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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
Explore the world of crime and punishment Police, forensics, and detective stories dominate our TV screens and bookshelves--from fictional portrayals such as Silence of the Lambs and Law and Order to lurid accounts of real-life super-criminals like Pablo Escobar and Al Capone. As well as being horribly fascinating, knowledge of what makes criminals tick is crucial to governments, who spend billions of dollars each year trying to keep their people safe. Criminology brings disciplines like psychology, biology, and economics together to help police and society solve crimes--and to prevent them before they even happen. The new edition of Criminology For Dummies shines a light into the dark recesses of the criminal mind and goes behind-the-scenes with society's response to crime, putting you right on the mean streets with cops and criminals alike. Along the way, you'll learn everything a rookie needs to survive, including basic definitions of what a crime is and how it's measured; common criminal motivations, thinking, and traits; elementary crime-solving techniques; the effects on and rights of victims; and more. * Understand types of crime, from white-collar to organized to terror attacks * Follow law-enforcement officials and agencies as they hunt the bad guys * Meet key players in criminal justice and see how and why the guilty are punished * Check out jobs in the field Whether you plan to enter the criminal justice field or just want to know more about what turns some people to the dark side--and how the thin blue line fights back--this is your perfect guide to criminology basics.
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Criminology For Dummies®, 2nd Edition
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Criminology For Dummies®
To view this book's Cheat Sheet, simply go to www.dummies.com and search for “Criminology For Dummies Cheat Sheet” in the Search box.
Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Introduction
About This Book
Foolish Assumptions
Icons Used in This Book
Beyond the Book
Where to Go from Here
Part 1: Defining and Measuring Crime
Chapter 1: Entering the World of Crime
Defining the Terms: What Crime Is and How You Measure It
Recognizing the Various Costs of Crime
Considering Categories of Crime
Figuring Out What Makes Someone Commit a Crime
Waging a War against Crime
Bringing Criminals to Justice
Chapter 2: What Is Crime?
Understanding the Two Categories of Criminal Activity
Identifying Elements of a Criminal Law
Linking Criminal Behavior to Cultural Mores
Chapter 3: How Crime Is Measured and Why It Matters
Gathering Crime Stats: How Much Crime Is There?
Putting Crime Stats to Use
Considering the Costs of Crime
Chapter 4: Helping Those in the Wake of Crime: Victims
Looking at the Historical Treatment of Victims
Identifying the Impact of Crime on Victims
Pinpointing Who Is Likely to Be Victimized
Expanding Victim Services in the 21st Century
Observing the Laws That Protect Victims’ Rights
Part 2: Identifying Types of Crime
Chapter 5: Getting Violent: Crimes of Force
Identifying Types of Violent Crimes
Defining Homicide
Attacking or Threatening Someone: Assault and Battery
Forcing Sexual Contact: Rape, Sodomy, and Child Molestation
Taking Property under the Threat of Violence: Robbery
Kidnapping
Pinpointing Causes of Violence
Chapter 6: Hitting You in the Pocketbook: Property Crimes
Categorizing Types of Theft
Defining Property Damage
Looking at the Causes of Property Crime
Chapter 7: Dressing Sharp and Stealing Big: White-Collar Crimes
Identifying Types of White-Collar Crime
The Challenges of Investigating White-Collar Crime
Prosecuting and Punishing White-Collar Crime
Chapter 8: A Group Effort: Organized Crime and Gangs
Grasping the Basics of Organized Crime
Obsessing over the Italian Mafia
Identifying Other Ethnic-Based Organized Crime Groups
Looking at What Organized Crime Groups Do
Fighting Organized Crime
Getting an Inside Scoop on Criminal Gangs
Chapter 9: Tackling a Worldwide Problem: The Narcotics Trade
The Global Workings of Dealing Drugs
Treating Drug Users
Working to Prevent Drug Abuse
Chapter 10: Front-Page News: Terrorism
Structuring Terrorist Threats
Recognizing Types of Terrorist Threats in the U.S.
Acting Out of Hate: Distinguishing Hate Crimes
Fighting Back against Terrorism
Part 3: Figuring Out Who Commits Crimes and Why
Chapter 11: What Factors Lead to Crime?
Noting Personal Characteristics That Many Criminals Share
Looking at the Impact of Societal Conditions on Crime
Studying the Impact of Atmospheric Changes
Chapter 12: Regarding Crime as a Rational Decision: Rational Choice Theory
Taking a Quick Tour through Classical Theory
Calculating the Benefits and Drawbacks of Crime
Creating Rational Deterrents to Crime
Examining the Limits of Rational Choice Theory
Chapter 13: Looking at Society’s Role in Crime
Introducing Social Disorganization Theory
Studying Strain Theory
Considering Social Learning Theories
Delving into Social Control Theories
Chapter 14: Can Your Mind or Body Make You a Criminal?
Biological Positivism: Trying to Link Appearance to Crime
Wrestling with the Influence of Genetics
Blaming the Brain
Struggling with Mental Illness
Dealing with a Personality Disorder
Chapter 15: Critical Criminology: Theories off the Beaten Path
Considering Someone a Criminal: Labeling Theory
Exploring Feminist Theory
Examining Leftist Realism: A Response to Law and Order
Making Peace with Peacemaking Theory
Seeking Healing through Restorative Justice
Part 4: Fighting Crime
Chapter 16: Battling Crime at the Local Level
Keeping the Streets Clean: The Players at the Local Level
Thinking about Theories of Policing
Chapter 17: Tackling Crime at the Federal Level
Sorting through the Alphabet Soup of Federal Agencies
Coordinating Federal and Local Efforts
Chapter 18: Solving Crimes: The Process
Responding to a Crime Scene
Using Special Crime-Fighting Tools and Techniques
Part 5: Prosecuting and Punishing Crime
Chapter 19: Seeking Justice in Court: The Players and Their Roles
Prosecutors: Guardians of Safety
Defense Attorneys: Guardians of Liberty
Trial Judges: Overseeing the Justice Process
Appellate Judges: Setting Legal Precedents
Chapter 20: Finding the Truth: Pleading Guilty or Going to Trial
Keeping It Local: Municipal Courts
Movin’ On Up: State Court Systems
Affecting the Whole Nation: The Federal Court System
Negotiating a Plea Agreement
Suppressing Evidence (or Not): The Pretrial Hearing
Facing a Jury (or a Judge): The Process
Chapter 21: Punishing the Guilty: Why and How Society Does It
Understanding Theories of Punishment and Incarceration
Placing Defendants in Custody
Facing Challenges in the Prison System
Placing Defendants on Probation
Debating the Death Penalty
Chapter 22: Examining the Juvenile Justice System
Looking Back: The Historical Treatment of Juveniles
Why Juveniles Are Treated Differently
Walking through the Juvenile Justice Process
Treating a Juvenile like an Adult
Eyeing Modern Trends in Juvenile Justice
Part 6: The Part of Tens
Chapter 23: Ten Jobs to Consider in Criminal Justice
Police Officer
Corrections Officer
Forensic Scientist
Computer Forensic Specialist
Crime and Intelligence Analysts
Probation Officer
Juvenile Counselor
Crime Victim Advocate
Legal or Law Enforcement Administrative Assistant
Court Reporter
Chapter 24: Ten Notorious, Unsolved Crimes
The JonBenet Ramsey Murder
The Sam Sheppard Case
The Zodiac Killer
The Murder of Robert Blake’s Wife
The Murder of Seattle Prosecutor Tom Wales
The D. B. Cooper Hijacking
The Black Dahlia Murder
The Jack the Ripper Killings
The Disappearance of Jimmy Hoffa
The Murders of Tupac Shakur and Notorious B.I.G.
Index
About the Author
Advertisement Page
Connect with Dummies
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 23
TABLE 23-1 Police Officer Starting Salaries in 2020
List of Illustrations
Chapter 3
FIGURE 3-1: The U.S. violent crime rate has dropped fairly steadily since 1991....
FIGURE 3-2: The clearance rates for various crimes in 2018.
FIGURE 3-3: The cost of police protection since 2000.
Chapter 5
FIGURE 5-1: The cycle of domestic violence.
Chapter 6
FIGURE 6-1: The burglary rate per 100,000 households from 2000 to 2019.
Chapter 9
FIGURE 9-1: Heroine/fentanyl-involved overdose deaths.
FIGURE 9-2: The THC content of concentrated marijuana, 1995-2018.
FIGURE 9-3: The rise of fentanyl seizures sent to DEA labs, 2005-2017.
Chapter 11
FIGURE 11-1: The number of arrests made per age group in 2019.
FIGURE 11-2: Per-capita crime rates in each U.S. region.
Chapter 12
FIGURE 12-1: The clearance rates for various crimes in 2018.
Chapter 18
FIGURE 18-1: The castoff stain from a knife.
FIGURE 18-2: A drip stain that fell straight down.
Chapter 24
FIGURE 24-1: The symbol of the Zodiac killer.
Guide
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
About the Author
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Introduction
Crime is fascinating. How else can you explain why, as I’m preparing this second edition, 13 of the top 20 TV shows focus on criminal investigations and six of the top 13 podcasts are about true crime? But the study of crime is not only fascinating, it’s also terribly important. The U.S. and state governments (and, in turn, every U.S. taxpayer) spend hundreds of billions of dollars every year combating crime. In 2020, large-scale protests over concerns about racism in our criminal justice system spread across the U.S., leading some to question whether funding of law enforcement is money well spent. Others urge even more spending to deal with a sudden rise in violent crime.
I’ve spent most of my career fighting crime at the local, state, and federal levels. I’ve worked with just about every category of law enforcement professional there is, from detectives to probation officers to terrorism experts to judges. And of the thousands of people I’ve known, I can count on one hand the number of people who weren’t committed to something larger than themselves — to serving their fellow human beings. If you’re considering joining these men and women in their fight against crime, or if you’re just curious how the entire criminal justice system works, you’ve picked up the right book.
Here, I explore both the world of crime and society’s response to it. Both topics are fascinating, exciting, and extremely vast. From the gangbanger who sells eight balls of crack on the street corner to the defense attorney fighting for his client’s rights, to the cop who’s just trying to get home to her family, I try to explain what people do and why they do it.
About This Book
Criminology For Dummies, 2nd Edition, isn’t a textbook (although, if you’re a student, it may help you understand your criminology textbook). It’s meant to give you an insider’s look into the world of crime and criminal justice. Throughout the book, I try to make the concepts and principles of criminology come alive, because nothing is more real than personally experiencing crime.
I try very hard to avoid the use of complex terms in this book. As a prosecutor who has stood in front of numerous juries, I know that the secret to communicating is using straightforward language. Some of the ideas in criminology are complex, but their explanations don’t have to be.
If you’re considering a career in criminal justice, you should know that I don’t pull any punches in this book. If I think a job is tough, I tell you so and give you the reasons why. But I also try to explain the job objectively so you can decide for yourself whether it’s the right move for you.
If you picked up this book simply because you’re fascinated by crime, you may want to set this book on the nightstand next to your collection of works by Ann Rule, Sue Grafton, Patricia Cornwell, James Patterson, or the hundreds of other writers who make crime — at least the fictional kind — fun.
So we’re sure to be on the same page, so to speak, I use the following general conventions throughout the book:
Bold
text means that you’re meant to type the text just as it appears in the book. The exception is when you’re working through a steps list: Because each step is bold, the text to type is not bold.
Web addresses appear in monofont. If you’re reading a digital version of this book on a device connected to the Internet, note that you can click the web address to visit that website, like this:
www.dummies.com
.
Whenever I introduce a word or phrase that may not be familiar to you, I put that word in
italics.
You can rest assured a definition or explanation is nearby.
Also, to make the content more accessible, I divided it into six parts:
Part 1
: Defining and Measuring Crime
Part 2
: Identifying Types of Crime
Part 3
: Figuring Out Who Commits Crimes and Why
Part 4
: Fighting Crime
Part 5
: Prosecuting and Punishing Crime
Part 6
: The Part of Tens
Foolish Assumptions
This book covers such a wide array of information that I truly can’t assume I know why you’re reading it. Here are some wild guesses:
You’re a college student taking an introductory course in criminology, and you picked up this book to help you interpret some of the jargon in your 600-page textbook.
You’ve always thought about becoming a police officer or other law enforcement professional and are trying to gauge what the job entails and where it fits into the big picture of criminal justice.
You’re thinking about going to law school to become a prosecutor or public defender, and you want to know what you’d be in for.
You have a friend or relative entangled in the criminal justice system, and you want to be able to talk the talk so you can distinguish an arraignment from an appeal.
You’re addicted to
CSI: Crime Scene Investigation
or any number of other criminal investigation shows.
Whatever your motivation, I hope you find what you’re looking for in this book. And I hope you’re inspired to find out even more about the specific area of criminology that interests you because there’s much more to explore than I could possibly fit in these pages.
Icons Used in This Book
In the margins of this book, you find the following icons — mini graphics that point out paragraphs containing certain types of information:
This icon points out hints to help you better understand the concepts I cover in this book.
This icon points out material that’s important enough to put into your mental filing cabinet.
When you see this icon, you know the information in the accompanying paragraph encourages a note of caution.
On a few occasions, I include information that I consider worth knowing but that you may not. If you’re looking for strictly big-picture information, feel free to skip these paragraphs.
This icon sits next to paragraphs that contain real-life examples and anecdotes — most often from my years of experience in the criminal justice field.
Beyond the Book
In addition to the abundance of information and guidance related to criminology that I provide in this book, you get access to even more help and information online at Dummies.com. Check out this book’s online Cheat Sheet. Just go to www.dummies.com and search for “Criminology For Dummies Cheat Sheet.”
Where to Go from Here
The beauty of this book is that you can start anywhere and understand it. If you’re the type of person who likes to eat your dinner one food at a time, perhaps you want to start with Chapter 1 and read straight through. But if you’re most interested in the theories about why people commit crime, skip straight to Part 3 and sink your teeth in. If you’re most interested in how the criminal justice system treats juveniles, head to Chapter 22. Where you go next is your call!
Part 1
Defining and Measuring Crime
IN THIS PART …
Understand why some behavior is deemed criminal (or not) and who makes that decision.
Figure out how we measure crime (it’s not easy) and determine how much crime there really is.
Learn what it’s like to be a crime victim and what services are available for help.
Chapter 1
Entering the World of Crime
IN THIS CHAPTER
Figuring out what crime is and how it’s measured
Tallying some of the costs
Categorizing crime
Trying to explain why people commit crime
Fighting, prosecuting, and punishing crime
Entering the world of crime — and I mean really entering it — seriously affects a person. Working in a world of violence and deceit is a hard and trying business. Nonetheless, criminologists and criminal justice professionals devote their lives to studying crime and criminals with the ultimate goal of keeping people safe. In this chapter, you get a brief overview of the criminal world — from what causes crime to what society can do about it.
Defining the Terms: What Crime Is and How You Measure It
Technically, a crime is what your legislature says it is. If legislators want to outlaw riding a horse over 10 mph, they can. (It’s against the law to do so in Indianapolis, for example.)
But just outlawing an activity doesn’t make it a crime. For example, running a red light is illegal, but it isn’t a crime (you only pay a fine). A crime is something you can get locked up for.
Taking away a person’s liberty is what separates illegal criminal conduct from illegal conduct that is not criminal. And when the possibility of going to jail is involved, you have a number of constitutional rights that don’t apply when you’re caught for a traffic violation, including the following:
The right to an attorney
The right to a jury, which can convict you only if the evidence is beyond a reasonable doubt
The right to remain silent and not have your silence used against you
Identifying elements of criminal behavior
Crime isn’t as simple as it seems at first blush. If I signed my credit card receipt in a store and accidentally walked away with the pen, did I commit theft? Of course not. I didn’t intend to steal the pen. To be guilty of a crime, I must have some mental culpability, such as criminal intent. Taking a pen is a crime only if a prosecutor can prove that I intended to deprive the owner of his pen.
In addition, committing a crime requires a physical act. It’s not illegal just to think about committing a crime; you must physically do something. (Of course, a few exceptions exist. For example, not paying your taxes can constitute a crime.) I explore the elements of a criminal law (which is a law that defines a crime) in greater detail in Chapter 2.
Not all crimes are equal. The law breaks down crimes into two categories, according to seriousness:
Misdemeanor:
This type of crime includes the least serious offenses. Historically, misdemeanor crimes were crimes that couldn’t be punished by more than a year in jail. Today, however, because overcrowding in some jails is a serious problem, people convicted of misdemeanors, especially first-time offenders, may not get much jail time at all.
Felony:
This type of crime is usually more serious and is punishable by more than a year in custody. Serious violent crimes like murder, rape, kidnapping, and robbery are felonies that can result in lengthy prison sentences.
Gathering crime statistics
You may think that determining the amount of crime in a given city, state, or country is a pretty simple task. But, in reality, it’s very challenging. For example, how do you gather statistics about illegal drug sales? Neither the seller nor the buyer is going to report a heroin deal. And wives who are beaten by their husbands don’t usually call the cops. In fact, only 41 percent of violent crimes were reported to the police in 2019.
The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) has developed a system called the Uniform Crime Report for gathering basic statistics about nine serious felonies, known in the crime business as Part 1 crimes. Whenever one of the roughly 18,000 police agencies in the United States gets a report that one of these crimes has been committed, that agency passes the information on to the FBI. If the agency ends up making an arrest, it passes that information on, as well. The FBI incorporates this information in its annual crime report.
Recognizing the limits of crime reports and arrest statistics in measuring crime, the federal government created the National Crime Victimization Survey, which canvasses 95,000 households every year to ask whether members of those households have been victimized by crime. The idea is that this survey can gather information about crimes that aren’t reported to the police. This survey paints a pretty good picture of national crime trends, but the sampling just isn’t large enough to allow for an accurate assessment of crime trends at the state or local level. In Chapter 3, I get into the crime statistics business in much greater detail.
Recognizing the Various Costs of Crime
While criminologists try to gather accurate statistics about the amount of crime, economists focus on the financial costs of crime. And, of course, no one can forget the life-changing impact crime has on victims.
Noting the financial impact
The most obvious cost of crime to society is the money it takes to run the criminal justice system, including the following big-ticket items:
Police
Jails, prisons, and the staff to run them
Prosecutors
Judges and court staff
Defense attorneys to represent charged defendants at trial and on appeal
Probation officers
Juvenile justice counselors
Plus, in the United States, each of the three levels of government — local, state, and federal — may run its own justice system, which may include some or all of the preceding expenses.
In addition to governmental costs, society bears many other financial impacts of crime. For example, think of the lost productivity and lost tax revenue that occurs when a person decides to sell drugs rather than earn wages lawfully. Or think of the costs of providing medical care to victims of violence or the costs of developing cybersecurity for a corporation to protect its computer systems. The financial impact of crime is quite startling when you dive into it. In Chapter 3, I provide more details on the true cost of crime to all of society.
Respecting the price a victim pays
Crime doesn’t just carry an economic cost, however. Every day, thousands of lives are turned upside down by criminal violence and theft. Think of the impact on a senior citizen who’s defrauded out of her life savings or on a battered spouse who’s isolated from her friends and family and lives in constant fear of upsetting her husband. There’s simply no way to quantify the human toll of crime.
In the old days, crime victims were pretty much left to fend for themselves. But in the early 1980s, a movement began that brought help to victims. Today, in every state, a victim of violent crime can get financial help with medical bills, grief counseling, lost wages, and other economic losses. Victims can also get help understanding the criminal justice system.
Significantly, within the last ten years, a movement to grant rights to victims has gathered tremendous momentum. In most states today, victims have at least the following rights:
The right to be notified of all important hearings
The right to speak at release hearings where criminal defendants seek to be released from jail
The right to obtain a “no contact” order, which prohibits the defendant from contacting the victim
The right to prevent the defendant from getting the victim’s address
The right to demand a blood test of the defendant if there’s a possibility that a disease, such as HIV or hepatitis, was transferred to the victim during the crime
The right to receive restitution for financial impact from a crime
The right to give a statement to the judge explaining the impact of the crime on the victim at the time of sentencing the defendant
For much more information about what the criminal justice system does to protect victims, see Chapter 4.
Considering Categories of Crime
Law enforcement professionals often group crimes into the following two categories:
Violent crimes (also called
person crimes
)
Property crimes
But a careful study of crime reveals that organized crime, in which groups engage in a business of crime, is a whole different animal worthy of separate analysis.
Studying individual crimes
When police respond to a 9-1-1 call, they’re almost always responding to an individual crime. Someone was assaulted or burglarized, for example. Typically, police treat violent crimes much more seriously than they do property crimes. For example, although a murder investigation may have ten or more cops assigned to it, police may not even respond in person to investigate a burglary at a home. Obviously, this discrepancy occurs because protecting personal safety is the number one job of people in law enforcement; plus, police resources are finite.
Here are the crimes you most likely think of when you consider individual crimes:
Violent Crimes
Property Crimes
Murder and manslaughter
Theft (including shoplifting, embezzlement, Internet fraud, identity theft, and car theft)
Assault and battery (including domestic abuse, child abuse, and vehicular assault)
Burglary
Sexual crimes (rape, sodomy, and child molestation)
Arson
Robbery
Obviously, the punishment for violent crime is much more severe than it is for property crime. A person who shoplifts from a convenience store (a property crime) will get a much lighter sentence than someone who sticks a gun in the store clerk’s face and demands cash (the violent crime of robbery).
Among different violent offenses, the punishment can vary depending on whether a weapon was used, how much harm was caused, and whether the “bad guy” intended to cause harm. For example, a drunk driver who crashes and kills his passenger will receive a much shorter prison sentence than a woman who knowingly poisons her mother-in-law. The drunk driver didn’t intend to kill anyone, but the evil daughter-in-law surely did. (For more info, check out Chapter 5 on violent crimes and Chapter 6 on property crimes.)
Focusing on organized crime
Despite what you see on TV, organized crime is much more than the Italian mob. In fact, the mafia is really only a very small part of the organized crime threat in the United States today. Organized crime refers to the groups of individuals who organize themselves in a hierarchical structure, usually for the purpose of engaging in the business of crime. These groups are set up in such a way that even when police arrest one or two members, the organization continues to operate. This structure is what makes fighting organized crime so difficult.
Organized crime groups are traditionally set up along ethnic lines, in large part, because members of the same ethnic group are more likely to know and trust one another. (However, a group called the United Nations gang, known for its ethnic diversity, was taken down in May 2009 for a large-scale drug-smuggling operation between Canada and the United States.)
Some common organized crime groups include the following:
Motorcycle gangs
Drug-smuggling operations
Prison gangs
Street gangs
White-supremacist organizations
These groups usually gravitate toward the types of criminal activities that provide the most income. Obviously, much of this activity includes illegal drugs. But it also includes tobacco smuggling, trafficking in counterfeit goods, and Internet fraud. Plus, you can’t forget the more traditional, localized organized crime activities, such as extortion, loan sharking, and robbery. And some groups, like white-supremacist criminal organizations, aren’t as interested in making money; they’re actually closer to being terrorist organizations. In Chapter 8, I go into much greater detail about the organized crime threat and how law enforcement is dealing with it.
Spotlighting terrorism
Throughout the world, and here in the United States, organized groups are using violence and the threat of violence to achieve political and social goals. These groups are called terrorists, and, today, criminal justice professionals are on the front lines in the fight against terrorism. Most known terrorist plots in the United States have been first identified or foiled by local police. As a result, it’s standard practice for cops throughout the country to be trained in identifying signs of terrorist activity.
Terrorism experts generally categorize the terrorist threat into two groups: right-wing and left-wing. But, in reality, hundreds of international groups have many different agendas, and numerous domestic terrorist groups tout principles ranging from animal rights to white supremacy, that do not fit on a political spectrum.
While law enforcement tends to investigate terrorists using the same methods used to attack organized crime, a significant threat continues to be the “lone wolf” actor, who goes at it alone. Omar Maten killed 49 people and wounded 50 more when he entered an Orlando nightclub in 2016 and, in the name of the Islamic State, unloaded on the guests with two semi-automatic weapons. Such lone wolf attacks are very challenging to detect because the attackers don’t communicate their plans to accomplices.
In Chapter 10, I discuss the major terrorist threats that the United States faces today.
Figuring Out What Makes Someone Commit a Crime
One significant branch of criminology focuses on determining the causes of crime. Why do some people become life-long criminals while others become productive members of society? If criminologists — or anyone for that matter — can answer this question, maybe they can figure out some ways to prevent crime.
The following sections just skim the surface of the major theories criminologists have developed for why people commit crime. For a much more detailed discussion of the various causes of crime, check out Chapters 12 through 15.
Making a rational decision
Underlying society’s current response to crime is the rational choice theory, which says that people generally make rational decisions about choices in their lives, including decisions to commit crime. This theory holds that when deciding whether to commit an illegal act, a person assesses the potential rewards and risks and then acts accordingly. If society provides enough punishment, a rational actor will decide not to commit crime. Thus, the threat of punishment acts as a deterrent to committing crime.
Of course, not everyone acts rationally. Human beings are prone to doing stupid things, even when they know they’re stupid. And then, of course, you can’t forget the impact of drugs and mental illness. A person high on methamphetamine probably won’t do a very good job of analyzing potential risks and rewards.
Pointing the finger at society
Sometimes people make rational choices to engage in crime because their values are significantly different from those of mainstream society. For example, a gangbanger may rationally choose to commit assault to gain status within his gang. How does a person develop such antisocial values?
Criminologists have developed a number of theories to explain society’s role in crime. Social disorganization theory, for example, asserts that the structure of a neighborhood is strongly correlated to the amount of crime in that neighborhood. Where social structures are in decay, more crime is likely to occur. Poor schools, high unemployment, and a mix of commercial and residential property are some of the indicators of social disorganization.
Strain theory contends that everyone in society has generally the same goals and ambitions. But some people aren’t able to achieve those goals because they lack opportunity, attend poor schools, or have few positive role models, for example. In response, they resort to crime to achieve their goals. In other words, the frustration, or strain, of not achieving their goals leads them to commit crime. A variety of strain theories focuses on different causes of frustration.
Yet another theory, called the social learning theory, contends that criminals learn the skills, attitudes, and behaviors that lead to crime from the people they hang out with. Under this theory, a person’s peer group and family are instrumental in shaping the values that lead them to criminal or law-abiding behavior.
Other explanations for crime come from a collection of theories known as social control theories. Generally, these theories argue that crime is exciting and fun and provides immediate gratification, so most people would become criminals if not for a variety of “controls” that restrain the urge to commit crime. These controls may be external, such as family, schools, church, and the social bonds related to these organizations. Or they may be internal, such as self-discipline and strong self-esteem. In neighborhoods where institutional controls are weak, more crime occurs.
Blaming mental and physical defects
It’s increasingly clear that genetics, diet, brain chemistry, and even the environment can play a role in causing a person to commit crime.
Adoption studies have confirmed a genetic link between criminal parents and criminal conduct by their offspring. But these same studies also show that the environment created by the parents raising the children has an impact on the children’s criminal conduct. Thus, criminologists recognize that genetics are just part of the picture.
Other studies have shown that a poor diet can lead to learning disabilities, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and depression, all of which are linked to greater potential for criminal behavior.
And, of course, personality disorders and mental illnesses may create a greater likelihood of criminal behavior. For example, a large percentage of people in prison have an antisocial personality disorder, which generally means they’ve engaged in a pattern of behavior that violates the rights of others.
Waging a War against Crime
Society fights crime with three levels of police: Local, state, and federal. Each level has different responsibilities, but they all join forces when it comes to fighting organized crime.
Policing the streets
Of the 18,000 police agencies in the United States, most of them are local agencies, which means they’re city police or county sheriffs. These agencies handle most of the emergency calls for police services. In addition to responding to 9-1-1 calls, however, local police patrol the streets and enforce traffic laws. In fact, the only interaction most people have with a cop is getting pulled over for a traffic violation.
Although local agencies can range in size from one officer to thousands, most departments have the following categories of cops:
Patrol officers
respond to 9-1-1 calls and drive the streets to try to discourage crime with their presence.
Sergeants
typically supervise five to ten officers.
Detectives
conduct criminal investigations. Rather than just responding to a 9-1-1 call and writing a report, a detective typically is assigned more complex cases that require longer-term investigations. A smaller police department may have just a general detective unit, while a larger department may have detectives who specialize in specific types of crime, such as homicide.
Management
includes lieutenants, captains, and the chief of police or sheriff.
In Chapter 16, I discuss the functions of all these cops in detail.
Getting the feds involved
Although the federal government has over 65 different federal agencies with law enforcement personnel, the vast majority of federal officers work for agencies I’m sure you’ve heard of, including the following:
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)
Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA)
Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF)
Homeland Security Investigations (HSI), which has taken on the responsibility of immigration and customs enforcement
Secret Service
U.S. Marshals Service
Internal Revenue Service (IRS)
These agencies enforce federal criminal laws, which are criminal laws passed by the U.S. Congress. (Local police agencies typically enforce local or state laws.) Each of these agencies focuses on its area of specialty, with the FBI having broader authority to get into more types of crime. An officer with a federal agency is usually called a special agent and conducts complex, long-term investigations. Special agents don’t respond to 9-1-1 calls or enforce traffic laws. If you’re intrigued by life as a fed, look at Chapter 17 where I give you a brief overview of the major federal law enforcement agencies.
Working together in task forces
Because organized crime frequently crosses the territorial boundary of one police agency, local, state, and federal cops often come together to form task forces, which fight a specific type of crime. Most commonly, officers from different agencies work together on drug or gang task forces. For example, when a drug mule carries dope from one city into another, the task force has authority in each town to conduct surveillance and make arrests.
One of the greatest benefits of task forces is that they encourage information sharing between different agencies. When agencies combine their information about a particular organized crime group, they often create a much better picture of the threat and are then able to devise a strategy to investigate and eliminate that threat. Because so many different police agencies are working toward the same goal of public safety, cooperation among them is crucial, and task forces help to foster that cooperation.
Bringing Criminals to Justice
When police catch a criminal, that person enters a large, complex system that is set up to make sure that individual’s constitutional rights are protected at the same time that society as a whole is protected.
Prosecuting crime
After police make an arrest, a prosecutor must determine whether or not to file criminal charges. (At the local level, a prosecutor is usually known as an assistant district attorney or county prosecutor. At the federal level, prosecutors are called assistant U.S. attorneys.) After reading a police officer’s report, if a prosecutor decides to file charges, he drafts a charging document, sometimes called an information or an indictment, which lists all the criminal charges against the defendant.
At the arraignment, the defendant hears the charges against him and has the chance to apply for a court-appointed attorney. (Most defendants can’t afford to hire their own lawyers.) Thereafter, the prosecutor and the defense attorney engage in plea negotiations. The vast majority of criminal cases are resolved by negotiations and don’t go to trial. But if the lawyers can’t agree, they do go to trial, where a jury decides whether or not the defendant is guilty. (A defendant can choose to waive his right to a jury and let a judge decide the case.) I discuss the responsibilities of prosecutors, defense attorneys, and judges in Chapter 19, and I walk you through all the steps of a typical criminal trial in Chapter 20.
Determining punishment
If a defendant is convicted, the judge decides what punishment to impose, although many states have reduced a judge’s discretion by passing laws that require mandatory sentences for certain serious crimes. Low-level offenses often don’t result in any jail time. Rather, a defendant may just receive a fine, some community service, and probation. But serious offenses can result in lengthy sentences.
A person sentenced to do time can go to either a local jail, usually run by a county sheriff, or a prison, run by a state or the federal government. Jail is usually reserved for shorter sentences, and prison often involves sentences of a year or more.
After serving their time, convicted persons are often placed on probation or parole, which means they have to comply with certain conditions imposed by the judge or else be sent back to jail or prison. Here are some typical probation conditions:
Pay all court costs and fines
Complete community service
Attend all ordered treatment, such as drug treatment, anger management, or sex offender treatment
Obey all laws (of course!)
In Chapter 21, I talk about the U.S. corrections system, which is made up of the jails, prisons, and probation services that house convicted defendants and attempt to get them back on a law-abiding track.
Giving juveniles special attention
What do you do with a kid who commits a crime? In the United States, the system for dealing with juvenile offenders is different from the one dealing with adults. The primary reason for having a separate system is that society recognizes that because kids aren’t yet mature, society shouldn’t hold them fully responsible for their misconduct. Recent science supports the idea that until children’s brains are fully developed (at around the age of 25), they’re more likely to be impulsive and exercise poor judgment. Thus, it’s no wonder that roughly a third of all crimes are committed by people 24 and under.
When a juvenile is arrested, he’s assigned a juvenile counselor who works closely with him to get him back on the law-abiding track, which means identifying problems at home, drug use, or other environmental factors that are causing difficulty.
Most juveniles are given the chance to avoid formal trials and, thus, avoid creating permanent records by handling their cases informally. In other words, they admit their conduct to the juvenile counselor and are given some form of light punishment, such as community service.
For more serious offenses, or for chronic offenders, the system may treat the juvenile formally. This means he has the right to an attorney and a trial before a judge. If he’s found responsible (kids aren’t found “guilty”), the judge can sentence him to do some time in a local juvenile facility or even a state-run youth correctional facility — the equivalent of an adult state prison. However, recognizing that incarcerating kids is often counterproductive, there’s a strong bias against ordering kids to do time. Usually judges don’t incarcerate kids unless they repeatedly violate their probation.
For very serious offenses, such as murder or rape, all states have laws that allow judges to waive the kid into adult court. In other words, the kid is tried like an adult and, if found guilty, sentenced like an adult. So in most states, a 16-year-old murderer can be sentenced to life in prison. If you’re interested in more details about the juvenile justice system, turn to Chapter 22.
Chapter 2
What Is Crime?
IN THIS CHAPTER
Figuring out why some acts are illegal and others aren’t
Constructing a criminal law
Watching laws change as society changes
In Oregon, threatening to kill someone in the future is legal, but preventing a pregnant pig from lying down can be illegal. Seriously.
The good news is that if you choose to make a pregnant pig unhappy in Oregon, you’re breaking the law but not committing a crime. What?
For an activity to be criminal, it must carry the possibility of jail time, yet some illegal acts are only punished by a fine. (For example, messing with a pregnant pig won’t send you to jail — what a relief!)
In this chapter, I explain how laws are created and why they change over time. I also show you the essential elements of a criminal law, which are important to know because the way in which criminal laws are written largely determines whether they achieve their goals in the long run.
Understanding the Two Categories of Criminal Activity
At the simplest level, you can divide criminal activity into two categories:
Acts that are inherently bad
Acts that aren’t bad but need to be regulated
Check out the following sections for more details on these categories.
Violating natural laws: Acts that are inherently bad
When you think of criminal activity, you likely think first of violent acts, such as murder, rape, kidnapping, theft, and assault. Crimes like these are known as mala in se, which is Latin for “wrong by itself.” (A few lawyers, myself included, still like to throw around Latin phrases — it makes us sound smart, right?)
Mala in se crimes are bad acts that people instinctively know are crimes. A general consensus in society says that these acts should be illegal because they’re immoral. This consensus didn’t just spring up overnight — it has been developing as part of English and U.S. common law over the last 600 years.
The term common law refers to laws created by court decisions rather than by legislative bodies.
Today, legislatures in most states have passed laws making mala in se acts criminal, which means that the justice system no longer relies on the common law to convict someone of this type of crime. (However, common law continues to play an important role in appellate decisions — court decisions made during appeals after people are convicted of crimes. See Chapter 19 for a detailed discussion of appellate courts.)
Violating manmade laws: Acts that aren’t inherently bad
Although some acts are clearly wrong, many others aren’t naturally evil, but, nonetheless, they need to be regulated. These acts are known as malum in prohibita, meaning “wrong because prohibited.” Preventing a pregnant pig from lying down, for instance, clearly falls within this category. In fact, a large percentage of criminal laws today are malum in prohibita. Following are some other examples of malum in prohibita crimes:
Driving without a license
Hunting without a license
Carrying a concealed weapon
Selling a drugged horse (in Oregon)
Catching fish with your bare hands (in Indiana)
Throwing snow “missiles” (in certain parts of Missouri)
Giving alcohol to a moose (in Fairbanks, Alaska)
HOW THE COMMON LAW DEVELOPED
In England prior to the 1600s, private citizens or government officials brought cases before judges, who would then decide whether certain acts were illegal. The judges wrote opinions that contained the reasoning behind their decisions. Over time, judges came to rely on the consensus that emerged from these opinions. The collection of these written opinions came to be known as the common law. By the 1600s, the judges — not the English Parliament — had defined crimes such as murder, theft, rape, and assault.
Of course, clever citizens repeatedly found new ways to commit immoral acts, so society continued to call on judges to refine the common law by defining new crimes. For example, in the 1700s, judges concluded that inciting rebellion against the government should be criminalized; thus, they created the crime of sedition.
Sometimes judges didn’t criminalize certain conduct, such as incest, and, as a result, the English Parliament stepped in to pass a law (known as a statute) that made familial sex a crime.
Today, common law plays a less important role than it did centuries ago. In the United States, people are prosecuted when they violate statutes — laws enacted by legislatures — rather than when they violate the common law. But, like in England centuries ago, human beings still find new ways to commit immoral acts, so legislatures must constantly refine and add to their criminal statutes.
The line between mala in se and malum in prohibita crimes isn’t always crystal clear. For example, some malum in prohibita crimes involve conduct that’s arguably immoral. I wouldn’t argue that driving without a license is immoral. However, the law against selling a drugged horse exists because unscrupulous horse traders used to sedate horses to make them more attractive to purchasers. The courts decided to regulate this conduct because society considers cheating the buyer an immoral act.
As you can see, laws can punish acts that are moral or immoral. But keep in mind that not all immoral acts are punished by laws. Legislatures don’t want to try to control every facet of human life through regulation. For example, most people agree that sleeping with your best friend’s spouse is immoral, yet doing so is completely legal.
Identifying Elements of a Criminal Law
The U.S. justice system includes many types of law, such as property law, contract law, tort law, and administrative law. These examples all fall under the broad heading of civil law. Civil law generally governs the affairs between private parties. For example, civil law decides the fault in a car accident and interprets the terms of a contract in a dispute. For a law to be considered criminal, on the other hand, it must contain certain elements and characteristics, which I explain in this section.
Distinguishing civil from criminal law
Most civil and criminal laws alike are created to redress wrongs or to compel good behavior. However, civil law and criminal law have unique characteristics that distinguish them from each other. For example:
A civil lawsuit is almost always between private parties, but only the government can bring a criminal proceeding.
Only in criminal law can a person lose his freedom and be sent to jail or prison. When a plaintiff (the person bringing the case) wins a civil lawsuit, he typically gets an award of money, but he can’t put the other party (the person defending the suit, otherwise known as the defendant) in jail.
In criminal law, the defendant has certain constitutional rights that a defendant in a civil lawsuit doesn’t have. The following rights are some of the more important constitutional rights a defendant has in a criminal case:
The right to have a jury decide guilt
The right to confront witnesses and cross-examine them
The right to have a lawyer represent the defendant
The right to “remain silent” without that silence being used against the defendant in court (In other words, no one can force the defendant to take the witness stand.)
The right to have a speedy trial
The right to be found guilty only by a standard of “beyond a reasonable doubt”
Defining felonies and misdemeanors
To be considered criminal, an act has to carry the possibility of a jail sentence as punishment. If the only punishment possible is a fine, such as when you fail to stop at a stop sign, the illegal act is considered a violation or infraction. (You normally can’t go to jail for that.)
CRIMINAL VERSUS CIVIL LAW IN THE O. J. SIMPSON CASE
A memorable example of how criminal and civil laws work in the real world is the O. J. Simpson murder case. O.J. Simpson was a Heisman Trophy winner and member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame who was arrested in 1994 for killing his ex-wife Nicole Brown Simpson and Ron Goldman. In 1995, a jury in his criminal murder trial found him not guilty. But the matter wasn’t finished. The families of Ron Goldman and Nicole Brown Simpson filed a civil suit against Simpson for causing the deaths. As a result of that civil suit, another jury found Simpson liable (not guilty because a jury can only find guilt in a criminal case) for causing the deaths of Ron Goldman and Nicole Brown Simpson. Because the verdict came from a civil suit, Simpson couldn’t be put in prison. Rather, the jury ordered him to pay over $30 million to the family of Ron Goldman and to Nicole Brown Simpson’s two children.
In the civil trial (unlike in the criminal trial), Ron Goldman’s family (the plaintiffs) forced Simpson to testify, and they didn’t have to prove “beyond a reasonable doubt” that Simpson committed the murders. Rather, the plaintiffs had to prove only that “more likely than not” (in other words, that there was at least a 51 percent chance) Simpson committed the murders.
Criminal laws are categorized according to the punishments they impose. Generally, a criminal law may be either a felony or a misdemeanor. The difference between the two is as follows:
A
misdemeanor
is a minor offense, and its maximum sentence usually can’t exceed one year. However, if someone is convicted of three misdemeanors, he can conceivably serve up to three years in jail. Petty larceny, such as shoplifting some cigarettes from a local convenience store, is usually a misdemeanor, and the punishment may be very light.
A
felony
is the more serious offense, and someone who commits a felony can be punished with more than a year in jail or prison. Theft of an expensive item, such as a Macbook Pro laptop computer, can rise to the level of a felony and be subject to serious punishment.
You can look at your state’s criminal statutes to find out exactly which crimes your state considers misdemeanors and which ones it considers felonies. After all, an act that’s a misdemeanor in New York may be a felony in Alaska and vice versa.
I describe the main elements or requirements of a criminal law in the following sections. If an act doesn’t include these elements (and doesn’t include the possibility of jail time as punishment), it probably isn’t considered a crime. (But there are always exceptions, which is why people have to hire lawyers.)
Requiring a physical act
A criminal law almost always requires a physical act. Simply thinking bad thoughts can’t be the basis for a violation of criminal law. Also, the act must be voluntary. In other words, the person committing the crime must have acted of his own free will. You can best understand this requirement by looking at acts that the courts don’t deem voluntary, such as:
Reflexive motions, such as a sneeze that accidentally causes a person to discharge a gun
Acts that occur during sleep, such as sleepwalking
Acts that occur under the effects of hypnosis
Acts committed under orders and at gunpoint
In most cases, the failure to act can’t constitute a crime. For example, refusing to jump into a river and save a drowning child doesn’t constitute homicide.
However, in some limited circumstances, when a legal duty to act is involved, the failure to act can constitute a crime. A great example is the legal duty of all citizens to pay their taxes. Failure to act — to write a check to the government, for example — can result in a criminal prosecution. Similarly, parents have an obligation to care for their children. The failure to feed or care for kids may constitute the crime of child neglect.
Having a guilty mind
Along with requiring a physical act, a crime also requires a
