Crossway ESV Bible Atlas E-Book

John D. Currid

• Herausgeber: Crossway
• Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 509

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2010

Beschreibung

Capitalizing on recent advances in satellite imaging and geographic information systems, the Crossway ESV Bible Atlas offers Bible readers a comprehensive, up-to-date resource that blends technical sophistication with readability, visual appeal, and historical and biblical accuracy. All the key methods of presenting Bible geography and history are here, including more than 175 full-color maps, 70 photographs, 3-D re-creations of biblical objects and sites, indexes, timelines, and 65,000 words of narrative description. The atlas uniquely features regional maps detailing biblically significant areas such as Egypt, Mesopotamia, Italy, and Greece. It also includes access to online maps and illustrations and a removable, 16.5 x 22-inch map of Palestine. This carefully crafted reference tool not only sets a new standard in Bible atlases but will help ESV readers more clearly understand the world of the Bible and the meaning of Scripture.

Leseprobe

Crossway ESV Bible Atlas

Copyright © 2010 by Crossway

Text copyright © 2010 by John D. Currid

Published by Crossway a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers 1300 Crescent Street Wheaton, Illinois 60187

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher, except as provided for by USA copyright law.

Maps by David P. Barrett (www.biblemapper.com)

Illustrations produced by Maltings Partnership (Derby, England) under the direction of Leen Ritmeyer.

Terrain imagery generated from digital elevation data provided by CIAT (A. Jarvis, H. I. Reuter, A. Nelson, E. Guevara, 2006, Hole-filled seamless SRTM data V3, International Centre for Tropical Agriculture [CIAT], available from http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org).

Maps of average monthly temperature and average monthly rainfall for the Near East generated from data provided by UNEP/DEWA/GRID-Europe (http://www.grid.unep.ch/data).

Cover and interior design: Jimi Allen Productions

First printing 2010

Printed in Singapore

Unless otherwise noted, Scripture quotations are from the ESV ® Bible (The Holy Bible, English Standard Version®), copyright © 2001 by Crossway, a publishing ministry of Good News Publishers. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Scripture references marked RSV are from The Revised Standard Version. Copyright © 1946, 1952, 1971, 1973 by the Division of Christian Education of the National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A.

ISBN-13: 978-1-4335-0192-0 ISBN-10: 1-4335-0192-9 ePub ISBN: 978-1-4335-1914-7 PDf ISBN: 978-1-4335-1912-3 Mobipocket ISBN: 978-1-4335-1913-0

Currid, John D., 1951-       Crossway ESV Bible atlas / John D. Currid and David P. Barrett.          p. cm.       Includes bibliographical references and indexes.       ISBN 978-1-4335-0192-0 (hc)       1. Bible–Geography–Maps. 2. Bible–History of Biblical events–Maps. I. Barrett, David P. II. Title.       G2230.C8 2010       220.9’10223–dc22                                                 2009036660

IMG          17    16    15    14    13    12    11    10 10          9       8       7      6      5      4      3     2    1

PHOTOGRAPH ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Photographs, used by permission, have been provided by the following:

Todd Bolen/BiblePlaces.com: 0-2, 0-3, 0-6, 0-8, 0-11, 0-13, 1-1, 1-3, 1-4, 2-2, 2-3, 2-4, 3-1, 3-2, 3-3, 3-4, 4-1, 4-3, 4-4, 5-1, 5-2, 5-4, 5-5, 5-6, 5-7, 6-1, 6-2, 6-4, 7-1, 7-4, 10-1, 10-2, 12-1, 12-2, 12-4, 12-5, 12-6, 12-9, 12-13, 12-16, 12-17, 12-19 (photos 2-4, 3-1, 5-4, 12-9 courtesy of the Rockefeller Museum) (photos 0-11, 12-6 courtesy of the Istanbul Museum)

John D. Currid: 0-4, 0-7, 0-9, 0-10, 0-12, 0-14, 0-15, 12-3, 12-7, 12-8, 12-10, 12-18

Michael Luddeni: back cover (inscription), 0-1, 2-1, 7-2, 8-1, 9-1

The British Museum: 6-3, 7-3, 7-5, 8-2 (© The Trustees of the British Museum. All rights reserved.)

iStockphoto: cover (pyramid), 1-2, 12-12, 12-14, 12-15

David Bivin/LifeintheHolyLand.com: 0-5, 4-2

The Barry J. Beitzel Photographic Collection: 11-1

Michael Luddeni/Oral Collins: 3-3

Michael Luddeni/Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology, Jerusalem: 5-3

William L. Krewson/BiblePlaces.com: 12-11

Getty Images: cover (aqueducts)

To Marvin R. Wilson, outstanding teacher, who started me on the path of ancient Near Eastern studies

–John

To Anisea, with deepest love

–David

CONTENTS

Preface

PART 1: Introduction and Overview of the Biblical World

PART 2: Historical Geography of the Biblical World

1. Before Abraham

2. The World of the Patriarchs

3. The Sojourn in Egypt and the Exodus

4. The Wilderness Journeys, Conquest, and Settlement

5. The United Monarchy

6. The Kingdoms of Israel and Judah

7. The Assyrian Era

8. The Babylonian Era

9. The Persian Era

10. The Hellenistic Era

11. The Maccabean Era

12. The Roman Era

PART 3: Regional Geography of the Biblical World

Introduction to Regional Maps

R-1. Biblical World

R-2. Mesopotamia, Levant, Media

R-3. Southern Anatolia, Cyprus, Northern Levant

R-4. Western Anatolia

R-5. Macedonia and Achaia

R-6. Crete

R-7. Central Italy

R-8. Italy and North Africa

R-9. Egypt

R-10. Sinai

R-11. Palestine

R-12. Judea

R-13. Samaria

R-14. Galilee, Tyre, Mount Hermon

R-15. Gilead

R-16. Moab

R-17. Edom

R-18. Philistia

R-19. Jerusalem in Old Testament Times

R-20. Jerusalem after the Exile

R-21. Jerusalem in New Testament Times

PART 4: Appendixes and Indexes

Timeline of Biblical History

Kings of Israel and Judah

The Herodian Dynasty

Selected Bibliography

SPECIAL ARTICLES

A Garden in Eden

Pottery

The Code of Hammurabi

Ancient Egyptian Literature and the Exodus

The Migration of the Sea Peoples

The Story of Ruth

The Stepped Structure in Jerusalem

The Tel Dan Inscription

The Historical Animosity between Israel and Judah

The Golden Calves

Hezekiah’s Tunnel

The Prism of Sennacherib

The Priestly Benediction

The Lachish Letters

Nehemiah’s Jerusalem

Elephantine

Alexandria

The Zenon Papyri

Judaism during the Hasmonean Era

Archaeological Remains in Jerusalem from the Time of Jesus

Sepphoris

ILLUSTRATIONS

Hebrew Calendar and Seasonal Activities

Ziggurats

The City of Ur

The Tabernacle and Court

The Tabernacle Tent

The City of Jericho

Jerusalem in the Time of David

Jerusalem in the Time of Solomon

Solomon’s Temple

Solomon’s Temple and Palace Complex

The City of Nineveh

Jerusalem in the Time of Hezekiah

The City of Babylon

The Temple of Ezekiel’s Vision

Zerubbabel’s Temple

Jerusalem in the Time of Nehemiah

The Temple Mount in the Time of Jesus

The Temple and Its Courtyards

The Temple

Galilean Fishing Boat

Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus

Golgotha and the Temple Mount

The Tomb of Jesus

Philippi in the Time of Paul

Corinth in the Time of Paul

Ephesus in the Time of Paul

Rome in the Time of Paul

Synagogue at Gamla

MAPS

0-1. Major Regions of the Ancient Near East

0-2. Natural Geographic Regions of Palestine

0-3. Average Temperatures in the Near East

0-4. Average Rainfall in the Near East

0-5. Average Annual Rainfall in Palestine

0-6. Economy of the Ancient Near East

0-7. Economy of Ancient Palestine

0-8. Seismic Activity in the Near East

0-9. Main Routes of the Ancient Near East

0-10. Main Routes of Ancient Palestine

0-11. Modern Political States of the Near East

0-12. Modern Political States and Archaeological Sites of Palestine

1-1. The Garden of Eden

1-2. Table of Nations

1-3. The Near East during the Early Bronze Age

1-4. Canaan during the Early Bronze Age

2-1. Abram Travels to Canaan

2-2. The Battle at the Valley of Siddim

2-3. The Destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah

2-4. Journeys to Paddan-aram

2-5. Jacob Returns to Canaan

2-6. Joseph and His Brothers

2-7. Egypt at the Time of Joseph

3-1. The Near East during the Late Bronze Age

3-2. The Exodus from Egypt

4-1. The Journey to Kadesh-barnea

4-2. The Journey of the Spies

4-3. The Failed Entry into Canaan

4-4. The Journey to the Promised Land

4-5. Israel Defeats Og and Sihon

4-6. Balaam Blesses Israel

4-7. Preparing to Attack Jericho

4-8. Israel Enters the Promised Land

4-9. The Covenant Is Renewed at Mount Ebal

4-10. The Conquest of Canaan: The Southern Campaign

4-11. The Conquest of Canaan: The Northern Campaign

4-12. The Boundaries of the Promised Land

4-13. The Allotment of the Land

4-14. Kings Defeated by the Israelites

4-15. Israel at the Time of the Judges

4-16. The Judges of Israel

4-17. Ehud Defeats the Moabites

4-18. Deborah and Barak Defeat the Canaanites

4-19. Gideon Defeats the Midianites

4-20. Jephthah Defeats the Ammonites

4-21. The Migration of the Sea Peoples

4-22. Samson’s Exploits

4-23. The Setting of Ruth

4-24. Dan’s Migration and Israel’s War with Benjamin

4-25. The Ark’s Travels

5-1. Israel under Saul, David, and Solomon

5-2. Saul Rescues Jabesh-gilead

5-3. The Battle at Michmash

5-4. The Battle at Elah

5-5. David Flees from Saul

5-6. David Recovers Plunder from the Amalekites

5-7. The Battle at Mount Gilboa

5-8. David’s Struggle for Power

5-9. David Captures the Stronghold of Zion

5-10. David Defeats the Philistines

5-11. David Defeats the Ammonites and Syrians

5-12. David and Absalom

5-13. David’s Census

5-14. Solomon’s Administrative Districts

5-15. Jerusalem at the Time of Solomon

5-16. Solomon’s International Ventures

6-1. Solomon’s Enemies

6-2. The Kingdom Divides

6-3. Elijah and Elisha

6-4. Ahab’s Wars with Syria

6-5. Moab Revolts

6-6. Moab Expands Its Borders

6-7. Jehu Executes Judgment

6-8. Syria Captures Gilead

6-9. Resurgence during the Time of Uzziah and Jeroboam II

6-10. Zerah Attacks Judah

6-11. War between Israel and Judah

6-12. The Moabite Alliance Attacks Judah

6-13. Edom and Libnah Revolt

6-14. Uzziah Fortifies Jerusalem

6-15. Prophets of Israel and Judah

7-1. The Rise of the Assyrian Empire

7-2. Syria and Israel Attack Judah

7-3. Assyria Captures Northern Israel

7-4. The Fall of Samaria and Deportation of Israelites

7-5. Judah after the Fall of Israel

7-6. Hezekiah Fortifies Jerusalem

7-7. Assyria Attacks Judah

8-1. The Decline of the Assyrian Empire

8-2. Josiah’s Reforms and His Battle with Neco

8-3. Nebuchadnezzar Attacks Judah

8-4. Exile to Babylon

8-5. The Fall of Jerusalem

8-6. Israel and Judah after the Exile to Babylon

8-7. Gedaliah Is Assassinated

8-8. Jeremiah Prophesies against Egypt

8-9. Ezekiel’s Vision of Israel’s New Boundaries

9-1. The Persian Empire

9-2. Judea under Persian Rule

9-3. Jerusalem at the Time of Zerubbabel

9-4. Jerusalem at the Time of Nehemiah

10-1. The Empires of Alexander and His Successors

10-2. The Empires of the Ptolemies and the Seleucids (Early)

10-3. Antiochus III’s First Egyptian Campaign (Fourth Syrian War)

10-4. Antiochus III’s Second Egyptian Campaign (Fifth Syrian War)

10-5. Antiochus IV’s Egyptian Campaign (Sixth Syrian War)

10-6. The Empires of the Ptolemies and the Seleucids (Late)

11-1. The Beginnings of the Maccabean Revolt

11-2. Israel under the Early Maccabees

11-3. Israel under the Later Maccabees

11-4. Key Locations of the Maccabean Era

11-5. Jerusalem at the Time of the Maccabees

12-1. The Rise of the Roman Empire

12-2. The Kingdom of Herod the Great

12-3. Palestine under Roman Rule

12-4. Jesus’ Birth and Flight to Egypt

12-5. Jesus’ Ministry in Galilee

12-6. Jesus’ Ministry beyond Israel

12-7. Jesus Travels through Samaria

12-8. Jesus’ Final Journey to Jerusalem

12-9. Jerusalem at the Time of Jesus

12-10. The Last Supper

12-11. Jesus’ Arrest, Trial, and Crucifixion

12-12. Jesus’ Appearances after His Resurrection

12-13. Nations at Pentecost

12-14. The Ministry of Philip the Evangelist

12-15. Peter’s Early Ministry

12-16. Paul’s Conversion and Early Travels

12-17. The Kingdom of Herod Agrippa I

12-18. Paul’s First Missionary Journey

12-19. Paul’s Second Missionary Journey

12-20. Paul’s Third Missionary Journey

12-21. Paul’s Arrest and Imprisonment

12-22. The Kingdom of Herod Agrippa II

12-23. Paul’s Voyage to Rome

12-24. The First Jewish Revolt

12-25. The Bar Kokhba Revolt

12-26. Jerusalem after the Time of Hadrian

12-27. The Roman Empire and the Spread of Christianity

3D MAPS

2-A. View of the Cities of the Plain from Hebron

3-A. Mount Sinai

4-A. View of Canaan from Mount Nebo

4-B. Shechem, Mount Gerizim, and Mount Ebal

4-C. Mount Tabor and the Valley of Jezreel

5-A. The Slopes of Mount Gilboa

6-A. The Mountains of Edom

8-A. Megiddo Pass and Its Strategic Position

10-A. The Battle of Issus

11-A. Beth-horon Pass and Gophna Hills

12-A. The Sea of Galilee

12-B. Caesarea Philippi and Mount Hermon

12-C. Cilician Gates

12-D. Ephesus Area

12-E. Cities of the Lycus Valley

PREFACE

AS ANY STUDENT OF SCRIPTURE QUICKLY learns, the Bible was not written in a vacuum. Its books are set in specific geographic locations in the Near East during specific times in history, and these factors greatly affect how a book should be understood and interpreted. At the same time, the authors of Scripture often assumed their audiences already understood the context in which their messages were set (since that was the audiences’ context as well), so they did not bother to describe these details fully in their books.

Today, of course, we live in a very different context, both geographically and historically, from that of the original audience of Scripture. We cannot rely on our experience alone or even on careful study of Scripture alone to fill in these details. Instead, we must look to other resources that accurately describe the Bible’s background and help to re-create its context in our minds. The Crossway ESV Bible Atlas has been created for this very purpose.

The Crossway ESV Bible Atlas strives to offer students of the Bible a comprehensive collection of highly accurate, aesthetically appealing resources that present geographical and historical information in a way that is easy to use and that will not overwhelm the reader with technical detail at unnecessary places. Incorporating and expanding upon the maps and other resources originally developed for the ESV Study Bible, the CrosswayESV Bible Atlas utilizes maps, narrative description, photographs, comprehensive indexes, and 3D re-creations of biblical objects and sites to help the reader gain a clearer understanding of the world of the Bible and the meaning of Scripture. These standard resources are further complemented, in Part 3, by a unique collection of highly detailed maps of various biblical regions, such as Egypt, Mesopotamia, Anatolia, Greece, and Italy.

A CD containing grayscale and color digital versions of the historical maps, along with a searchable index, is included to assist those who want to utilize these materials in a digital environment. Windows users may use the installer to activate the “ESV Atlas Search Center,” which will locate all maps that contain a specific place name, Scripture reference, or keyword in the title or caption, or that fall within a specific date range. Mac users may open the file named "ESVAtlas-Historical-Maps_1.html" in a web browser to perform manual text searches for similar items.

The Crossway ESV Bible Atlas also capitalizes on the amazing recent advances in satellite imaging and geographic information systems. Terrain imagery has been generated from data originally supplied by NASA and the U.S. Geological Survey (see copyright page for more information). In addition, the precise locations of most ancient sites have been confirmed by pinpointing their ruins or the corresponding modern town through high resolution satellite imagery.

This extensive resource could never have happened without the help of numerous people and organizations to whom we are grateful. We wish to acknowledge Lane Dennis, Al Fisher, and Justin Taylor at Crossway, without whose support and direction this project would never have happened. The map design expertise of Josh Dennis at Crossway was invaluable, as was the editorial work of Bill Deckard. Barry Beitzel served as the geographical consultant for the majority of the historical maps, and his wealth of knowledge in this area was extremely helpful. We are also grateful for the photographic resources provided by Todd Bolen, Michael Luddeni, Barry Beitzel, and the British Museum. The illustrations and 3D reconstructions of Maltings Partnership and Leen Ritmeyer are greatly valued. Todd Bolen also graciously provided the scan of the Ordnance Survey map of Jerusalem by Charles Wilson (1865), used in the regional section of the atlas.

We pray that this resource helps readers expand their understanding of the world of the Bible and thereby helps them grow in their understanding of God’s Word.

PART 1:INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE BIBLICAL WORLD

“Stand by the roads, and look, and ask for the ancient paths, where the good way is; and walk in it, and find rest for your souls.”

Jeremiah 6:16

THE LAND IN WHICH THE ISRAELITES settled is important in its location because it sits at the crossroads of the ancient Near East. It serves as the land bridge between Asia and Africa, and in ancient times it lay between the two great civilizations of the Near East, Egypt and Mesopotamia. Human settlement developed early in the river valleys of those two regions, and the shift from food gathering economies to agricultural economies can be viewed in the archaeological record of the Neolithic period. In time, trade began between the peoples of the Nile River basin and those of the Tigris and Euphrates River valleys. International highways evolved, connecting the two areas. Two major international highways connected Egypt and Mesopotamia; one of these went directly through the land of the Israelites, and the other lay just east of the Jordan River, skirting the impassable eastern desert.

Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, was home to the great nations of Babylonia and Assyria in Old Testament times. The patriarch Abraham was a native of Mesopotamia (Gen. 11:31). Assyria was the power that destroyed the northern kingdom of Israel in 722 B.C. (2 Kings 17:6). Babylonia did the same to the southern kingdom of Judah in 586 B.C. (2 Kings 25).

No kingdom in antiquity reached the heights of human civilization attained by Egypt. In fields such as medicine, architecture, and literature the Egyptians went far beyond the other nations of the ancient Near East. Egypt was a critical land in the Old Testament narratives. Joseph was sold and imprisoned in Egypt but then rose to power. The Egyptians enslaved the Hebrews for more than 400 years until they were miraculously delivered by the hand of God. Pharaoh Shishak became a thorn in the side of the divided kingdoms soon after the death of Solomon (1 Kings 14:25).

0-1. The Tigris River in Mesopotamia.

0-1. Major Regions of the Ancient Near East

Most contact between these two major regions, whether war or commerce, took place in the land of Palestine. The key to power in the ancient Near East was to control Palestine, and particularly the road system that traversed it. Down through history, this has continued to be true. When Napoleon attempted to bring the Middle East into his empire in 1799, he was halted at the Palestinian port of Acco (Acre). The failure of German forces to capture the Middle East during World War I was partly due to T. E. Lawrence’s rout of the axis armies within the Palestinian topography.

0-2. The Nile River. The Greek historian Herodotus called Egypt “the gift of the Nile.”

NATURAL GEOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF PALESTINE

Before we look at the individual regions of Palestine, we must consider the compactness of the land. The land of Palestine is approximately the size of the state of Vermont. Yet in this comparatively small area there occurs an amazing array of different physical features: Palestine is a land of contrasts in geography, topography, climate, and vegetation. For example, while the Dead Sea is about 1,300 feet (400 m) below sea level, the city of Jerusalem is about 2,400 feet (730 m) above sea level, though it is a mere 14 miles (23 km) from the Dead Sea. We will explore the individual geographic regions of the land from west to east (see map 0-2, p. 19).

0-2. Natural Geographic Regions of Palestine

The Mediterranean Coast

The coastline of Palestine contains few natural harbors. The Israelites and other inhabitants of the land, for the most part, ignored shipping; they were not known for their maritime exploits. The Phoenicians, whose land was on the coast north of Palestine, became well known for their seafaring. They founded many colonies throughout the Mediterranean, including Carthage on the northern shores of Africa. King Solomon established some trade by sea, but this was from Elath on the shore of the Red Sea and not from the Mediterranean Sea (1 Kings 9:26). Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, attempted to build a fleet at Ezion-geber in order to establish trade with Tarshish, but “the ships were wrecked and were not able to go to Tarshish” (2 Chron. 20:37).

The Mediterranean coast of Palestine may be divided into three areas. The first is the Sharon Plain, extending from the modern city of Haifa in the north to the city of Tel Aviv/Jaffa on the Jarkon River in the south. Its character is determined by three sandstone ridges, called KurkaRidges, which run from south to north. The area has many small rivers that make much of the land swampy. It lacks natural deepwater ports. Thus, in the Roman period, Herod the Great constructed an artificial harbor along the Sharon Plain; he called it Caesarea after his patron Caesar Augustus (see photo 0-3). The Roman Empire thus opened up the Mediterranean for commerce through shipping, and Caesarea became the main gateway to the west from Palestine.

The second coastal area is Philistia, extending from Tel Aviv/Jaffa in the north to the Besor Brook south of Gaza. This area is mainly grassland with no forests. This was the settlement area of the ancient Philistines, which included their pentapolis (five capital cities) of Ashdod, Ashkelon, Ekron, Gath, and Gaza.

The third and final region is the Sinai coast-lands. This is a semiarid coastland with many sandy dunes and little rain. Throughout history its population has been sparse. Its primary importance for antiquity is that it was the area through which the Great Trunk Route ran; this was a main highway for commerce and also for military incursion. Pharaoh Shishak’s invasion of Israel and Judah went along this route.

0-3. The coastal plain near Caesarea.

The Shephelah

Within a dozen miles of the Mediterranean coast going eastward is the Shephelah, a transitional area between the plains along the coast and the mountains of the central hill country. It is a region of rolling hills in which appear numerous broad valleys that penetrate from the western plains (see photo 0-4). In antiquity the broad valleys tended to be areas of transit and areas of conflict between the peoples of the hill country and those of the coastal plains. For example, part of the battle between Joshua’s forces and the five kings of the Amorites occurred in the Shephelah; it was there where the sun stood still in the Valley of Aijalon so that the Israelite forces could have the time to defeat the enemy ( Josh. 10:12). Samson struck one thousand Philistines “with the jawbone of a donkey” ( Judg. 15:16) in one of these traversing valleys. David defeated the Philistine giant Goliath in one of these valleys, the Valley of Elah (1 Sam. 17:1–2).

0-4. The Shephelah, or foothill region, between the hill country of Judah and the coastal plain of Philistia.

The Central Hill Country

To the east of the Shephelah are the central highlands (see photo 0-5). This mountainous spine runs from north to south for approximately 90 miles (145 km): it begins at the southern tip of the Valley of Jezreel near Mount Gilboa and continues southward into Samaria and the mountains of Gerizim and Ebal; from there it continues into Judea to the city of Hebron. These hilly areas appear quickly as one travels from the Mediterranean Sea inland; from sea level at the Mediterranean to the city of Jerusalem the land rises 2,400 feet (730 m) in just 35 miles (56 km).

0-5. The hill country of Palestine, which was the primary area of Israelite settlement after the conquest under Joshua.

The central highlands played an important role in biblical history. After Abraham entered the land of Canaan he first stopped at Shechem in the northern highlands (Gen. 12:6). Abraham and his nephew Lot were encamped between the towns of Bethel and Ai in the hill country when they decided to separate and divide the land (13:3). After their parting, Abraham moved to the area of Hebron in the southern highlands (v. 18). Abraham took his son Isaac to be sacrificed on Mount Moriah, which is identified with Jerusalem, in the central hill country (Gen. 22:2; cf. 2 Chron. 3:1). David captured the city of Jerusalem, purchased the threshing floor of Ornan the Jebusite there (1 Chron. 21:18– 27), and planned the building of God’s temple on the site. Jerusalem became the capital city of the united kingdom, and of the southern kingdom of Judah after the division. The Son of God, Jesus, was born in the southern hills of Judea. And although he spent much of his life in Galilee, he returned to the hills around Jerusalem to bring to a climax his work and ministry. His crucifixion, death, and resurrection occurred in Jerusalem. He appeared to many of his disciples there. And from the top of the Mount of Olives he ascended in glory to sit at the right hand of the Father.

Samaria, capital of the northern kingdom of Israel, was located in the Samarian highlands. Omri founded the city in the mid-ninth century B.C., and his son Ahab made it infamous when he married the Baal worshiper Jezebel, princess of Tyre (1 Kings 16:29–34). Phoenicia had great influence on the material culture of the northern kingdom, and trade between the two areas was brisk. Its pagan religious influence on Israel was also enormous, and this raised the ire of the prophet Elijah (1 Kings 17–18). According to the books of 1–2 Kings, not one good king ever reigned in Samaria. The city was destroyed by the Assyrian army in 722 B.C.

The Rift Valley

To the east of the highlands is a precipitous drop to the Rift Valley, a major and imposing fault that runs north-south from Asia Minor through Africa. Part of that major land fault is the Jordan Valley, which descends from Mount Hermon in the north to the Dead Sea in the south. The Jordan Valley may be divided into four parts:

1. The Upper Jordan. The peak of Mount Hermon is 9,200 feet (3 km) above sea level. Snow usually blankets the top of this mountain. The melting of that snow along with fresh water springs at the foot of Mount Hermon feed water into the Rift Valley and form the headwaters of the upper Jordan River. This river flows south until it empties into the Sea of Galilee near the New Testament town of Bethsaida.

Mount Hermon was understood to be the northern point of the Land of Promise in numerous biblical texts (see Josh. 12:1). This region, however, was a frontier zone in Old Testament times and supported only two major cities: Dan and Hazor. Hazor was destroyed in the northern campaign of Joshua ( Josh. 11:10–11). Solomon made Hazor into one of his major store cities (1 Kings 9:15). Jeroboam set up one of his golden calves in the city of Dan (1 Kings 12:28–30). Both of these sites have undergone major archaeological excavation. During the New Testament period, Peter made his famous confession of faith at Caesarea Philippi, which is next to Dan (Matt. 16:13–20).

2. The Sea of Galilee. The Sea of Galilee is actually a lake that is 13 miles (20 km) long and 8 miles (13 km) wide. Its surface is 680 feet (207 m) below sea level, and at one point it reaches a depth of 145 feet (45 km). In the Old Testament it was called the Sea of Chinnereth, and it only appears in border descriptions (e.g., Josh. 12:3; 13:27). The Sea of Galilee does not play a major role in any Old Testament narratives. In the New Testament period the lake was a principal setting for Jesus’ Galilean ministry. Jesus’ teaching, preaching, and healing ministry centered largely on the northern and western shores of the sea and in the towns of Bethsaida (Mark 6:45), Chorazin (Luke 10:13), Capernaum (Matt. 4:13), and Magdala (also called Magadan; 15:39). Several of his disciples were fishermen from these villages ( John 1:44). It was upon the Sea of Galilee that Jesus walked on the water (Mark 6:45– 52). And he calmed a storm while coming across the lake in a boat (Mark 4:35–41).

3. The Lower Jordan. The Jordan River emerges from the southern end of the Sea of Galilee and flows downward to the Dead Sea, a distance of approximately 65 miles (105 km). In that distance the river drops around 600 feet (185 m) in elevation. This descent is probably the reason for the name of the river: in Hebrew the name “Jordan” means “descending/downward.” Where the river nears its end at the Dead Sea its descent is more precipitous, about 40 feet per mile (12 m per 1.5 km), so that the water rushes into the Dead Sea. The surface of the Dead Sea is 1,300 feet (400 m) below sea level. The Jordan River is not a straight line from the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea; rather, it meanders in a serpentine course (see photo 0-6). And it is neither wide nor deep. Although the measurements vary from place to place, the river averages a hundred feet (30 m) wide and seven to eight feet (c. 2 m) deep.

The lower Jordan River was the eastern boundary of the Land of Promise in Old Testament times. The Israelites entered the Promised Land across the river when God miraculously divided it in much the same way as he had parted the Red Sea ( Josh. 3:14–17). The prophet Elijah later separated the river and walked through it, after which he was taken to heaven in a whirlwind (2 Kings 2:6–14). Naaman, the commander of the Syrian army, was healed in the Jordan River (2 Kings 5:13–14). In New Testament times, Jesus was baptized by John in the Jordan River (Mark 1:4–11), and there John prophesied that the Messiah’s time was at hand ( John 1:24–28).

4. The Dead Sea. The surface of the biblical “Salt Sea” (see photo 0-7) lies at the lowest point on earth at 1,300 feet (400 m) below sea level. Its deepest point is in the northern half of the sea, where it plunges another 1,300 feet (400 m) to its bottom. The sea is 49 miles (80 km) long and 8 miles (13 km) wide. It has no outlet—water leaves only by evaporation. This process can be quite rapid; in the summer the sea can lose as much as an inch (25 mm) in one day. The salt concentration in the Dead Sea is as much as seven times as dense as seawater, making plant and marine life impossible. In ancient times salt and bitumen were gathered there, and only a few settlements were able to survive on the shores of the Dead Sea.

0-7. The Dead Sea, so named because its high salt content renders it uninhabitable by any marine life.

0-6. The Jordan River Valley. It is part of the larger Rift Valley that extends from the Sea of Galilee in the north into Africa in the south.

The cities of Sodom and Gomorrah were located in the region of the Dead Sea (Gen. 19:23– 26). It was here that Lot’s wife turned into a pillar of salt, becoming just like the salty region that surrounded her. On the western banks of the sea are some canyons with springs in them. The most famous of these is Engedi, where David hid from King Saul, and where he spared the king’s life in a cave (1 Sam. 24:1–7). In the second century B.C. a separatist sect settled along the western shore of the Dead Sea at Qumran. Here they awaited the coming of the Messiah, and they copied numerous texts, many from the Old Testament, which they hid in caves. At Masada, on the western bank of the Dead Sea, the last remnant of Jewish zealots held out for seven years against the powerful Roman Tenth Legion.

Transjordan

The final region to be considered as we move from west to east is the land “beyond the Jordan eastward” (Josh. 13:8; 18:7). The name “Transjordan” derives from the perspective of one who is standing in the Land of Promise and looking over the Jordan River to the land “across” or on the other side. This was an important region in biblical history. During the exodus and subsequent wilderness wanderings the Israelites approached the Promised Land through Transjordan and encamped in the plains of Moab before crossing the Jordan and conquering the land of Canaan. The Israelites had captured some of the land of Transjordan at that time and were introduced to the rich pasturelands of the region. Parts of the land were claimed by the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and the half-tribe of Manasseh for their land allotment and inheritance (Joshua 13).

During the wilderness wanderings through Transjordan the non-Israelite populations repeatedly fought with and harassed God’s people (Numbers 21). The main groups in conflict with the Israelites were the Edomites, Moabites, and Ammonites. All of these peoples were related to the Hebrews: the Edomites descended from Esau, the brother of Jacob/Israel (Gen. 25:30), and the Moabites and Ammonites descended from Lot, the nephew of Abraham (19:37–38). After the conquest and settlement by the Israelite tribes, these peoples continued to oppose them (e.g., Judg. 3:12– 30). Even amid such conflict, however, these pagan peoples were not left without hope. The prophet Amos prophesied that a day would come when there would be a “remnant in Edom” who would be called by the name of the Lord (Amos 9:11–12). Ruth the Moabitess became part of the covenant people, was the great-grandmother of King David, and thus was included in the genealogical line of the Lord Jesus (Ruth 4:13–17; Matt. 1:5).

Transjordan may be divided into five regions, which we will consider moving from north to south.

1. Bashan. Throughout antiquity Bashan was generally identified with the region north of the Yarmuk River; it was separated from Galilee by the Upper Jordan River. It was well known in antiquity as an area of rich grazing lands (Ezek. 39:18). Amos compared the gluttonous ladies of Samaria to the “cows of Bashan” (Amos 4:1). The Israelites captured this land when they defeated Og the king of Bashan during the exodus (Num. 21:31–35). The area was allotted to and settled by the half-tribe of Manasseh, and the Israelites continued to settle heavily in this area until the destruction of the northern kingdom of Israel in 722 B.C. Because Bashan lay between the Land of Promise to the southwest and the nation of Syria to the northeast it was an area of repeated conflict. For example, the Israelite king Ahab defeated the Syrians in Bashan (1 Kings 20:13–34).

2. Gilead. Gilead is located east of the Jordan River, between the Yarmuk River in the north and the Jabbok River in the south. In antiquity, the region was known for its agricultural production and, specifically, its spices and medicines (Gen. 37:25; Jer. 46:11). Its reputation spawned the saying, “Is there no balm in Gilead?” ( Jer. 8:22). The half-tribe of Manasseh settled here as well as in Bashan. Numerous biblical events occurred here, particularly during the time of the united monarchy. In 1 Samuel 11, Saul rescued the town of Jabesh-Gilead from the encroaching Ammonites. The men of Jabesh-Gilead later rescued the bodies of Saul and Jonathan from the walls of Beth-shean and buried them in their town (1 Sam. 31:11– 13). David eventually retrieved the bodies from Jabesh-Gilead and had them buried in the land of Benjamin (2 Sam. 21:12–14).

3. Ammon. The land of the Ammonites is generally located south of the Jabbok River on the east side of the Jordan River. It is difficult to define precise boundaries because the territory was continually expanding or contracting depending on the military power of the Ammonites. The capital of Ammon was Rabbah (modern Amman, Jordan), located at the spring that fed the Jabbok River. The area of the capital city was easily defended because of its deep valleys and easy access to water sources. The Ammonites opposed Israel’s penetration into Transjordan during the exodus, but the Israelites conquered the land between the Jabbok and the Arnon Rivers that belonged to Sihon (Num. 21:21–30). The northern part of the land between the two rivers was settled by the tribe of Gad and the southern part by the tribe of Reuben. There was much conflict between Israel and Ammon after the conquest and settlement (see, e.g., Judges 11; 1 Samuel 11; 2 Sam. 10:1–5).

4. Moab. The heartland of Moabite territory was south of the Arnon River. This territory receives little rain, and its economy in antiquity was primarily sheepherding. On its journey to the Land of Promise Israel passed through Moab and faced no military opposition from the Moabites; it appears that the Moabites were militarily weak at the time, and any land that they had possessed north of the Arnon had been seized by Sihon (Num. 21:26). However, Balak the king of Moab summoned Balaam the prophet to proclaim a curse against the Israelites in their encampment (Numbers 22–24). The Hebrews fell into the idolatrous ways of the Moabites prior to their entrance into the Land of Promise (Num. 25:1–9). During the period of the judges, Naomi and her family were able to survive in Moab when the land of Israel suffered famine (Ruth 1). In the ninth century B.C., Mesha king of Moab sent tribute of 100,000 lambs and 100,000 rams to Ahab king of Israel. After Ahab died, however, Mesha rebelled against Israel (2 Kings 3:4–5). This incident was also recorded by the Moabites on the Moabite Stone.

5. Edom. The main area of Edomite settlement was south of the Zered Brook on a high, narrow ridge 75 miles (120 km) long and only a few miles wide. On the east of the ridge is the desert and on its west is the Arabah, the rugged and extremely arid region south of the Dead Sea. The Edomites were principally seminomadic, and they developed a vast network of desert trade. When Israel tried to cross through Edomite territory the Edomites refused to give them safe passage (Num. 20:14– 21). The Edomites also helped the Babylonians when the latter destroyed Jerusalem in 586 B.C.; they captured fleeing Judeans and turned them over to the Babylonians. Obadiah prophesied that the Edomites would be repaid for mistreating the Israelites, and within a hundred years of the prophecy Edom was in ruins.

We will now consider the various regions of the land of Palestine, moving from north to south.

Galilee

Galilee consists of alternating valleys and ridges running east to west. It may be divided into two regions:

1. Upper/northern Galilee. This area has a rough, mountainous terrain, with the mountains reaching 4,000 feet (1.2 km) or more. Upper Galilee was a frontier zone in ancient times, supporting a sparse population. The region was conquered by Joshua during the northern campaign ( Josh. 11:6–15). It was settled by the tribes of Dan and Naphtali. Few cities of importance were located here in antiquity, except for Dan and Hazor.

2. Lower/southern Galilee. The terrain of this region is less imposing than that of Upper Galilee; hills here reach only 2,000 feet (0.6 km). Numerous valleys run from east to west through the area (see photo 0-8), allowing easy transit and transport. Southern Galilee contains the largest expanse of fertile valleys in all of Palestine, including the lush Valley of Jezreel. After the initial capture of this area by the Israelite troops during the conquest, the area became one of great struggle and conflict between Israel and the Canaanites. This conflict is celebrated in the Song of Deborah ( Judg. 5:1– 31). A myriad of biblical events occurred in this area during the New Testament period: the angelic announcement of Jesus’ birth was given to Mary in “a city of Galilee named Nazareth” (Luke 1:26), and Jesus first preached in the synagogue of that city (Luke 4:15–21). Jesus’ first recorded miracle occurred at a wedding at Cana “in Galilee” ( John 2:1–11). He raised a widow’s son at Nain (Luke 7:11–17).

The Wilderness of Judea

Winter winds bring rain from the Mediterranean Sea to the western slopes of the Judean Mountains of the central hill country. The mountains serve as a block against the rain continuing to the east and, thus, there is a sharp drop in rainfall on the eastern slopes of the Judean Mountains. In addition, the ground cover of the eastern slopes is Senonian limestone and does not retain moisture. This area is a wilderness of barren hills (see photo 0-10). Any water available in this wilderness comes from wadis, seasonal streambeds that bring the winter rainwater into the area (see photo 0-9). Especially noteworthy is the Wadi Qelt, which parallels part of the ancient road from Jerusalem to Jericho. Even today desert nomads, called Bedouin, travel through the wilderness of Judea in search of forage and water for their flocks.

Two significant events in the early life of Jesus were associated with the wilderness of Judea. The first event was his baptism. The word of God came to John the Baptist “in the wilderness,” and he went “into all the region around the Jordan, proclaiming a baptism of repentance for the forgiveness of sins” (Luke 3:2–3). Jesus came to John the Baptist in the wilderness, and there he was baptized as a way of identifying with his people in their need for cleansing from sin. Immediately after his baptism, Jesus was led by the Holy Spirit “in the wilderness” to be tempted by the Devil for 40 days. There Jesus succeeded in overcoming temptation and thus demonstrated that he was truly and uniquely the Son of God (Luke 4:1–13).

0-8. The region of Galilee, with its rolling hills and fertile valleys.

Jesus also used the wilderness of Judea in his teaching. The setting for the parable of the Good Samaritan was the notoriously dangerous road from Jerusalem to Jericho that traversed this wilderness. It was an area famous for banditry. In fact, David had fled from Saul into this wilderness with about 400 men “who were in distress, and everyone who was in debt, and everyone who was bitter of soul” (1 Sam. 22:2; 23:14–15).

The Negeb

The Negeb (or Negev) is the southernmost natural geographic region of Palestine. In Old Testament times the Negeb encompassed the land south of the Judean highlands to the oasis of Kadesh-barnea, and it included the area east and west of Beersheba. Most of the area is mountainous desert, hostile to human settlement. Vegetation is sparse and normally found near wadi beds. It is a forbidding landscape. Rainfall is minimal and occurs mostly in the winter. Beersheba, in the northern Negeb, receives about eight inches (20 cm) of rain annually and the southern Negeb may get as little as one inch (2.5 cm) per year. There is an occasional oasis in the Negeb, such as at Kadesh-barnea where the Israelites spent part of their 40 years of wilderness wandering.

0-9. A wadi is a streambed in the desert with a seasonal water flow.

0-10. The wilderness of Judea, where Jesus was tempted by the Devil.

0-3. Average Temperatures in the Near East

0-4. Average Rainfall in the Near East

The patriarchs spent much of their lives in the Negeb. Abraham made a covenant with Abimelech at Beersheba (Gen. 21:32). Isaac lived in the Negeb most of his life (24:62). From the Negeb Moses sent spies to survey the Land of Promise (Num. 12:16–13:3). David fled from Saul into the Negeb and was given sanctuary by the Philistines. Achish, king of Gath, gave David the city of Ziklag in the Negeb, and from there David campaigned against the Amalekites and other desert groups who lived in the southern Negeb (1 Sam. 27:1– 8). After defeating the prophets of Baal on Mount Carmel the prophet Elijah fled to Beersheba, away from the wrath of Jezebel (1 Kings 19:1–3). From there he went to Horeb, the mountain of God, in the Sinai desert (v. 8).

0-5. Average Annual Rainfall in Palestine

CLIMATE AND VEGETATION OF PALESTINE

The land of the Bible is truly a land of contrasts, and this is doubly confirmed by a study of its climate and vegetation. Both of these factors demonstrate just how dramatic the contrasts of this region can be.

Climate

Climate may be defined as prevailing conditions of temperature, precipitation, and air pressure in a given area (see maps 0-3 and 0-4, pp. 28–31). Palestine is a region of climatic transition consisting of four prominent weather zones.

1. Mediterranean (wet zone). This region includes the coast-land and highland areas stretching from Judea to the northern parts of Palestine. Characterized as a subtropical wet zone, it averages about 14 inches (35 cm) of precipitation per year. Because of its relatively high rainfall, it is an area of many forests, with the principal trees being terebinth and evergreen oak. Most regions of Palestine fall into the Mediterranean climatic zone.

2. Irano-Turonian (dry-steppe[plateau]). Included in this zone are the Negeb areas of Palestine, especially around Beersheba. This region has less rainfall than the Mediterranean zone, averaging 6 to 12 inches (15–30 cm) yearly. Lower vegetation forms survive in this area. Historically it has been characterized as a region of nomadism and simple dry farming.

3. Saharo-Sindian (desert). This climatic zone contains the desert areas of Palestine beginning in the southern Negeb and moving further southward. It is part of a major subtropical arid zone that includes the Arabian and Saharan deserts. Only 2 to 6 inches (5 to 15 cm) of precipitation fall in these arid areas per year. Any farming that occurs is wholly dependent on irrigation.

4. Sudano-Deccanian (oases). These oasis spots appear predominantly around the shores of the Dead Sea. The areas are small, isolated climatic zones that sustain high temperatures and maintain sources of abundant sweet water. Jericho and Engedi are prime examples of oases in Palestine. The most prominent vegetation is the lotus tree.

Palestine’s location within these four zones results in marked climatic variations over a small region. The distance between Jerusalem and Jericho is a scant 14 miles (23 km), yet the climatic differences are tremendous. Jerusalem receives 21 inches (53 cm) of rain per year and has an average temperature of 64°F (18°C), while Jericho gets only 6 inches (15 cm) of precipitation and has an average temperature of 77°F (25°C). It is little wonder that King Herod the Great built a winter palace at Jericho. There he could enjoy balmy weather during the cold, rainy months of the year, yet he was never far from his main capital at Jerusalem. Suffering from paranoia over potential palace intrigue, Herod never wanted to be far from the centers of government. At Jericho, he could have both bodily comfort and governmental control.

Palestine has two well-defined seasons: a dry season in summer and a rainy season in winter (see illustration). Summer is characterized by high temperatures, consistent westerly breezes, and almost drought conditions. Summer storms are a rarity. Samuel’s call for a heavy thunderstorm at harvest-time underscores the infrequency of such an event (1 Samuel 12). The arid season normally begins with the penetration of the hot desert winds called hamsin. These winds dry up the Palestinian landscape.

The winter season in Palestine is much more unpredictable. The greatest amount of precipitation falls during this season. The Bible describes this phenomenon as God’s giving “the rain for your land in its season, the early rain and the later rain” (Deut. 11:14). Precipitation may come in the form of hail or snow in the highland elevations (see Ps. 68:14). The amount of precipitation generally increases as one moves from south to north.

Climate, especially precipitation, is perhaps the most important physical factor influencing human activity in Palestine. Settlement patterns are linked principally to climate and water sources. The Negeb, the desert areas, and the Dead Sea—with their lack of precipitation—have mainly served as temporary settlement regions for seminomadic populations engaged in rudimentary forms of agriculture. The northern climatic belt has a completely different settlement character partly because of its milder weather and greater precipitation. Historically, the north contained more permanent settlements and centers of agricultural activity. Throughout its history, this northern area has been more populous than the south.

Hebrew Calendar and Seasonal Activities

The contrast between the desert and the cultivated land has resulted in much conflict between peoples dwelling in those differing regions. Desert marauders such as the Amalekites and Midianites proved to be a most dangerous opponent of Israel. The people of God, who lived primarily in the hill country and were mostly agriculturalists, seemed always at odds with the frontier people. Saul, for instance, thought it so necessary to secure Israel’s borders from desert invasion that he mounted a major military campaign against the desert tribes (1 Sam. 14:47–48).

Climate has largely determined the economy of the land of the Bible. In ancient times, agriculture was the basis of Palestine’s economy (see map 0-7). Areas that received sufficient precipitation had the capacity to sustain natural farming and therefore had a significant agricultural advantage. Biblical Israel was inhabited mainly by a highland people residing in the Judean and Samaritan mountains. Because those regions receive substantial rainfall and have fertile soils, they can sustain considerable agricultural capacity. Both cereals and deciduous fruit grow in this region. These advantages led Israel to develop an economy based principally on agriculture.

Vegetation

Climate, topography, and soils are the primary factors in determining vegetation or plant geography. Climate provides favorable or unfavorable thermal and rainfall conditions, such as necessary water for plant growth; topography supplies a surface configuration suitable to specific plant associations; and soils provide nutrients. Palestine is a land of many floral contrasts.

0-6. Economy of the Ancient Near East

0-7. Economy of Ancient Palestine

Four districts of plant types or associations may be distinguished in the land of the Bible. These districts correspond to the four climatic zones previously discussed.

1. Mediterranean (wet zone) flora. This zone is the largest of the vegetation districts in Palestine and receives on average 14 inches (35 cm) of precipitation per year. The plants in the Mediterranean zone are distributed over two widely divergent landscapes: the hilly regions and the coastal areas. The hill country was characterized in Bible times as a climatic district of evergreen maquis (underbrush) and forests. In these hills would be found extensive shrub vegetation with scattered full-sized trees such as evergreen oak, terebinth, and Jerusalem pine. Many of the trees have disappeared because of deforestation, but meager remnants of the evergreen maquis are preserved in areas such as Mount Carmel.

The valleys and coastal areas of Palestine have shorter plants than the highlands. These areas are typified by a dense carpet of low shrubs and a scattering of carob trees.

2. Irano-Turonian (dry steppe) plant life. Receiving a mere 6 to 12 inches (15 to 30 cm) of rain per year, this district can maintain only a sparse vegetation cover. Characteristic of this plant association are low brush or dwarf bushes. This form of plant life is centered principally in the Beersheba region.

3. Arabian (desert) flora zone. This district comprises the desert regions of Palestine, including the Dead Sea area, the Judean desert, most of the Negeb, and most of the Sinai plateau. It contains desert vegetation in which plant cover is sporadic. Many areas are barren. The greatest concentration of vegetation appears in wadi beds where plants grow because of winter floods.

4. Sudanese (oasis) vegetation. This area includes more than 40 plant types that need both high temperatures and abundant water. The oasis spots in Palestine (Engedi, Jericho, etc.) provide just the kind of environment needed for this variety of plant life. As previously mentioned, the lotus tree is the most significant plant of this district.

Agriculture was the foundation of most economies of antiquity in Palestine (see maps 0-6 and 0-7, pp. 34, 35). Israel, located principally in the hilly regions of the Mediterranean climatic and floral zone, was an agrarian society. In contrast to people who lived in the Negeb and Sinai, the Hebrews used little irrigation for farming because precipitation was sufficiently high for them to do natural farming. Scripture specifically describes Israel’s blessing in this regard: “But the land that you are going over to possess is a land of hills and valleys, which drinks water by the rain from heaven, a land that the LORD your God cares for” (Deut. 11:11–12).

The agricultural products grown by the Israelites in the highlands are also described in the Bible. They included horticultural products as well as cereals. “For the LORD your God is bringing you into a good land, a land of brooks of water, of fountains and springs, flowing out in the valleys and hills, a land of wheat and barley, of vines and fig trees and pomegranates, a land of olive trees and honey” (Deut. 8:7–8).

The Israelites worked a significant number of crops. At the Israelite site of Gezer, archaeologists discovered a clay tablet with Hebrew writing that described the basic agricultural year (see photo 0-11). It reads,

His two months are olive harvesting, His two months are planting grain, His two months are late planting, His month is hoeing flax, His month is barley harvest, His month is harvest and festivals, His two months are vine tending, His month is summer fruit.

Although the substantial rainfall of the Judean and Samaritan mountains was an advantage to Israelite agriculture, the steep terrain was a problem. In their natural state, the severe slopes of most of the mountainous regions make cultivation virtually impossible. Water rushes down the mountainsides, eroding the soil. As a consequence, the soil cover of the highlands is extremely shallow. In addition, a particularly rocky soil characterizes the area. These factors made the highlands a difficult region for agriculture in ancient times.

However, the Hebrews established favorable, continuous, and extensive agricultural conditions on the sloping areas by terracing the land. Terracing is a man-made system by which slopes of hills are transformed into a series of flat, horizontal surfaces (see photo 0-12). Terracing has three functions: to prevent erosion, to increase the accumulation of water and soil, and to remove rocks from the soil by using them for terrace walls. In this way, the Israelites could utilize land that previously was of limited agricultural value. Both deciduous fruit crops and cereals thrived on these sloping areas.

0-11. The Gezer Calendar is a limestone tablet containing a school text of an agricultural calendar written in Hebrew (10th century B.C.).

0-12. First used in the Iron Age, terracing is an agricultural technique used to transform continuous slopes into a series of level surfaces. Fruits and grains are grown on terraces.

To create more land for agriculture, the Israelites cleared trees in the highlands. The book of Joshua explains, “Then the people of Joseph spoke to Joshua, saying, ‘Why have you given me but one lot and one portion as an inheritance, although I am a numerous people, since all along the Lord has blessed me?’ And Joshua said to them, ‘If you are a numerous people, go up by yourselves to the forest, and there clear ground for yourselves in the land. . . . the hill country shall be yours, for though it is a forest, you shall clear it’” ( Josh. 17:14, 15, 18).

Another important innovation in agriculture was the introduction of the beam press used for manufacturing olive oil. Archaeological discoveries of oil presses at the Israelite sites of Beth-shemesh, Dan, Gezer, and Tel Beit Mirsim demonstrate that such presses were in widespread use no later than the eighth century B.C.

Some Israelites inhabited desert zones that required irrigation. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence that Hebrew farmers created terrace dams for cultivation in the desert in order to have greater control over the limited water supply. The Israelites were developing or borrowing diversified agricultural techniques in order to cultivate areas that up until then had been only sparsely settled.

SEISMIC ACTIVITY

Throughout antiquity the Rift Valley was an area of faulting movements. This seismic activity (see map 0-8) is corroborated especially in the areas around the Sea of Galilee and the Dead Sea by numerous hot mineral springs. According to Efraim Orni and Elisha Efrat, these springs “rise through rock crevices from a great depth, and become enriched on their way with dissolved sulfur, magnesia, bromine, iodine, radioactive and other salts”.1 Earthquakes in the Rift Valley in antiquity were rare, however; they were more common in the hills and plateaus on both sides of the valley.

Geological study of seismic activity is important in the attempt by modern scholars to understand and reconstruct the past. For example, archaeologists have been searching for the site of Bethsaida, a strategic New Testament fishing village on the Sea of Galilee. A good prospect for site identification is the mound of et-Tell. The problem is that et-Tell today lies 1.25 miles (2 km) away from the Sea of Galilee. How could it be a fishing village if it is so far from the sea? Geologists have solved the problem by discovering that a combination of processes served to remove et-Tell away from the present shore of the Sea of Galilee: (1) a recession of the water level away from the site; (2) seismic activity resulting in faulting that lifted the site away from the sea; and (3) the extension of the shoreline near the site as a result of sedimentation from flash flooding of the Jordan and other nearby rivers. It is clear that et-Tell was on the edge of the Sea of Galilee in New Testament times, and it is probably to be identified with the New Testament village of Bethsaida.

0-8. Seismic Activity in the Near East (shading on map represents maximum recorded seismic activity)

ROADS AND ROUTES

Not until the Roman period was much attention paid to the construction and upkeep of roads and highways in the Near East. During the period of the Republic, Roman authorities began the construction of a vast system of highways that made communication possible between Rome and various parts of the empire, including Palestine (see photo 0-13). For example, the Roman historian Plutarch describes the construction of roads by Gaius Gracchus in the second century B.C.:

His roads were planned so as to run right across the country in a straight line, part of the surface consisting of dressed stone and part of tamped-down gravel. Depressions were filled up, any watercourses or ravines which crossed the line of the road were levelled or embanked to the same height so that the whole of the work presented a beautiful and symmetrical appearance. (Gaius Gracchus 7)

No maps of roadways are known from before the Roman era, so it is difficult to determine the routing of roads in Palestine prior to this time.

For pre-Roman periods, we are primarily dependent on extrabiblical literary sources, such as texts from Egypt, to supplement the Bible. However, because of the scarcity of evidence even from these sources, routes for travel in biblical times may be generally divided into two basic groups: (1) international highways; and (2) regional/local roads.

0-13. Remains of the Via Egnatia, a Roman road that ran through Philippi and other cities of ancient Macedonia.

International Highways

During the pre-Roman periods there were two principal international highways through Palestine (see map 0-10, p. 41). The first, often called the Great Trunk Road, linked Egypt with virtually every part of the Levant (the countries on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea). It ran from Memphis, the very important religious, political, and economic center of Middle Egypt, to Pi-Rameses, a city probably to be identified with Tell ed-Dab‘a, about 17 miles (27 km) southwest of Tanis. From there the route proceeded to Sile (Tell Abu Sefa) in the Delta region of Lower Egypt. The roadway went along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea until it reached Gaza, a town in the coastal plain of Palestine. The Bible refers to this section as the “way of the land of the Philistines” (Ex. 13:17). The Egyptians called it the “way of Horus.”

The Great Trunk Road in Palestine traveled to the north along the coast until it reached the Arunah Pass, where it turned slightly to the northeast to the city of Megiddo. From there it divided into three branches: (1) one went directly eastward to Beth-shean; (2) a second continued northward along the coast to Acco and points north; and (3) the final branch proceeded to the Sea of Galilee, north to Hazor and eventually to Damascus.

The Great Trunk Road was an important thoroughfare for trade and commerce between Egypt and Mesopotamia, but beyond that this highway was a main artery for military campaigns and conquests throughout the history of the ancient Near East. When Thutmosis III (1479–1425 B.C.) invaded Palestine, the route he took was from Sile to Gaza, then to Megiddo. The same route was taken in later military campaigns under Rameses II (1290–1224 B.C.) and Shoshenk I (945–924).

The second principal route is called the King’s Highway. Although not as important as the Great Trunk Road for travel between Egypt and Syria, it was vital because of the many roads to Arabia branching from it. Its southern extension began in the area of Elath/Ezion-geber, at the northern tip of the Gulf of Aqaba, and it ran northward along the hill country of Transjordan through ancient Edom and Moab. The route went by the towns of Bozrah, Dibon, Heshbon, and Rabbah (modern Amman, Jordan). From there it proceeded north through ancient Gilead and Bashan, eventually reaching Damascus. The road was used frequently by the Egyptians in the Middle and Late Bronze Ages. Three topographical lists, from the reigns of Thutmosis III, Amenophis III (1391–1353 B.C.