely speak, write and print on any subject . . .” (48–49).

Defense attorney Hays joined in the defense argument that the indictment was indefinite, insisting that Scopes was “charged in the caption of the act with one thing and in the body of the indictment it is put in another way” (55). It is also not clear, he said, what “teach” means. If it means simply exposing students to the theory, “I presume our teachers should be prepared to teach every theory on every subject. Not necessarily to teach a thing as a fact” (56). “It should not be wrong to teach evolution, or certain phases of evolution, but not as a fact” (56).

Attorney Hays suggested that the court consider a hypothetical law, parallel to the evolution law, this one forbidding the teaching of a heliocentric universe, which “denies the story that the earth is the center of the universe, as taught in the Bible, and [teaches] instead, that the earth and planets move around the sun” (56). He concluded: “My contention is that an act of that sort is clearly unconstitutional in that it is a restriction upon the liberties of the individual. . . . The only distinction you can draw between this statute and the one we are discussing is that evolution is as much a scientific fact as the Copernican theory, but the Copernican theory has been fully accepted, as this [theory of evolution] must be accepted” (56–57). Thus, “To my mind, the chief point against the constitutionality of this law is that it extends the police powers of the state unreasonably and is a restriction upon the liberty of the individual.” It was unreasonable, he said, because “it would only be reasonable if it tended in some way to promote public morals” (57). And this is not possible unless we know what evolution is.

f ) It violates Section 8, Article I, that, “No man can be disturbed but by law. That no man shall be taken . . . or deprived of his life, liberty or property but by the judgment of his peers or the law of the land” (49).

g) It also violates Section 9, Article I on “Rights of the accused in criminal prosecutions” (49).

h) It violates Section 14, Article I, which says “that no person shall be put to answer any criminal charge but by presentment, indictment or impeachment” (49).

i) It violates Section 8, Article II, which forbids passing laws “for the benefit of any particular individual, inconsistent with the general laws of the land” (49).

j) It violates Section 2, Article II, that “No person [is] to exercise powers of more than one department” (49).

Second, the defense charged that “the indictment is so vague as not to inform the defendant of the nature and cause of the accusation against him” (49).

Finally, they claimed that “the act and the indictment violate Section 1 of the Fourteenth amendment of the constitution of the United States,” which says, “No state shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States” (49–50).

With the court’s approval, the defense began to argue their points. The following highlights are instructive.