Creative Machine Knitting E-Book

Alison Dupernex

• Herausgeber: The Crowood Press
• Kategorie: Lebensstil
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 429

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2022

Beschreibung

Creative Machine Knitting is simply a treasure trove for machine knitters; overflowing with design ideas and stitch patterns to inspire you to explore different styles and to make wonderful new projects. Knit with an open mind and be prepared to have a go, make changes and look to improvise – push yourself out of your comfort zone. Topics covered include; how to design – from where to source inspiration, consideration of materials and adoption of sustainable practices; painting with yarn – the process of translating a pattern or colour scheme into a knitted fabric; designing with panels and borders, and adding embellishments; Fairisle – advice on colour selection and pattern placement, including a 'sketchbook' of over fifty stitch patterns to try and finally, there is an inspiring stitch pattern directory of even more examples, illustrating the endless possibilities available to the machine knitter. The book features over 100 patterns, all of which can be adapted and form the basis of new designs, covering: jackets, cardigans and kimonos; sweaters; Fairisle designs; waistcoats; children's knitwear; accessories and homewares.

Leseprobe

First published in 2022 byThe Crowood Press LtdRamsbury, MarlboroughWiltshire SN8 2HR

[email protected]

www.crowood.com

This e-book first published in 2022

© Alison Dupernex 2022

All rights reserved. This e-book is copyright material and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred, distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and conditions under which it was purchased or as strictly permitted by applicable copyright law. Any unauthorised distribution or use of this text may be a direct infringement of the author’s and publisher’s rights, and those responsible may be liable in law accordingly.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978 0 7198 4100 2

Cover design: Peggy Issenman

CONTENTS

Abbreviations

Acknowledgements

1 An Introduction to Design Sources

2 Sustainable Options for Knitwear Designers

3 Design Basics

4 Classic Jackets and Cardigans

5 Fairisle Knitting

6 Painting with Yarn

7 Designing with Panels and Borders

8 Shawl Collar Cardigans

9 Diagonal Knitting

10 Waistcoats

11 Children’s Knitwear

12 Accessories

13 Interiors

14 Cable Directory

15 Stitch Pattern Directory

Address Book

Bibliography

Index

ABBREVIATIONS

0

the punched hole or yarn in Feeder 2

alt

alternate

beg

beginning

cm

centimetres

COL

carriage on left

Col

colour

cont

continue

COR

carriage on right

dec

decrease

dec

decreasing

E wrap cast on

wind the yarn from the right in a clockwise direction

E wrap braid cast on

wind the yarn from the right in a clockwise direction and back in an anti-clockwise direction

ff

fully fashioned

foll

following

g

grams

HP

holding position

inc

increase

k

knit

MT + 1,2,3

main tension one, two, three sizes looser than the main tension

MT

main tension

MY

main yarn

Ns

needles

NWP

non-working position

P

purl

patt

pattern

PP

punchcard pattern

PPL

punchcard pattern locked

RC

row counter

rem

remaining

rep

repeat

RH

right hand

sl st

slip stitch

st st

stocking stitch

st

stitch

TD

tension dial

tog

together

UWP

upper working position

WP

working position

WY

waste yarn

X

the non-punched square on the punchcard, or the yarn in Feeder 1

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I have thoroughly enjoyed the challenge of working on ideas which have been in my mind for years. Writing this book has been a voyage of discovery and a delight, but I have not done this alone and there is a wonderful team of friends and family without whose help I could not have done it.

My grateful thanks go to everyone at The Crowood Press for their advice and confidence in my work.

Huge thanks must also go to Anne Smith, the editor of Machine Knitting Monthly, whose patience and time working through my manuscript helped me enormously.

Chris Birch knitted some of the scarf samples with her usual expertise and good humour, so thank you.

The fabulous models who constantly dropped everything to make themselves available to try out various poses and wear my designs. Sharon McSwiney, Tim, Morag, Hazel, Mihika, Susie, Sam, Tom, plus Wulfie, Caspar and Cressida who required a lollipop for each photoshoot. Thanks also to Henry Arden for taking some of the images – perfect as always. Thank you to my husband Simon for producing the diagrams, and for proofreading the book.

Finally, thank you to the machine knitters worldwide who have offered encouragement and kind words regarding my work and practice. Either via email or Instagram. You cannot know how appreciated this is. Thank you all.

CHAPTER 1

AN INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN SOURCES

The aim of this book is to inspire you and open the door to a variety of design ideas that you may not have considered. The intention is for you to discover different combinations of stitch patterns and colours applied to garment shape, and then to be able to critically evaluate the overall integrity of the design concept that you have created. I hope the design ideas in this book will act as a springboard to give you confidence to try out your own customized versions, or send you off on a voyage of discovery.

The purpose of this book is not to encourage you to copy other designers’ work, but to help you make use of the rich underlying principles that knitwear designers have been employing for hundreds of years – that is, the underlying grammar – in your own work. The book will not explain how to use your knitting machine, as there are many excellent books available that do this. It is assumed that, as a machine knitter, you already know the basics and can make a garment.

Ideas and inspiration are all around us, yet it is sometimes difficult to focus and hone in on one particular stimulus. Many designs will be a combination of several original ideas and elements, which all create a finished product. To help with this process you need to gather ideas and be open to inspiration wherever you are, and whatever you are doing, and you must not be afraid to accept that this process will lead to both success and failure.

CULTURE

All around the world countries have historic heritage patterns and designs that have stood the test of time, and are still being used as an inspiration and reinterpretation for contemporary designs. Regions within countries have used specific colour combinations and decorative symbols and have redesigned these, incorporating elements into their knitting, embroidery or weaving – in the UK you need only look at the differences in the classic fabric design heritage between England, Scotland and Wales, or the differences in typical design signifiers used by the Amish, the Native Americans and the descendants of the original Swedish immigrants in the USA state of Pennsylvania. Within each culture and sub-culture many of these classic design motifs are used repeatedly across a variety of crafts and skills, acknowledging that they have their origins deep within society.

Design, textile, costume, ethnographic and fashion museums such as the Victoria & Albert and the Fashion and Textile Museum, both in London, the Anna Wintour Costume Center at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the Musée de la Mode et du Textile and the Musée Galliera in Paris, and the Kyoto Costume Institute in Tokyo, hold a wealth of indigenous, ingenious, innovative and revelatory ideas – most of which can help to inspire your thoughts, and be reimagined when designing new knitted shapes or patterns. Proportions can be altered and colour combinations reimagined to create a unique and contemporary interpretation.

A wave of nostalgia and comfort is triggered in me by the sight of a Fairisle cardigan – a reminder of childhood perhaps. Although originally rather rough and scratchy to touch, the patterns were always uplifting with their joyful colour combinations. Yarn production has moved on considerably since the Prince of Wales was famously portrayed wearing a Fairisle top in the 1920s. Shetland wool is now easy care and soft to the touch, and the colour palette has been dramatically extended to include mixes reminiscent of the seas and heathery glens in the islands of the Inner and Outer Hebrides. Plaids, tartans and herringbone patterns all work well when placed alongside any Fairisle border or stripe.

The Kimono from Japan has influenced many Western designers for at least the past 150 years. Its unstructured, loose and relatively simple T-shape, together with its richly ornamented combination of geometric and naturalistic patterns, and bold but sympathetic colour combinations, continue to be a rich source of inspiration for designers – not only when studying shape, but also stitch pattern. An example of how this can be applied to contemporary design can be found in the Mulberry Blossom pattern.

You may find these other sources of classic design inspiring:

* Peruvian knitwear with its rainbow fluorescent colours knitted into stripes of animal motifs.

* Indian block-printed fabrics and sari border colour combinations using an array of orange, terracotta, ochre and gold juxtaposed with emerald green, peacock blue and turquoise. If you place these colours in a stitch pattern on a ground of navy or deep red, the resulting knitted fabric will fizz and sing.

* Ancient Mexican motifs of stylized animals and birds, and the naturally dyed yarn colours of the large blanket ponchos.

* Scandinavian sweaters, with their pared back colours and the variety of motifs and border patterns that are easily adaptable for the knitting machine.

* Russia and other Eastern European countries such as Greece, Latvia, Romania and the Ukraine all have a national dress that embraces wonderful embroidered motifs and spirited colour combinations.

* Switzerland has its own traditional shapes and styles that exude individual character.

BOOKS AND PATTERNS

As well as considering textiles, another great resource to look into for inspiration are pattern books. These range from the 1856 masterpiece The Grammar of Ornament by Owen Jones, through to a wide selection of facsimile historical decorative pattern and cross-stitch books published both commercially and via museums, and to publications illustrating and explaining the major design influences of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. These are all excellent sources of inspiration for a single motif or for an all-over pattern, as well as helping to decide on a choice of colours. Elements can be isolated and utilized, and a small stitch pattern can be adapted sensitively and extended into an elaborate border.

Vintage knitting pattern books.

Lest we forget our own heritage, vintage hand-knitting patterns can be a valuable source of shape inspiration, with each decade of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries having its own distinct silhouette. For example, the 1930s created a distinct fitted shape with slightly puff sleeves and a stitch texture of lace and the use of cables as surface decoration, while the 1960s favoured the ‘Sloppy Joe’ loose V neck. All these shapes are readily adaptable for the knitting machine.

KEY CONSIDERATIONS AND ORIGINALITY

After reading this book, your aim should be to consider and adapt elements that appeal to you; then add your own design surprises to create an innovative and wearable garment with a unique character. It is not to be unoriginal, or to copy other designers’ work verbatim.

When you discover a vintage or contemporary knitted garment, study the silhouette on the hanger or model. Consider the proportions – is it boxy, long, short, fitted or unstructured? Where is the main focus? Is it tied up with the stitch pattern, the relaxed shape, dropped shoulder, fitted sleeve or the high gathered sleeve? Look at the garment in detail and consider it from all angles – notice how it has been displayed and in what context. Thinking about all these different aspects will help you to broaden and deepen your own knowledge, and help you to understand and eliminate details that don’t spark any interest in you, whilst highlighting any ideas that can be adopted and adapted within your own practice. This process will stimulate new stitch textures, shapes and colour choices when next planning or adding to your own archive of design ideas.

Unless you are designing a garment to shock (and who doesn’t do this sometimes), avoid extreme gimmicks such as wide, exaggerated shoulders or voluminous bell cuffs, as they date an item quickly and do not stand the test of time. Throwing every element into one design results in confusion, and does not produce a wearable garment for years to come.

Sweaters and cardigans in any fibres can be dressed up or down. A simple shaped garment will also create added value to other items in any wardrobe. For example, big thick cardigans can be worn as jackets outside. The simplest shapes work best for all figures and are more versatile when deciding stitch patterns and yarn choice.

There are also practical aspects to consider. For example, when and with what is the garment to be worn? Is it an occasion or everyday piece? Try to design for both, and make the garment adaptable as this is value for money and sustainable. Do not design just for ‘best’ wear or a few occasional outings as the item will spend most of its life residing in the back of a wardrobe and that is no life for a cardigan or sweater! The summer and winter seasons have merged and there is no such thing as day and evening wear which makes it essential that any design is truly versatile. The majority of clothing should be able to be worn all year round and in any setting, to create a sustainable value for any item of knitwear.

Always design a shape for the present that will stand the test of fashionable time.

CHAPTER 2

SUSTAINABLE OPTIONS FOR KNITWEAR DESIGNERS

When designing knitwear, we cannot ignore the fact that we are using a raw material and so should be mindful of our impact on our planet. In 1987, the United Nations Brundtland Commission defined sustainability as ‘meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’. Today, there are almost 140 developing countries in the world seeking ways of meeting their development needs whilst being mindful of the increasing threat of climate change. Sustainability is everyone’s responsibility, not just that of our governments, and many of us are now realizing that this is a problem that needs addressing and at a quicker pace than in the past. According to the UN, the three pillars of sustainability are economic, social and environmental.

The economic pillar addresses the production of what we are making, and also looks at consumerism. We should not be making a profit out of any form of exploitative labour, either human or environmental. This also considers the financial benefits from a change in sustainable attitudes with the reduction of materials, energy and water. This will inevitably reduce our global footprint, and there is a direct beneficial correlation between sustainability and the economy.

The social pillar considers the people we are living with, our fellow human beings worldwide. To have a truly sustainable society we must develop and support education, security and leisure, and pass laws to ensure this in order to have a healthy society.

The environmental pillar considers how to protect and preserve our environment and natural resources. We must consider our impact on the environment, and make informed choices when we buy materials and consider how we run our businesses.

Each of these three pillars should work in harmony, and if we inform ourselves as to what is happening in our world, we will develop ideas and strategies to encourage change, which is both sustainable and beneficial to the environment.

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The production, distribution and disposal phases of the clothing life cycle all create environmental impacts, but extending a garment’s active life via design, maintenance and the reuse of clothing is an effective method of reducing our environmental sustainability impact. Decisions you make during the design and development process can significantly affect the extent to which the garments you create are sustainable. Product longevity is one of the key sustainability issues, which can play a part in minimizing the overall environmental impact of the finished garment. Ethical consumerism has resulted in a market for ethical fashion, defined as ‘fashionable clothes that incorporate Fairtrade principles with sweatshop-free labour conditions while not harming the environment or workers, by using biodegradable and organic cotton’. Fairtrade clothing is a type of sustainable clothing defined as ‘a trading partnership, based on dialogue, transparency and respect, that seeks greater equity in international trade, and the Fairtrade certification looks to provide an independent guarantee that disadvantaged producers in the developing world are getting a better deal’.

Clothing production is responsible for one of the major sustainability impacts on society and the environment, so sustainability is an important issue for the knitwear designer to consider. Due to a rise in the amount of clothing being purchased as ‘Fast Fashion’, the production and processing phases of the clothing life cycle are creating increasing environmental impacts. Post-purchase clothing care and maintenance also has a detrimental impact on the environment, and the product design and development process can affect a garment’s sustainability during usage and eventual recycling or disposal.

FAST FASHION

The waste from fashion is a problem that has significantly increased due to the growth of ‘Fast Fashion’. Fast Fashion garments are designed and produced within a relatively short timescale, thrive on frequently changing trends and consequent obsolescence, and are incompatible with the notion of sustainability, with over one million tonnes of clothes being discarded annually in the UK.

The problems inherent with Fast Fashion, and an increasing awareness of its negative sustainability impacts, have encouraged the development of the Slow Fashion movement, which respects resources and slows down the rate at which we consume them. Sustainable Slow Fashion has become prominent along with the desire for ethical consumerism, which has created demand from consumers for more sustainable goods, and considers various stakeholder needs, prioritizing quality over quantity as a more sustainable alternative to Fast Fashion.

SLOW FASHION

Perceptions that sustainable clothing is unfashionable have been overcome in recent years, with a growing awareness of Slow Fashion, and the launch of fashion exhibitions featuring sustainable clothing at international fashion weeks. In addition, a wider selection of sustainable clothing has become available on the UK market during the last decade with Marks & Spencer, H&M, Vivienne Westwood, People Tree and Linda Loudermilk all embracing the concept, so indicating a more widespread acceptance internationally of the sustainable clothing philosophy.

Sustainable clothing can fall into various categories, an example being garments made from organic cotton, which is produced without pesticides. Though it makes up only 0.04 per cent of the global cotton market, organic cotton is a yarn used frequently in the production of sustainable textiles and clothing. Clothing retailers such as Patagonia sell clothing made from organic cotton, as well as other sustainable fabrics including fleece manufactured from recycled bottles.

Sustainability is recognized as an important issue for clothing designers, with increasing demand from consumers for products that are environmentally and socially sustainable. Interest in sustainable clothing production and consumption is growing, but is difficult to always manage successfully, with some major fashion brands and retailers receiving negative publicity, and accusations that some of their products are manufactured in conditions that compromise social sustainability.

FAIRTRADE

Fairtrade is a system of certification that aims to ensure that a set of standards is met in the production and supply of a product or ingredient. For farmers and workers, Fairtrade means protected workers’ rights, safer working conditions and fairer pay. For consumers it means high quality, ethically produced products.

For the knitwear designer Fairtrade encompasses questions such as the working conditions of people employed in the growing and production of the yarn, looking for evidence that the employees are making a living wage, that health and safety requirements are abided by, and where animals are involved, ensuring that they receive fair treatment, good living conditions and a cruelty-free environment.

Find out where your yarn originates from. If you have a favourite supplier, where and how do they source their yarn? Does your yarn have Fairtrade certification? If not, is your supplier Fairtrade compliant?

CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND SUSTAINABILITY

The rapid increase in the size of the sustainable clothing market implies that although customers are concerned about sustainability, their actions can suggest otherwise, since some consumers who profess to hold ethical views often do not transfer their intentions into ethical purchasing behaviours. Even environmentally aware customers make purchase decisions influenced primarily by economic and personal factors, as well as being based on sustainability, with many buying low-priced clothing from value retailers, despite being aware of the potential environmental impact of their actions, and the fact that this clothing is unlikely to be durable.

Customers also view the main sustainability issue related to clothing to be at the manufacturing stage. However, laundering clothes has a greater impact upon the environment than the initial production. Customers are, however, generally reluctant to wash clothing at low temperatures in case this compromises cleanliness.

Sustainable fashion requires us to rethink how we source our yarns and what we knit with them. It is impossible at the moment to be 100 per cent sustainable, but this should not prevent us from trying to do better. We must consider what we are producing with regard to the bigger picture – for instance:

* What is the expected life cycle of the garment that we are making?

* How do we intend to make it? Consider the design, and the source of the raw materials and their production.

* How will the finished item be transported or stored? How do you intend to market it, and finally sell it?

* How can the knitted fabric be used, reused, repaired, remade, and recycled or upcycled?

Changing consumer mindsets is never easy, as it requires a lot of awareness and resilience to make genuine progress towards sustainable consumption. Consumers can also find it hard to know when a garment is sustainable, and a number of consumers choose not to buy items labelled as sustainable, due to the fear of ‘greenwashing’ marketing campaigns.

A distinct location or origin can provide uniqueness, authenticity and meaning to a garment. There is, however, a disappointing homogeneity in branded fashion around the world – you see the same garments by the same designers for sale in London, Luxembourg, Lusaka, Lima, La Paz and Lisbon – however, the movement to buy local products can act as a countertrend to that sameness, and building a connection to a place with your designs can celebrate a unique culture that has meaning and relevance for both local and international customers.

In your designs you can try to reverse environmental damage by looking for organic or more environmentally friendly products, but a major challenge for the knitwear designer lies in the difficulty they have in effectively communicating their sustainability values and principles. This is because it is not enough to be sustainable, it is also necessary to evidence this sustainability in the range of garments you produce, and in how you position your product range in the marketplace.

YARN TYPES AND SUSTAINABILITY

As a knitwear designer you have access to a wide range of yarns, from those derived from plants and animals, to those produced from mineral sources. In this section we will consider the sustainability of the different yarn types, so that you can be better informed as to the environmental impact of different yarn types.

Yarns.

The yarns that you use in your knitting start out as fibres. Textile fibres include natural fibres that are agricultural products from plants (for example cotton) or animals (for example wool), and manufactured fibres that are industrial products. Manufactured fibres can be further categorized into regenerated fibres that use natural polymers (for example cellulose from wood or bamboo) as the starting material in fibre production, and synthetic fibres that are synthesized from small molecules (for example derived from oil or coal).

Fibre classifications.

Plant-Based Fibres

The main component of plant fibres is cellulose, and plant fibres are generally considered by the consumer to be more environmentally friendly than synthetic fibres. This is because the growth of plants results in sequestration of CO2 from the atmosphere, natural plant cultivation consumes less energy than the production of synthetic polymers and fibres, natural plant fibres are produced from renewable resources, and at the end of their lifecycle they are biodegradable.

Cotton: Cotton is the most common natural fibre used for clothing. It is a cellulose fibre that grows in a ball around the seeds of the cotton plant (gossypium), and has soft and fluffy staple fibres.

Jute: Jute is a type of bast (the phloem or inner bark surrounding the stem) fibre composed of cellulose, lignin and pectin. It is extracted from the stem of the jute plant.

Linen: Linen fibres are extracted from flax plants and contain about 70 per cent cellulose.

Hemp: Hemp is a bast fibre extracted from the stalk of hemp plants that grow well in soils that are well drained, rich in nitrogen and non-acidic.

Animal-Based Fibres

Animal fibres are based on proteins, generally keratin, or sericin and fibroin. Keratin-based fibres include sheep wool, alpaca, angora, cashmere, camel and mohair. Other keratin-based animal fibres include fur and human hair. Silk consists of two main proteins, sericin and fibroin, fibroin being the structural centre of the silk, and sericin the sticky material surrounding it.

Wool: Wool is the hair from a sheep or lamb, and is a 100 per cent natural fibre. It is normally obtained through shearing. Lambswool, Merino, Shetland, Donegal and Icelandic Lopi are all sheep or lamb-based yarns. Tibetan fur refers to the white wool of the Tibetan lamb.

Cashmere and mohair: Cashmere and mohair are the hair of goats and are 100 per cent natural fibres. Mohair comes from the Angora goat, and cashmere from the Cashmere goat. Pashmina is a fine variant of spun cashmere.

Cashmere yarns.

Angora: Angora hair or fibre is the downy coat produced by the Angora rabbit, and is a 100 per cent natural fibre. Most breeds of Angora rabbit moult, with their natural growth cycle about every four months, and it is normally this moulted fibre that is used in yarn production.

Other animal hair fibres: The camel family includes camel, alpaca, llama and vicuna, and the wool is obtained by shearing. Chiengora wool is a yarn obtained from dog hair. Shahtoosh is made from the hair of the Tibetan antelope (Chiru). As the Chiru is an endangered species under CITES, the possession and sale of shahtoosh is illegal in most countries.

Silk: Silk is a natural protein fibre produced by certain insect larvae to form cocoons. The best known silk is obtained from the cocoons of the larvae of the mulberry silkworm, Bombyx Mori.

Regenerated Fibres

Regenerated fibres are man-made fibres produced from a natural source, with plant-derived cellulose being the most common building block. The production of regenerated fibres is energy intensive.

Viscose rayon (modal): Viscose rayon is the first manufactured fibre, having been patented in England by Sir Joseph Swan in 1892. It is produced from natural cellulose materials such as tree trunks, bamboo and plant stalks. Modal is a type of rayon made from reconstituted beech tree cellulose, which is stronger, lighter and more breathable than viscose rayon. Viscose rayon/ modal is soft to the touch, drapes well, and is breathable, moisture absorbent and biodegradable.

Lyocell (Tencel/ SeaCell): To develop a more environmentally friendly regenerated cellulose fibre to replace viscose rayon, the UK firm Courtaulds developed lyocell (trade mark Tencel) commercially in the 1990s. Lyocell production is judged to be more eco-friendly than the method used for viscose rayon or modal, as it uses an organic solution in its production rather than the sodium hydroxide used in making viscose rayon/ modal. SeaCell is a type of lyocell that is based on dried algae seaweed rather than on plant material.

Synthetic Fibres

Synthetic fibres are synthesized from small molecules derived from oil or coal. They are manufactured by the extrusion of liquid through fine holes in a spinneret, the liquid jets then being drawn, stretched and hardened to form a continuous filament, or spun/staple yarns, with the required characteristics. The production of synthetic fibres is energy intensive.

Polyester: Polyester is a long-chain synthetic polymer and is the most commonly used fibre, accounting for 55 per cent of all fibre consumption worldwide. It can be used on its own, or blended with other fibres such as cotton, silk or wool.

Nylon: Nylon is a long-chain synthetic polyamide developed by DuPont in the 1920s, and was the first commercially successful synthetic fibre. Nylon is now mostly found blended with other fibres such as cotton, polyester or spandex.

Acrylic (modacrylic): DuPont created acrylic fibre in 1941 under the name Orlon. It is a long-chain synthetic polymer manufactured initially as a filament, then cut into short staple lengths similar to wool hairs, which are then spun into yarn. It has good durability and wear resistance, strong resistance to sunlight, resistance to all biological and many chemical agents such as diluted acids and alkalis and organic solvents, and resistance to oxidation.

Modacrylic fibres are synthetic co-polymers that were first produced in 1949 by the Union Carbide Corporation. Modacrylic fibres have similar properties to acrylic fibres, but in addition are flame retardant and non-combustible.

Spandex (elastane/lycra): Spandex was developed commercially by DuPont in 1959 and is a long-chain synthetic polymer based on polyurethane. It is lightweight, abrasion resistant, soft, smooth, supple and highly elastic – it can be stretched repetitively to over 500 per cent of its original length and still recover its original length.

The production of both regenerated and synthetic fibres is an energy-intensive process.

CONCLUSIONS

The major environmental issues associated with the production of knitted garments are:

*Energy use in laundry, the production of primary yarns especially for man-made fibres, and in yarn manufacturing of natural fibres.

*The use of toxic chemicals that may harm human health and the environment – in particular in conventional cotton production.

*The release of chemicals in waste water – especially in wet pre-treatment, dyeing, finishing and laundry – which may harm water-based life.

*Solid waste arising from yarn manufacturing of natural and other fibres, and the making up and disposal of products at the end of their life.

Interest in the environment among consumers has been growing in recent years, and more people are becoming aware of green alternatives to regular products. It is, however, difficult to see whether, for example, a cotton garment has been made from conventional or organic cotton, or dyed with non-toxic or harmful dye stuffs, just by looking at it. Eco labels are helpful guidelines, but there is a confusing array of ‘eco’ labelling schemes, not all of which certificate to an internationally recognized standard.

There are barriers to changing to a more sustainable future, and changes in the sourcing, production, use and reuse of clothing to reduce environmental impact and promote social equity will only occur if driven by consumer choice. In order to create change, you would need to consider adopting many of the following good practices:

Buy second-hand clothing and textiles where possible: The idea of taking used clothing to a charity shop, clothing bank or second-hand dress agency is well established in the UK, and around 30 per cent of clothing is recycled in this way in the UK. If not fit to be reworn or reused, then dispose of used clothing and textiles through recycling businesses that will extract and recycle the yarn or fibres.

Buy fewer, more durable garments and textile products: There is a clear environmental disadvantage to Fast Fashion – the most sustainable management of clothing and textiles products would be to use them until the end of their ‘natural’ life. However, Fast Fashion assumes a rapid turnover of clothing that is discarded long before the item has reached the end of its useful life.

Lease clothes: Lease clothes are clothes that would otherwise not be worn to the end of their natural life. Initially the idea of leasing clothing rather than purchasing it seems unattractive to many consumers, however, leasing is already common practice for formal and evening wear, where the clothes are worn for a specific short-term purpose such as a wedding.

Repair clothes: Repairing extends the useful life of clothing and textile products. However, the practice of repairing clothes has declined, influenced by two factors. The first is price deflation in the global clothing market, leading to customers viewing clothes as disposable items. The second is the decline in sewing and darning skills, which has contributed towards the frequent disposal of clothes that could have been repaired relatively easily. Clothing supplied through leasing arrangements is regularly repaired, so adding to sustainability.

Be energy conscious: When buying new clothes, choose those made using the least energy and producing the lowest toxic emissions, made by workers paid a credible living wage with reasonable employment rights and conditions. It is not always obvious which alternative uses least energy – a recent study estimated that it took 109MJ of energy to make the material, manufacture, transport, use and clean, and dispose of a cotton T-shirt, whereas a viscose blouse consumes 44MJ of energy to make the material, manufacture, transport, use and clean, and dispose of it – the dominant impact between the two garments being the washing of the cotton T-shirt.

Wash clothes less often: Also wash them at lower temperatures using eco-detergents, hang-dry them, and avoid ironing where possible.

Swap yarn with another knitter: Everyone has yarn they haven’t used for months, years even. Pass it to another knitter and swop with another yarn that inspires – and of course use it!

Buy second-hand or end-of-range yarn: Buy second-hand yarn – there is lots available. Many yarn buyers buy too much or have simply not used it, so be prepared to buy second hand. Very often you can source small cones of yarn in a variety of textures and qualities direct from mills that have them left over from a run. This will encourage your designing skills to create a piece using this yarn. It can be mixed in with other colours and lengths to make an interesting marled yarn.

Buy local: The transportation of yarn and machinery causes large amounts of CO2. This can be minimized by buying locally. It is worth looking up local yarn spinners or suppliers. Question if the yarn is completely local, as there are some mixes that incorporate other yarns that are not spun locally but are imported. Sometimes it is just not possible to obtain the quantity and quality you require, but this should not prevent us from trying.

Minimalism: Only buy the yarn you need. Do not stockpile and continue to buy yarn when you have an attic or work room that is already overflowing.

Buy organic: When buying yarn ask if it is free from pesticides. How was it produced? For example, there are many wool spinners in the UK, so did they use local wool, and if so, from what breed of sheep? They will be able to tell you where it was sourced. Organically produced yarns tend to have a smaller carbon footprint than those produced with chemical assistance. Some companies trumpet the ‘organic’ label but this can be misleading and is not a guarantee of any sort of quality. For example, most organic cotton uses large amounts of water in its production.

Use eco-friendly yarns: A sustainable yarn is one that is biodegradable and has been produced and spun using a non-toxic method. Textiles release fibres to the environment during production, use, and at end-of-life disposal. Natural fibres are biodegradable, however there is a growing risk of ecological and human health issues associated with the release of non-biodegradable microfibres and nanofibres from yarns containing man-made fibres.

Use natural dyes: The raw materials are all either mineral or vegetable. Traceability and production should all be sustainable and transparent. The dying process is also important when considering sustainability. When yarn is dyed, how long does it take? Ideally under an hour. Does the process use cold water, and again, how much water? Is the water recycled? Is the dye colourfast to a standard? Are all the materials used tested and traceable to meet the standards of the environmental management? And is fair labour used in all processes?

You may not get the answers to all or any of these questions, but we must start to think about and reflect on the impact environmentally of our practice. It is difficult when there is so much malpractice in the world to be overwhelmed and not bother to try and make our own small changes but singly, we can make a difference and many people all making little changes can make a huge difference.

HOW TO REDUCE WASTE, REUSE AND UPCYCLE

The Japanese philosophy of wabi-sabi has its roots in Zen Buddhism, and is a world view centred on the acceptance of transience and imperfection, and of appreciating beauty that is imperfect, impermanent and incomplete. It is worth celebrating and acknowledging this sentiment in practice. If a piece of knitted fabric is damaged by a pulled thread, wear and tear or moth, this tells the story of the garment and its life so far. It is its patina, if you like, and this can have a beauty all of its own.

Repairing and mending sets up a rhythm and creates a meditative frame of mind, and instils a respect for the fabric and its history. Every piece of clothing is worthy of repair, and the knitted fabric lends itself to repair – either invisibly or with a glorious contrasting celebratory patch over a hole or threadbare area.

Repairing and reusing has always been a skill employed within my family. Patchwork quilts were stitched from various blouses and skirts, and socks were darned. Worn-out jumpers and cardigans were unpicked and the good yarn wound into skeins, washed, and weighted with a milk bottle to straighten the yarn when drying, and reknitted. It is no longer acceptable to discard clothing through boredom and lack of wear. Choose carefully and own what you need.

My knitting sweater with needle-hook damaged holes.

Patched sweater showing repair.

I love the idea of knitting small Fairisle patches and sewing them over the top of a hole. The underside of the repair and the surrounding loose threads can then be darned to anchor them firmly in place. When knitting the patch use a tighter tension than normal to keep the fabric firm. The repair is celebrated and becomes a design feature in itself.

CHAPTER 3

DESIGN BASICS

To successfully design an exciting and wearable knitted garment, your head, heart and hands must all work in unison. Design means change and trying something new, having an idea and working through it using your previous experiences and your current inspiration. Design means fresh problem solving, and questioning what has gone before.

To be a successful designer you need a receptive and open mind. The design process is both challenging and invigorating as it encompasses positive and constructive ideas – ‘same old, same old’ is abandoned, and the imagination comes into play as the spark of an original idea is explored and developed. Our design criteria have to adapt constantly to changing attitudes, your own preferences and outside influences.

The machine at work.

As the creative process takes place your vision is turned into reality, albeit working within the constraints of the materials and technology you have to hand. However, these constraints themselves can also be liberating, as too much choice can be mesmerizing and you become like rabbits caught in headlights wondering which avenue to explore, rooted to the spot and exploring none. A simple idea for a design can be worked on, and layers that are added regarding shape, texture, colour, materials and function are all explored and made into a tangible piece of work that expresses the choices made, and reflects our ideals and experiences.

EXPERIMENTATION

To design is to create – it is not a repetition of previous ideas but the creation of an original piece of work. One catalyst for this can be the materials that we have available. Experimentation is the key: without copying what has gone before, use the materials in their simplest sense and play. Get to know them, the feel of them without stitch pattern or embellishments, and see what can be achieved.

When the character and possibilities of the materials have been realized, add pattern and texture, so building up both your aesthetic knowledge and a better understanding of their technical limitations.

* Will the materials respond to geometric stitch patterns, or is it better to use natural flowing forms and shapes?

* Do you need a sharper edge and a precise block of colour? If so, a marled variegated colour and random thickness will not work, but instead use a sleek, fine, flat yarn and colour, both of which will respond well to the pattern you are designing.

You are creating a fabric of value, which is then transferred into a piece of clothing or interior textile – therefore from conception to completion you are part of the catalyst, so you do need to consider where or who or what the fabric is for.

RECOGNIZING THE MARKET

Personal statements are all very well, but it is not practical for most designers to take weeks to make one piece, as you would not be able to recoup the costs of producing the garment with the selling price achievable in the market place. Financial constraints are unimportant if you are designing and knitting solely for pleasure and have unlimited funds at your disposal, but how much something costs to make, where you can sell it, what it can be sold for, and what margin you achieve are all critical factors to consider when running a business. When designing, consider whether you are adding cost or adding value – if the cost of adding a design tweak exceeds the value to your customer, then is it worthwhile?

It is unrealistic to work without any idea of specification and market, and it is a discipline that must be mastered, so it is true to say that the market is an element of the catalyst. Over the years some exceptional design students whom I have known have doggedly maintained a mantra of perfectionism, and will spend days and weeks creating a garment that is unsaleable, meaning that the creative design process has failed, and the garment produced is a personal statement rather than a business opportunity. Sadly, over the months they become disillusioned – but blaming the market is not acceptable, as the fault lies with the student not understanding, and failing to learn how to make the designs work in industry and the wider world. A knowledge of what the market wants and needs is important, as is how this can be produced to a cost without sacrificing quality and creativity. This applies to a sole trader as well as to a factory designer.

You must be adaptable when considering design, colour, proportion, shape and texture. Wonderful new and innovative yarns are being spun all the time, but a single colour, non fancy yarn may sell better. That is not to say that you only design what the public wants, because to an extent the designer has to create the demand, and then be able to supply that demand at an affordable price and with a realistic margin.

New ideas are always welcome and you must learn to trust your creativity and build on it. There is little point in copying what others are doing, as they are already doing it better and there is little or no room for creativity – aspects of outside influences will transfer into your work, but not as a slavish copy.

Fairisle knitting with wool using dried hydrangea colours.

It is much easier to have worked and experimented and developed your own idea, as it will have your signature in terms of colour, shape and style, so building your portfolio as an original designer. The customer has a choice, either to be receptive to a new design, or to reject it. Designers and the public need each other – this is a healthy relationship, with information flowing both ways.

FASHION AND FUNCTION

Designing beyond an initial idea and use of materials in an original way can invigorate your world. To make something practical as well as beautiful is the ideal aim, and how you use the materials that you have to express yourself can be a truly creative experience, out of which comes self-confidence, excitement and knowledge.

Not so long ago knitted items were out of fashion and were thought of as ‘fuddy duddy’ – however, this is no longer the case, with actors such as Russell Crowe, Ewan McGregor, Meryl Streep, Julia Roberts and Scarlett Johansson, also novelist Margaret Atwood, musician Ronnie Wood, and Olympic athlete Tom Daley all being keen to be photographed knitting.

Our relationship with design and colour changes constantly. At certain times of our lives, especially in a work setting, we may need to conform to a certain look and accept certain sartorial standards – there is a ‘correct’ way to dress that must be adhered to, the constraints of which can easily spill over into our private lives and affect our confidence as to what styles, shapes, designs and colours really suit us. Many people find it easier to conform to the pervading fashion, as they don’t know what suits them best – it is what they feel happiest and most at ease wearing, when anything else destroys confidence and comfort.

We like to express to the outside world which social group we belong to, or aspire to belong to. The line, shape and colour of clothing will relate all this information concerning your social status to an onlooker in a second. When designing it is possible to play with this idea, and juxtapose florescent colours with an otherwise dark and austere tweed suit, and mix traditional Fairisle patterns with florals. With today’s fashion it can be much more acceptable to wear something that is exciting and creative, although there will always be work situations that require a particular uniformity of look.

QUESTIONS AND CHOICES

Knitting is a truly democratic art, as everyone can design something. Imagination is the only boundary and this can be developed by you getting to know the materials and their limitations. With limitation can come liberation, and with a knowledge as to what can be achieved it is impossible not to put something of yourself into the design, a colour, or feeling, which makes any original design truly personal, and the joy is expressing this and sharing your idea and the process in a visual way.

Designing through knitting makes you responsible for your own actions. You are creating and making decisions and selecting choices, being critical of your actions and making spontaneous adjustments, so acquiring more knowledge and experience. When the fog begins to lift and the journey of the completed item is done you get a sense of achievement and pride, only for this to be replaced by a new idea and another experiment, which you will explore with an open mind.

It is vital to experiment with your materials and knitting machine, as trial and error is the key to progress and good design. What will work? What is possible? This knowledge will inform and encourage good technique and inspire your creativity and spontaneity, because your design process is built on a firm foundation.

Every design that uses a material, shape and colour will have limitations. For example, when thinking about fibre – what is its thickness? How elastic is it when knitted up? Will a change of stitch choice enhance or constrict this process? What is the interaction of adjacent colours? And does the overall aspect require a choice change? Knowing the answer to these questions will be liberating, and you will be free to express your ideas and execute them speedily, with you and your inspiration driving the process, rather than the process constricting you and becoming trite and frustrating. Always have an open mind when working on new ideas, and keep on experimenting!

Designing is expressing ourselves and allowing others to see what excites and makes us passionate. The results are there for all to see, and this will transfer to your audience – a social activity in fact!

USING YOUR SENSES

You need all your senses to be used to design happily – it is possible to hear and feel when the machine has dropped a stitch or is not working smoothly, so you need to get to know your machine and listen to it, and to the different sounds it makes. Different yarns make different sounds as they slide and glide through the yarn brake, so you can be aware of knots in the yarn before they become a hole. Feel the yarn as it knits, create a balanced rhythm and steady your breathing – work with an open mind, and keep referring to the materials being used and be responsive to them, react to them, and be flexible and prepared to change your method or idea as required.

GOOD PRACTICES

With practice, you will gain knowledge and confidence, and this will increase your flexibility, so concentrate on what you don’t know rather than on aspects you are familiar with, as this will broaden and enlighten the work. Accept what you do know and build on it – try other stitches and shapes, and educate yourself constantly through the senses. Does it feel right? Is it fit for the intended purpose? And did you enjoy the processes of making it? And if not, why not?

Keep asking questions of yourself and your work. It is not always necessary to have a finished piece of work in mind, as experimentation and revisiting a known technique or method, utilizing a new or untried yarn or stitch or machine, can be actively investigated and creative problems solved through a process of refinement. This will build up a knowledge that can sit in the back of your mind for years in gestation, but will prove invaluable one day on a new design project. Life will always be challenging, and it is your response to these challenges that makes you the person you are.

Challenges are opportunities in the making, and finding solutions to those challenges through knitting can allow you to identify a new and creative design project. The rhythm within knitting, the carriage sliding back and forth, and the geometry within the stitch patterns, such as the honeycomb repeat, offset, climbing its way up the knitted fabric – the rhythm links your head, heart and hands in a positive way, and the order, sequences and your coordination become the essence of knitting.

The rhythm of our work finds cohesion in good design, whereby the completed design is a narrative of our thought processes – it articulates the continued discoveries, and is a tangible expression of the mind in motion. The journey and process is as important as the final piece. The act of machine knitting is like dancing, holding up the yarn with the left hand while pulling the carriage back and forth in a steady flow of movement. Each pull and push has a purpose as it builds on the previous movement. Each row is dynamic, and a taut length of yarn is transformed into an elastic fabric that expresses your own individuality and creates a historical document of your process and practice: rhythm and motion, rhythm and repetition, row after row, creating a dynamic design. By focusing on this steady rhythm, the breath is steadied and it takes on the rhythm of the movement: changing the yarn and the colours, allowing them to thread gently through the fingers creating a soft movement of fluidity and an even tension. The slight changes and variations within the texture and structure of the fabric are witness to the handmade aspect of the design.