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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Sprache: Englisch
The comprehensive resource for understanding the structure, properties, and applications of cyclodextrins Cyclodextrins: Properties and Industrial Applications is a comprehensive resource that includes information on cyclodextrins (CDs) structure, their properties, formation of inclusion complex with various compounds as well as their applications. The authors Sahar Amiri and Sanam Amiri, noted experts in the field of cyclodextrins, cover both the basic and applied science in chemistry, biology, and physics of CDs and offers scientists and engineers an understand of cyclodextrins. Cyclodextrins are a family of cyclic oligosaccharides consisting of (alpha-1,4)-linked alpha-D-glucopyranose units. The formation of inclusion complex between CDs as host and guest molecules is based on non-covalent interaction such as hydrogen bonding or van der waals interactions and lead to the formation of supramolecular structures. These supramolecular structures can be used as macroinitiator for initiating various type of reactions. CDs are widely used in many industrial products such as pharmacy, food and flavours, chemistry, chromatography, catalysis, biotechnology, agriculture, cosmetics, hygiene, medicine, textiles, drug delivery, packing, separation processes, environment protection, fermentation, and catalysis. This important resource: * Offers a basic understanding of cyclodextrins for researchers and engineers * Includes information of the basic structure of cyclodextrins and their properties * Reviews how cyclodextrins can be applied in a variety of fields including medicine, chemistry, textiles, packing, and many others * Shows how encapsulate corrosion inhibitors became active in corrosive electrolytes to ensure delivery of the inhibitors to corrosion sites and long-term corrosion protection Cyclodextrins offers research scientists and engineers a wealth of information about CDs with particular focus on how cyclodextrins are applied in various ways including in drug delivery, the food industry, and many other areas.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 History of Cyclodextrins
1.2 Cyclodextrin Properties
1.3 Inclusion Complex Formation Mechanism
1.4 Important Parameters in Inclusion Complex Formation
1.5 Inclusion Complex Formation Methods
1.6 Methods for Drying of Complexes
1.7 Release of the Complex
1.8 Application of Inclusion Compounds
1.9 Applications of Cyclodextrins
1.10 Characterization and Experimental Techniques
References
Chapter 2: Supramolecular Chemistry and Rotaxane
2.1 What Is Supramolecular Chemistry
2.2 Host–Guest Chemistry
2.3 Cyclodextrin-Containing Supramolecular Structures
2.4 Supramolecular Chemistry
2.5 Cyclodextrin-based Rotaxanes and Pseudorotaxanes
References
Chapter 3: Smart Polymers
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Supramolecular Self-Assembly
3.3 Synthesis of Block Copolymers
3.4 Self-Assembly of Amphiphilic Block Copolymers
3.5 Stimuli-Sensitive Supramolecular Structures
3.6 Polymers with Dual-Stimuli Responsiveness
3.7 Stimuli-Sensitive Polyrotaxane for Drug Delivery
3.8 Multi-Stimuli-Responsive Inclusion Complexes
References
Chapter 4: Basics of Corrosion
4.1 Introduction to Corrosion and Its Types
4.2 Corrosion Protection
4.3 An Introduction to Self-healing Coatings
4.4 Protective Coatings Containing Corrosion Inhibitors
4.5 An Introduction to Sol–Gel
4.6 Addition of Corrosion Inhibitors to Sol–Gel Coating Micro-/Nanoparticles
4.7 Self-healing Coating Containing Corrosion Inhibitor Capsules
4.8 Morphology of the Smart Corrosion Inhibitor Nanocontainers
4.9 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 5: Phytochemicals
5.1 Phenolic Acids
5.2 Flavanoids
5.3 Phytochemical Importance
5.4 Encapsulation
5.5 Encapsulation of Phenolic Compounds Via Cyclodextrin
5.6 Why Encapsulation by Cyclodextrin?
5.7 Concluding Remarks
References
Chapter 6: Cyclodextrins Application as Macroinitiator
6.1 Cyclodextrins Application as Macroinitiator in Polyrotaxane Synthesis Via ATRP
6.2 Inclusion Complexes of PDMS and γ-CD Without Utilizing Sonic Energy
6.3 Supramolecular Pentablock Copolymer Containing Via ATRP of Styrene and Vinyl Acetate Based on PDMS/CD Inclusion Complexes as Macroinitiator
6.4 Synthesis and Characterization of Poly(vinylacetate)-
b
-Polystyrene-
b
-(Polydimethyl siloxane/cyclodextrin)-
b
-Polystyrene-
b
-Poly(vinyl acetate) Pentablock Copolymers
6.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Cyclodextrin Applications
7.1 Cyclodextrin Industrial Applications
7.2 Drug Delivery Systems Based on Cyclodextrins
7.3 Cyclodextrin-based Targeting Systems
7.4 CDs in the Food Industry
7.5 Cyclodextrins in Skin Delivery and Cosmetic
7.6 Agricultural Applications
7.7 Self-healing Coating
References
Index
End User License Agreement
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Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Preface
Begin Reading
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1: Introduction
Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of cyclodextrins.
Scheme 1.1 Schematic presentation of inclusion complex formation.
Figure 1.2 Inclusion complex between high-molecular-weight PEO and α-CD [90–93].
Figure 1.3 Schematic illustration of drug-conjugated polyrotaxane and the concept of drug release [93–95].
Chapter 2: Supramolecular Chemistry and Rotaxane
Figure 2.1 Schematic structure of Crown-6, Cryptand, and Spherand-6.
Scheme 2.1 Schematic presentation of electrostatic interaction.
Scheme 2.2 Schematic presentation of hydrogen bonding.
Scheme 2.3 Schematic presentation of van der Waals interactions.
Figure 2.2 Host or guest molecules which can be used for formation of supramolecular structures. (a) Crown ether, (b) calixarene, (c) cyclodextrin, and (d) spherand.
Figure 2.3 Self-assembled supramolecular structures.
Figure 2.1 Schematic presentation of (a) pseudorotaxane, (b) rotaxane, (c) poly pseudorotaxane, and (d) polyrotaxane.
Figure 2.5 Polyrotaxanes synthesis method based on nature and location of the bonding.
Figure 2.6 Orientation between CD and polymer chain based on hydrogen bonding.
Figure 2.7 Schematic presentation of (a) CD dimers and (b) molecular inclusion complex by a cyclodextrin vesicle.
Figure 2.8 Synthesis of catenane by linking both end of a thiol threaded into α-CD in the presence of copper(II) ions and oxidation in the presence of air.
Figure 2.9 Schematic synthesis of rotaxane via two methods, (a) synthesis of a pseudorotaxane and then reaction with bulky blocking group and (b) formation of an inclusion complex containing a guest molecule with one blocking agent at the end and reaction with another blocking agent.
Figure 2.10 Self-assembly of a rotaxane using threading procedure.
Figure 2.11 CD-based rotaxane prepared using a slippage method.
Figure 2.12 Schematic representation of side- and main-chain polyrotaxanes.
Figure 2.13 Main chain polyrotaxane by using (a) small blocking group and (b) a larger blocking group.
Figure 2.14 Side-chain polyrotaxane from methylated β-CD (X = O−COOEt).
Figure 2.15 Tubular polyrotaxane based on α-CD from stacked polyrotaxane rings.
Figure 2.16 Schematic presentation of Tandem side-chain polyrotaxane.
Figure 2.17 Synthesis of cyclodextrin molecular tubes.
Chapter 3: Smart Polymers
Figure 3.1 Classification of polymerization methods.
Scheme 3.1 Nitroxide-mediated polymerization mechanism.
Scheme 3.2 Atom transfer radical polymerization mechanism.
Scheme 3.3 Reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer mechanism.
Figure 3.2 Classification of polymers and copolymers based on repeating unit.
Figure 3.3 Schematic presentation of polymeric micelles.
Figure 3.4 Self-assembled structure in diluted regime.
Figure 3.5 (a) Spherical micelles and (b) spherical vesicles.
Figure 3.6 Classification of dendrimer supramolecular structures.
Figure 3.7 Equilibrium state between compacted and expanded state of polymer chains.
Figure 3.8 Multistimuli nanogel tend which released drug under pH or temperature differences.
Figure 3.9 (a) Poly(
N
-isopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAAm), (b) poly(
N
,
N
-diethylaminoethyl methacrylate) (PDEAEMA), (c) poly(
N
,
N
′-diethylacrylamide) (PDEAAm), (d) poly(2-carboxyisopropylacrylamide) (PCIPAAm), and (e) poly[2-(methacryloyloxy)ethyl]-dimethyl(3-sulfopropyl) ammonium hydroxide (PMEDSAH).
Figure 3.10 (a) Poly(
N
-isopropyl acrylamide)PNIPAM, (b) poly(
N
-vinylcaprolactam) PNVCL, (c) poly(methyl vinyl ether) PMVE, (d) poly(
N
,
N
-dimethylacryl amide) PDEAM,(e) poly(
N
-methylmethacrylamide) PNEMAM, and (f) poly(2-ethoxyethyl vinyl ether) PEOVE.
Figure 3.11 Phase transfer of thermoresponsive polymers.
Figure 3.12 (a) Spiropyrans, (b) flugides, (c) diarylethenes, and (d) azobenzene.
Figure 3.13 Schematic representation of (a) photochromic containing block copolymers and (b) photodegradable block copolymers.
Figure 3.14 Schematic representation of electroresponsive polymers.
Figure 3.15 Schematic design for pH-responsive CD–polypseudorotaxane and polyrotaxane hydrogels.
Figure 3.16 Vesicle self-assembly PEO-
b
-PAA induced by the complexation with CD.
Figure 3.17 Photoresponsive inclusion complexes containing (a) azobenzene and (b) stilbene.
Figure 3.18 Drug released from pH-sensitive hydrogel containing CD and polymer chain.
Figure 3.19 Possible shuttling process in stimuli-responsive rotaxane.
Figure 3.20 Light-driven molecular shuttle based on CD.
Figure 3.21 Photoresponsive rotaxane based on strong hydrogen bonding between OH groups of CD and two carbonyl groups in phthalic acid unit.
Figure 3.22 Stilbene-based photoresponsive polyrotaxane.
Figure 3.23 Photoresponsive α-CD/NPSI inclusion complex [187].
Figure 3.24 Azobenzene-based rotaxane conformations.
Figure 3.25 Redox-responsive gel-to-sol transition based on CD and ferrocenecarboxylic acid.
Figure 3.26 Temperature- and UV-responsive rotaxane based on AZO-PNIPAM and Au nanoparticles.
Figure 3.27 UV- and light irradiation of PDMAA-
co
-PAPA/CD rotaxanes.
Chapter 4: Basics of Corrosion
Figure 4.1 Uniform corrosion attack on structural steel.
Figure 4.2 Galvanic corrosion occurred on the aluminum plate along the joint with the mild steel within 2 years due to the huge acceleration factor in galvanic corrosion.
Figure 4.3 ASTM-G46 has a standard visual chart for rating of pitting corrosion.
Figure 4.4 Crevice corrosion of stainless steel tube due to the presence of crevice (gap) between the tube and tube sheet.
Figure 4.5 Intergranular corrosion or intergranular stress corrosion cracking.
Figure 4.6 Graphitic corrosion of a gray cast iron valve.
Figure 4.7 Intrinsic self-healing materials (a) reversible bonding schemes make use of the reversible nature of certain chemical reactions; (b) chain entanglement approaches use the mobility at crack faces to entangle chains that span the crack surfaces; and (c) noncovalent self-healing systems rely on reversible hydrogen bonding or ionic clustering, which manifests as reversible cross-links in polymers.
Figure 4.8 Capsule-based healing process.
Figure 4.9 Chemical reaction of urea with formaldehyde prepolymer formation.
Figure 4.10 Chemical formula of the cross-linked polyurea–formaldehyde capsule shell.
Figure 4.11 Mechanism of self-healing coating.
Figure 4.12 Schematic diagram for sol–gel process.
Figure 4.13 (a) Molecular structure of cyclodextrins and (b) formation of inclusion complex with guest molecule.
Figure 4.14 Schematic presentation of CD/mercaptobenzimidazole (MBI) and CD/mercaptobenzothiazole (MBT) inclusion complex formation.
Figure 4.15
1
H NMR of (a) α-CD, (b) 2-MBT, (c) α-CD/MBT at room temperature, (d) α-CD/MBT under sonic energy, (e) α-CD/MBI at room temperature, (f) α-CD/MBI under sonic energy, and (g) MBI.
Figure 4.17
1
H NMR of (a) γ-CD, (b) MBT, (c) γ-CD/MBT at room temperature, (d) γ-CD/MBT under sonic energy, (e) γ-CD/MBI at room temperature, (f) γ-CD/MBI under sonic energy, and (g) MBI.
Figure 4.18 XRD spectra of (a) α-CD, (b) α-CD/MBT at room temperature, (c) α-CD/MBT under sonic energy, (d) α-CD/MBI at room temperature, and (e) α-CD/MBI under sonic energy.
Figure 4.20 XRD spectra of (a) γ-CD, (b) γ-CD/MBT under sonic energy, (c) γ-CD/MBT at room temperature, (d) γ-CD/MBI under sonic energy, and (e) γ-CD/MBI at room temperature, and (e) γ-CD.
Figure 4.21 SEM images of coating containing inclusion complex of α-CD or β-CD and inhibitor nanocontainers at various conditions.
Figure 4.22 SEM images of coating containing inclusion complex of γ-CD and inhibitor nanacontainers at room temperature.
Figure 4.23 TEM images of coating containing CD/MBT nanocontainers at room temperature (a) α-CD, (b) β-CD, and (c) γ-CD.
Figure 4.24 Potentiodynamic scans for coating containing encapsulated inhibitor at room temperature dilute 5% NaCl solution.
Figure 4.25 The electrochemical impedance spectra for scribed coatings with different inhibitor nanocontainers in 5% NaCl solution.
Figure 4.26 Results of 1000-h salt spray tests for aluminum alloy substrates coated with coating containing corrosion inhibitor nanocontainers.
Figure 4.27 Calibration curve for nanocontainers at room temperature.
Figure 4.28 Release of coating containing nanocontainers of corrosion inhibitor and (a) α-CD and (b) β-CD at various conditions.
Chapter 5: Phytochemicals
Figure 5.1 Classification of phytochemicals.
Figure 5.2 Chemical structures of some phenolic compounds.
Figure 5.3 Some polyphenol structures.
Figure 5.1 Flavanoid structure.
Figure 2.5 Chemical structures of flavonoids.
Figure 2.6 Schematic images of (a) epigallocatechin-3-gallate, (b) quercetin, and (c) curcumin.
Figure 2.7 Various types of core–shell structures.
Figure 2.8 Most common morphologies for encapsulation of polyphenols (a) monomer capsule and (b) aggregate.
Figure 2.9 Encapsulation by emulsion/extraction and emulsion/evaporation method.
Figure 5.10 Schematic image of encapsulation by coacervation method.
Figure 5.11 Cross section of polymeric micelles.
Figure 5.12 Phospholipid bilayers for protection of drug, gen, and polyphenol compounds.
Figure 5.13 In situ polymerization is a chemical microencapsulation process.
Figure 5.14 Principle of the microcapsulation by interfacial polymerization: (a) the oligomer is soluble in the droplet and (b) the oligomer is insoluble in the droplet.
Figure 5.15 Inclusion complex formation between CD and the guest molecule.
Chapter 6: Cyclodextrins Application as Macroinitiator
Figure 6.1 Continuous variation plot for complex formation between γ-CD and PDMS under sonic energy.
Figure 6.2 FTIR spectra of γ-CD/PDMS complexes at various conditions: (a) PDMS–γ-CD, 7 days at room temperature; (b) PDMS–γ-CD under sonic energy at room temperature; (c) PDMS–Br, 7 days at room temperature; and (d) PDMS–γ-CD without mixing or light, 7 days at room temperature.
Figure 6.3 Powder X-ray diffraction patterns (solid state) of γ-CD/PDMS complexes at various conditions: (a) PDMS–γ-CD, 7 days at room temperature; (b) PDMS–Br, 7 days at room temperature; (c) PDMS–γ-CD under sonic energy at room temperature; (d) PDMS–γ-CD without mixing at room temperature; and (e) PDMS–γ-CD, 7 days at room temperature without mixing or light.
Figure 6.4
1
H NMR spectra of the complex between γ-CD/PDMS complexes at various conditions: (a) PDMS–γ-CD, 7 days at room temperature; (b) PDMS–γ-CD under sonic energy at room temperature; (c) PDMS–γ-CD, 7 days at room temperature without mixing or light; and (d) PDMS–Br, 7 days at room temperature.
Figure 6.5 DSC spectra of (a) γ-CD and the complex between PDMS/γ-CD, (b) 7 days at room temperature without mixing or light, (c) under sonic energy at room temperature, and (d) 7 days at room temperature.
Scheme 6.1 ATRP route of PVAc and PSt initiated with (Br–PDMS–Br/CD) macroinitiators.
Figure 6.6
1
H NMR spectra of HO–PDMS–OH (a) and Br–PDMS–Br macroinitiator (b) in the CDCl
3
solvent.
Figure 6.7 Powder X-ray diffraction patterns (solid state) of γ-CD/Br–PDMS–Br inclusion complexes at various conditions: (a) Br–PDMS–Br/γ-CD under sonic energy at room temperature; (b) Br–PDMS–Br/γ-CD, 7 days at room temperature; and (c) Br–PDMS–Br/γ-CD without mixing or light, 7 days at room temperature.
Figure 6.8 (a) Time dependence of ln[
M
]
0
/[
M
] (
M
: monomer) and (b) dependence of the pentablock copolymer
M
n
on the conversion for the ATRP of St and PVAc with Br–PDMS–Br/γ-CD macroinitiator, which is synthesized from various conditions at 60 °C.
Figure 6.9
1
H NMR of PSt-
b
-PVAc-
b
-PDMS/γ-CD-
b
-PVAc-
b
-PSt initiated with inclusion complex of γ-CD/Br–PDMS–Br synthesized from (a) 7 days at room temperature, (b) under sonic energy (15 min), and (c) 7 days at room temperature without light and mixing.
Figure 6.10 DSC thermograms for the (a) PSt-
b
-PVAc-
b
-(PDMS/γ-CD)-
b
-PVAc-
b
-PSt initiated with inclusion complex of γ-CDs/Br–PDMS–Br synthesized at (a) 7 days at room temperature, (b) under sonic energy (15 min), and (c) 7 days at room temperature without light and mixing.
Figure 6.11
1
H NMR of thermoreversible PSt-
b
-PVAc-
b
-PDMS/γ-CD-
b
-PVAc-
b
-PSt block copolymers initiated with inclusion complex of γ-CD/PDMS (synthesized 7 days at room temperature) at (a) 22 °C, (b) 55 °C, and (c) 22 °C.
Figure 6.12 XRD of thermoreversible PSt-
b
-PVAc-
b
-PDMS/γ-CD-
b
-PVAc-
b
-PSt block copolymers initiated with inclusion complex of γ-CD/Br–PDMS–Br (synthesized 7 days at room temperature) at (a) 22 °C, (b) 55 °C, and (c) 22 °C.
Scheme 6.2 Reaction scheme for synthesis of bis(2-bromoisobutyrate)-terminated PDMS macroinitiator from bis(hydroxyalkyl)-terminated PDMS.
Figure 6.13
1
H NMR of PVAc-
b
-PSt-
b
-[γ-CD/PDMS]-
b
-PSt-
b
-PVAc initiated with inclusion complex of γ-CD/PDMS synthesized from (a) 7 days at room temperature, (b) under sonic energy, and (c) 7 days at room temperature without light and mixing [VAc:St:(PDMS/CDs) = 1:2:0.5].
Figure 6.14 First-order kinetic plot for the ATRP of St and PVAc initiated by Br–PDMS/CDs at 60 °C for 6 h.
Figure 6.15
1
H NMR thermograms for the PVAc-
b
-PSt-
b
-[CD/PDMS]-
b
-PSt-
b
-PVAc: (a) γ-CD/PDMS, (b) β-CD/PDMS, and (c) α-CD/PDMS initiated with inclusion complex of CD/PDMS at 60 °C for 6 h [VAc:St:(PDMS/CDs) = 1:2:0.5].
Figure 6.16 DSC thermograms for the (a) PSt-
b
-PVAc-
b
-PDMS-
b
-PVAc-
b
-PSt, (b) PSt-
b
-PVAc-
b
-(PDMS/α-CD)-
b
-PVAc-
b
-PSt, (c) PSt-
b
-PVAc-
b
-(PDMS/β-CD)-
b
-PVAc-
b
-PSt, and (d) PSt-
b
-PVAc-
b
-(PDMS/α-CD)-
b
-PVAc-
b
-PSt initiated with inclusion complex of CDs/PDMS at 60 °C for 6 h [VAc:St:(PDMS/CDs) = 1:2:0.5].
List of Tables
Chapter 1: Introduction
Table 1.1 Cyclodextrin properties
Chapter 5: Phytochemicals
Table 5.1 Encapsulation methods applied to polyphenols
Chapter 6: Cyclodextrins Application as Macroinitiator
Table 6.1 Conversion of γ-CD/PDMS for various conditions
Table 6.2 Assignments of FTIR of PDMS/γ-CD
Table 6.3 GPC and
1
H NMR results of PSt-
b
-PVAc-
b
-[γ-CD/PDMS]-
b
-PVAc-
b
-PSt initiated with γ-CD/Br–PDMS–Br synthesized from various conditions
Table 6.4 Summary of the results obtained from GPC and
1
H NMR analyses of PSt-
b
-PVAc-
b
-[γ-CD/PDMS]-
b
-PVAc-
b
-PSt initiated with γ-CD/PDMS synthesized from various conditions [VAc:St:(PDMS/CDs) = 1:2:0.5]
Table 6.5 Summary of the results obtained from GPC and
1
H NMR analyses of PSt-
b
-PVAc-
b
-(PDMS/CDs)-
b
-PVAc-
b
-PSt initiated with PVAc macroinitiator from bulk telomerization in the presence of Co(acac)
2
at 60 °C for 6 h [VAc:St:(PDMS/CDs) = 1:2:0.5]
Cyclodextrins
Properties and Industrial Applications
Sahar Amiri
Department of Polymer Engineering Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran
Sanam Amiri
Department of Textile Engineering Amirkabir University of Technology Tehran, Iran
This edition first published 2017
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Preface
Cyclodextrins (CDs) are a family of cyclic oligosaccharides consisting of (α-1,4)-linked α-d-glucopyranose units. CDs are obtained from the enzymatic digestion of the most essential polysaccharides, starch, and cellulose. The specific donate shape (truncated cone) of CDs is due to the chair conformation of the glucopyranose units and leads to a hydrophobic cavity and a hydrophilic surface. CDs can form host–guest interaction with a wide range of hydrophobic and hydrophile segments and encapsulate molecules in their hydrophobic cavity. Encapsulation in a CD cavity may alter or improve the physical, chemical, biological characteristics, and stability of the guest molecule. The formation of inclusion complexes between CDs as host and guest molecules is based on noncovalent interaction such as hydrogen bonding or van der Waals interactions and leads to the formation of supramolecular structures. These structures can be used as macroinitiators to initiate various types of reactions. CDs are widely used in many industrial products such as pharmacy, food and flavors, chemistry, chromatography, catalysis, biotechnology, agriculture, cosmetics, hygiene, medicine, textiles, drug delivery, packing, separation processes, environment protection, fermentation, and catalysis.
One of the most attractive applications of CDs is their role as molecular encapsulants in food and drug industries. Encapsulation of phytochemicals and flavors in food industry allows the quality and quantity of the flavor to be preserved to a greater extent for longer periods compared to other encapsulants; it provides longevity to the food item, and also masks its unpleasant odor. CDs are potential candidates for increasing the solubility of hydrophobic drugs, delivering the required amount of drug to the targeted site for the necessary period of time, both efficiently and precisely, and limiting undesirable properties of drug molecules. These characteristics have lowered drug production costs.
Inclusion complex formation between CDs and guest molecules is based on reversible and noncovalent bonding strategies and can be used as self-healing agents for various purposes. CDs can encapsulate corrosion inhibitors, become active in corrosive electrolytes, slowly diffuse out of the host material to ensure both continuous and controlled delivery of the inhibitors to corrosion sites and long-term corrosion protection.
Each year, many patents, research articles, books, and scientific abstracts are published about CDs and their applications in various fields, but many aspects of CDs and their derivatives are still unknown and attractive. That is why we focused on CDs and their applications in various fields.
This book reflects cyclodextrins structure, their properties, formation of inclusion complex with various compounds, and their applications. The purpose of this book is to cover both basic and applied science in chemistry, biology, and physics of CDs. We hope that this book will arouse the interest of scientists and engineers who wish to diversify their research fields.
Tehran, June 2017
Sahar AmiriSanam Amiri
Chapter 1Introduction
Cyclodextrins, also known as cycloamyloses, cyclomaltoses, or Schardinger dextrins, are cyclic oligosaccharides consisting of six, seven, eight, or more glucopyranose units composed of α-(1,4)-linked glucopyranose subunits synthesized from the enzymatic degradation of starch [1].
Cyclodextrins are chemically and physically stable macromolecules produced by intramolecular transglycosylation reaction from enzymatic degradation of starch with glucanotransferase (CGTase) enzyme [2]. Due to steric factors, cyclodextrins built by less than six glucopyranose units do not exist; however, cyclodextrins with more than eight glucopyranose units have been synthesized [3]. Because of chair conformation of glucopyranose unit, their molecular structure, and the lack of free rotation about the bonds connecting the glucopyranose units, CDs have a unique toroid or truncated cone shape with hydrophilic outer surface and hydrophobic cavity [4]. The most common ones are α, β, and γ cyclodextrins consisting of 6, 7, and 8 glucopyranose units that are crystalline, homogeneous, and nonhygroscopic substances produced by the enzymatic degradation of starch [5]. Glucosyltransferases of starch caused degradation of amylose fraction: one or several turns of the amylose helix are hydrolyzed off and their ends are joined together, thereby producing cyclic oligosaccharides. Per year using environmentally friendly technologies, thousands of tons of CDs are produced, with prices acceptable for most of the industrial purposes [6]. Absorption of CDs is negligible, so they are harmless; they have been widely used because of low toxicity both orally and intravenously. Unmodified CDs are completely resistant to β-amylase. α-Amylase is capable of hydrolyzing CDs only at a slow rate. After intravenous injections, CDs are mainly excreted in their intact form by renal filtration as they are minimally susceptible to hydrolytic cleavage or degradation by human enzymes [5, 7].
Chemical reactions of cyclodextrins led to intramolecular interactions based on noncovalent bonding such as hydrogen or van der Waals bonding and formed supramolecular structures. Specific structure of cyclodextrins with truncated shape causes the formation of complex between cyclodextrins and a wide range of molecules, which is called host–guest or inclusion complex. Formation of inclusion complex modifies or improves the physical, chemical, and/or biological characteristics of the guest molecule [8]. Because of negligible toxicity and also the formation of inclusion complex with various compounds, cyclodextrins can be used in various industrial products such as carriers, stabilizing agent, food and flavors, cosmetics, packing, textiles, separation processes, fermentation, catalysis, and drug delivery systems [9].
1.1 History of Cyclodextrins
CDs were first discovered in 1891, when in addition to reducing dextrins, a small amount of crystalline material was obtained from starch digestion of Bacillus amylobacter. Antoine Villiers worked on the action of enzymes on various carbohydrates, particularly using the butyric ferment Bacillus amylobacter on potato starch. He called this crystalline product “cellulosine.” After this period, Schardinger isolated two crystalline products in 1903 and isolated a new organism that was able to produce acetone and ethyl alcohol from sugar and starch-containing plant material [1]. By inoculating the amylaceous paste with the bacillus, a slightly acidic liquid with butyric-acid smell was formed. After purification of fractional precipitation, the dextrins (called so by Schardinger) presented very different optical rotation properties. It was difficult to hydrolyze them any further [10]. Crystalline structures of α- and β-cyclodextrin were determined by X-ray crystallography in 1942 [11]. In 1948–1950, the X-ray structure of γ-cyclodextrin was discovered and it was found that CDs can form inclusion complexes [12].
CDs are fractionalized to pure components by enzymic production. They were characterized physically and chemically by French [11] and Cramer in the 1950s [13]. Their ability to form inclusion complex was discovered by Cramer's group [14]. Various patents were published about application of CDs in drug formulations and protection of easily oxidizable substances against atmospheric oxidation, the enhancement of solubility of poorly soluble drugs, and reduction of the loss of highly volatile substances. In 1970, numerous industrial applications of cyclodextrins were discovered and industrial-scale production of CDs was started. Traditionally, three factors stood on the way of their industrial development: (i) high production costs; (ii) incomplete toxicological studies; and (iii) lack of sufficient scientific knowledge of native CDs and their derivatives [8].
From the 1980s, with a more accurate picture of their toxicity and better understanding of molecular encapsulation, several inclusion complexes appeared in market, especially in drug preparations, food industry, macromolecular chemistry [15–17], supramolecular chemistry [18, 19], catalysis [20, 21], membranes [22], foods [23], biotechnology [24], enzyme technology [25], cosmetics [26–28], pharmacy and medicine [29–32], textiles [28, 33, 34], chromatography [35, 36], agrochemistry [37], microencapsulation [38], nanotechnologies [39, 40], and analytical chemistry [41].
The most important and amazing property of CDs is their ability to form inclusion complexes with several hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds [5, 42–44]. Cyclodextrins are truncated cone or torus rather than perfect cylinder because of the chair conformation of glucopyranose units. Secondary hydroxyl groups (C2 and C3) are located on the wider edge of the ring and the primary hydroxyl groups (C6) on the other edge and the apolar C3 and C5 hydrogens and ether-like oxygens are at the inside of the torus-like molecules. Therefore, the outside of cyclodextrins is hydrophilic and inside is hydrophobic. CDs are water soluble, biocompatible in nature with hydrophilic outer surface and lipophilic cavity [4]. As a result of this cavity, cyclodextrins are able to form inclusion complexes with a wide variety of hydrophobic guest molecules. One or two guest molecules can be entrapped by one, two, or three cyclodextrins.
1.2 Cyclodextrin Properties
Cyclodextrins are crystalline, homogeneous, nonhygroscopic, nontoxic with truncated shape and are made up of glucopyranose units. They are classified into three common types: α-cyclodextrin (Schardinger's α-dextrin: cyclomaltohexaose, cyclohexaglucan, and cyclohexaamylose), β-cyclodextrin (Schardinger's β-dextrin: cyclomaltoheptaose, cycloheptaglucan, and cycloheptaamylose), and γ-cyclodextrin (Schardinger's γ-dextrin: cyclomaltooctaose, cyclooctaglucan, and cyclooctaamylose) and are referred to as first generation or parent cyclodextrins. α-, β-, and γ-CD are composed of six, seven, and eight α-(1,4)-linked glycosyl units, respectively (Figure 1.1) [4]. β-Cyclodextrin is the most accessible, priced the lowest, and generally the most useful. Their main properties are given in Table 1.1. On the side where the secondary hydroxyl groups are situated, the cavity is wider than on the other side where free rotation of the primary hydroxyls reduces the effective diameter of the cavity [45, 46].
Figure 1.1 Schematic diagram of cyclodextrins.
Table 1.1 Cyclodextrin properties
Property
α-Cyclodextrin
β-Cyclodextrin
γ-Cyclodextrin
Number of glucopyranose units
6
7
8
Molecular weight (g/mol)
972
1135
1297
Solubility in water at 25°C (%w/v)
14.5
1.85
23.2
Outer diameter (Å)
14.7
15.3
17.5
Cavity diameter (Å)
5.1
6.2
8.1
Height of torus (Å)
7.8
7.8
7.8
Cavity volume (Å
3
)
174
262
427
Surface tension (MN/m)
71
71
71
Melting temperature range (°C)
255–260
255–265
240–245
Crystal water content (wt%)
10.2
13–15
8–18
Water molecules in cavity
6
11
17
All secondary hydroxyl groups are situated on one of the two edges of the ring, whereas all the primary hydroxyl groups are placed on the other edge, so CDs have a doughnut- or wreath-shaped truncated cone. CDs have high electron density and Lewis-base character because of nonbonding electron pairs of the glycosidic-oxygen bridges that are directed toward the inside of the cavity. H-bonds determined rigidity of CDs. In α-CD, one glucopyranose unit is in distorted position and H-bond belt is incomplete, but in β-CD, a complete secondary intramolecular H-bond is formed and causes rigid structure and lowest water solubility of β-CD among all CDs. The γ-CD is noncoplanar and more flexible; therefore, it is the most soluble of the three CDs [43, 47].
Depending on the type of cyclodextrin and the guest compound, cyclodextrins' inclusion complex has two main types of crystal packing: channel structures and cage structures. Cyclodextrin derivatives have been synthesized by aminations, esterifications, or etherifications of primary and secondary hydroxyl groups of the cyclodextrins; and their solubility is usually different from that of their parent cyclodextrins. The volume of hydrophobic cavity of cyclodextrins has been changed. This can improve solubility, stability against light or oxygen and help control the chemical activity of guest molecules [1, 2, 4].
Various conditions, such as regioselective reagents, optimization of reaction conditions, and a good separation of products, are needed for the synthesis of uniform cyclodextrin derivatives. Various reactions can be substituted the OH-groups cyclodextrins with azide ions, halide ions, thiols, inorganic acid derivatives as sulfonic acid chloride, thiourea, and amines, which requires activation of the oxygen atom by an electron-withdrawing group and formed ethers and esters, epoxides, acyl derivatives, isocyanates [2].
One of the most important properties of cyclodextrins is their ability to form supramolecular complexes with various hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds as guest, such as catenanes, rotaxanes, polyrotaxanes, and tubes [4, 48]. Various studies describe the various applications of cyclodextrins (over 1000 patents or patent applications in the past 5 years) [2–4].
1.2.1 Toxicity Considerations
The most important application of cyclodextrins is in drug-based compounds, so toxicity and safety profiles of cyclodextrins are very important for the researchers [49, 50]. In general, CDs and their hydrophilic derivatives are only able to permeate lipophilic biological membranes, such as the cornea, with considerable difficulty. Even the somewhat lipophilic randomly methylated cyclodextrins do not readily permeate lipophilic membranes and interact more readily with membranes than the hydrophilic cyclodextrin derivatives [51, 52].
Orally administered cyclodextrins are practically nontoxic. It is due to the lack of absorption from the gastrointestinal tract, but at very high concentrations, CDs can extract cholesterol and other lipid membrane components from cells, leading to the disruption of cell membranes and may show toxic properties [51–53].
Because they are natural, relatively nontoxic, have a low price, are commercially available, and possess the ability to form inclusion complexes with a wide range of guest molecules, CDs have been used in many areas including but not limited to pharmaceutical [29–32], food [23], cosmetic [26–28, 52], and textile industries [5, 28, 33, 34].
Using CDs and their derivatives in various applications is well evidenced by the increasing number of marketed or approved medicinal, skin, and cosmetic products containing CDs. This potentially broadens the application areas of both cyclodextrins and functionalized compound by CDs [4]. α-Cyclodextrins have side effects, such as ability of binding some lipids, irritating after intramuscular injection, absorption after oral administration to rats, and cleavage only by the intestinal flora of caecum and colon. Absorption of β-cyclodextrin and irritation after its intramuscular injection are less than those of α-cyclodextrin and are altered by bacteria in caecum and colon. Therefore, it is the most common cyclodextrin in pharmaceutical formulations and, thus, probably the best studied cyclodextrin in humans [49, 50].
Of all the CD derivatives available, HP-β-CD is the safest, as it does not permeate the membranes. HP-β-CD has been shown to have a reduced hemolytic potential, making it suitable for parenteral as well as oral applications. There are several references in the literature about the parenteral safety profile of HP-β-CD, including the parenteral infusion of HP-β-CD in human volunteers. HP-β-CD is well tolerated in most species, particularly, if dosed orally. It shows limited toxicity, depending upon the dose and route of administration. Many pharmaceutical and cosmetic products with HP-β-CD are already on the market, such as sporanox itraconazole formulation as injectable and oral dosage forms, indomethacin eyedrop solution. HP-β-CDs are also used in skin-care and hair-care topical products [54, 55].
γ-CD is used widely in industries because it causes low irritation after intramuscular injection, faces rapid and complete degradation by intestinal enzymes to glucose, and is the least toxic cyclodextrin, at least of the three natural cyclodextrins. For these reasons, γ-CD is promoted as food additive by its main manufactures; complexing abilities, in general, less than those of α-cyclodextrin and the water soluble β-cyclodextrin derivatives, but its complexes frequently have limited solubility in aqueous solutions and tend to aggregate in aqueous solutions, which makes the solution unclear [51–55].
1.2.2 Inclusion Complex Formation
The ability to form solid inclusion complexes (host–guest complexes) with different guest compounds, such as solid, liquid, and gaseous compounds, is the most amazing property of the cyclodextrins.
Cyclodextrin's structural features allow for the selective formation of inclusion complexes with a range of other molecules. This ability is also known as molecular recognition, or chiral recognition when dealing with enantiomeric compounds. The guest compounds are partially or fully located inside the hydrophobic cavity of cyclodextrins (host), which involve noncovalent bonding in the process of complex formation [56–58].
As the cavity of cyclodextrins is hydrophobic, the inclusion of a molecule in the cyclodextrin cavity is basically a substitution of the water inside the cavity with a less polar substance. The substitution of water from the cavity with a more nonpolar guest is energetically favorable for both the cyclodextrin and the guest. Different molecular interactions such as hydrophobic interaction has been considered as being responsible for the formation of cyclodextrin inclusion complexes in an aqueous solution and recovering high-energy water from the cyclodextrin cavity upon inclusion of substrate [59].
Hydrophobicity of cyclodextrin cavity provides a suitable microenvironment for interaction between host and guest molecule that leads to the formation of inclusion complex. Hydrophilicity of outer sphere of cyclodextrins allows hydrogen-bonding cohesive interactions. Therefore, cyclodextrins can form inclusion complexes with a wide variety of hydrophobic organic compounds and induce physicochemical and biological property changes in the guest molecules, such as enhancing the therapeutic potential, solubility, diffusion and decreasing the decomposition of drugs before they enter tissues [59, 60].
The hydrophilic outer surface and the hydrophobic interior surface of the cone structure enable the complexation of various amphiphilic and hydrophobic guest molecules in water which have an appropriate molecular structure equivalent to the CD ring size [2]. The complexes exist of noncovalent interactions such as hydrogen bonds, van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic interactions between the host and the guest molecule [61].
The driving force of the complexation of guest molecule in the hydrophobic cavity of the CDs is controlled by the release of the displaced water molecules from the torus. During the release and the increased mobility of water molecules the entropy increases. Furthermore, the formation of new H-bonds between the water molecules and the increase of the cohesion forces lead to decrease of enthalpy [59, 60]. van der Waals forces have only a very short range, so that inclusion compounds are more stable in general, when the cavity of the CD is filled out perfectly by the guest molecule. Dipole–dipole interactions stabilize only complexes of guests with strong dipole moments because of the axial dipole moment of the CDs [62, 63].
The formation of cyclodextrin inclusion complexes directly depends on the dimensions of the cyclodextrin cavity and the guest molecule. If the guest molecule is too large or bulky, it will not fit completely into the cyclodextrin cavity and likewise very small size guest molecules will not form stable complexes with cyclodextrins as they will slip out of the cavity [55].
Most frequently, complexes are formed at a 1:1 CD:guest ratio, which is related to size of the guest molecule. When a too long guest molecule is reacted with cyclodextrin, it will be completely fitted into one CD cavity. Multiple CDs can be threaded onto the guest, thereby creating 2:1, 3:1, and so on (CD:guest) ratios [64].Various ratios are possible in inclusion complex if low-molecular-weight molecules are used as guest, because more than one guest may fit into the cyclodextrin cavity [65]. Due to the steric requirement of complexation, the different cyclodextrins show different capabilities to form inclusion complexes with the same guest molecules. Cavity depth in all cyclodextrins is same (∼7.8 Å). However, the determining factor for internal diameter of the cavity and its volume is the number of glucose units that have diameter of approximately 6, 7, and 9 Å in α-CD, β-CD, and γ-CD, respectively [66, 67].
1.3 Inclusion Complex Formation Mechanism
A guest molecule is trapped within the cavity of the cyclodextrin as a host molecule and inclusion complex is formed, which is directly dependent on the dimensional fit between host cavity and guest molecule. One of the important parameters in the formation of inclusion complex is the lipophilic cavity of cyclodextrin molecules that provides a microenvironment and leads to entrance of appropriately sized nonpolar moieties [59, 60]. Formation of complex dependents on hydrogen bonding, no covalent bonds are broken or formed, various thermodynamic factors also affect. Removal of water molecule from hydrophobic cavity and formation of van der Waals bonding, hydrophobic, and hydrogen-bond interactions are driving force for formation of inclusion complex [47].
The method to synthesize host–guest complex depends on the properties and nature of the guest molecule. When a hydrophobic guest molecule is added to cyclodextrin solution, water molecules in the cyclodextrin cavity are substituted by the guest molecules. Inclusion complex formation induces structural changes in the cyclodextrin and changes guest properties [47].
If the guest molecule is larger than the cyclodextrin cavity, it cannot be fully included in cavity. Only partially included in the host cavity, the guest molecules are in contact with inner surface of the macrocyclic ring, adjacent cyclodextrin molecules, and solvent molecules. Hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interaction, and electrostatic interactions are the driving forces to stabilize the structure of the inclusion complexes [68, 69].
When the guest molecule is hydrophobic, water molecules can be displaced by guest molecules present in the solution. This leads to an apolar–apolar association, decreases cyclodextrin ring strain, and causes more stable structure with lower energy state [2]. The binding of guest molecules within cyclodextrin as host is not fixed or permanent but is a dynamic equilibrium. Inclusion strength depends on dimensional fit of guest molecule and cyclodextrin cavity and on the specific local interactions between surface atoms. Inclusion complex formation can happen under various systems such as solution, cosolvent system, presence of any nonaqueous solvent or in the crystalline state where water is typically the solvent of choice [2, 47].
The special shape of cyclodextrin with hydrophobic cavity and hydrophilic surface led to formation of inclusion complex with various molecules with a wide range of chemical properties that are different from those of noncomplexed guest molecules. Cyclodextrins can form inclusion complex with a wide range of guest. They can be linear or branched chain aliphatics, aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, organic acids, fatty acids, aromatics, gases, and polar compounds such as halogens, oxyacids, and amines [70].
Inclusion complex formation of cyclodextrins with guest molecules, demonstrate a significant effect on the physical and chemical properties of guest molecules and induce appropriate modifications of guest molecules, such as increase solubility of insoluble or volatile guests, stabilization of volatile and unstable guests against the degradative effects of oxidation, visible or UV light and heat, control of volatility and sublimation, physical isolation of incompatible compounds, chromatographic separations, taste modification by masking off flavors, unpleasant odors and controlled release of drugs and flavors [5, 7].
Due to the presence of multiple reactive hydroxyl groups in inner and outer surfaces of CDs, various chemical modifications are possible. They cause various functionalities of cyclodextrins by substituting various functional groups on the primary and/or secondary face in molecular recognition, which are useful as enzyme mimics, targeted drug delivery and analytical chemistry [1, 2].
Scheme 1.1 presents the process of inclusion complex formation; it shows water molecules as small circles and drug molecules. Hydrophobic drug molecules and the hydrophobic cavity of the truncated CD cylinder repelled water molecules which is the main driving force for inclusion complex formation and is mainly the substitution of the polar–apolar interactions (between the apolar CD cavity and polar water) for apolar–apolar interactions (between the drug and the CD cavity). The main driving force for complex formation is thought to be due to the release of enthalpy-rich water from the cavity after the entrapping of guest molecules [62, 71].
Scheme 1.1 Schematic presentation of inclusion complex formation.
No covalent bonds are formed or broken during drug–CD complex formation. Weak van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds, and hydrophobic interactions keep the complex together. Due to the limitation in size and apolar character of the CD cavity, solubilization strategy using cyclodextrin complexation is not suitable for very small compounds, or compounds that are too large such as peptides, proteins, enzymes, sugars, and polysaccharides; however, the side chain in macromolecules may contain suitable groups that can react with CDs in aqueous solutions and form a partial complex with CDs [47, 61].
1.3.1 Hydrophobic Interaction
Hydrophobic interaction occurs when nonpolar molecules tend to cluster together in an aqueous environment due to the removal of apolar surfaces from contact with water. The structure of the surrounding water is a critical factor in classical hydrophobic interaction. The interaction results in a slightly positive H° and a large positive S° at low temperature, and its thereby said to be entropy driven [71, 72]. The fact that the entropy change is positive, even though the molecules are clustering together, shows that there must be a contribution to the entropy from the solvent and that solvent molecules must be more free to move once the solute molecules have herded into small aggregates [73].
Since the majority of the cyclodextrin complexation is enthalpy driven, it seems obvious that hydrophobic interactions are of minor contribution compared to the other driving forces and therefore several authors have reported that hydrophobic interactions do not need to be taken into consideration. However, cyclodextrin is a semipolar molecule where semipolar means a cavity more hydrophobic than water but less hydrophobic than n-octanol base on the dielectric constant of toluidinyl groups after inclusion, which provides an environment suitable for interaction with hydrophobic guests. If hydrophobic interactions occur, there should be no expectation that the classical system is applicable in the cyclodextrin system [71–73].
1.3.2 van der Waals Interaction
When two molecules are brought close together, they both attract or repel each other depending on the distance that separates them. The attraction force of the molecules is caused by the instantaneous and short-lived imbalance in the electron distribution of an atom that generates a temporary dipole. These short-living induced dipoles result in an induction electron distribution of the neighboring atom that generates a temporary polarization. This polarization minimizes the electron–electron repulsion between the atoms, also known as induced dipole–induced dipole interaction or London dispersion forces. Other forces involved are dipole-induced dipole and permanent dipole. Common for all these repulsive and attractive forces, known as van der Waals forces, are that they are neither noncovalent nor nonionic. These forces are usually weak for all kinds of interactions but are likely to be numerous in the cyclodextrin cavity and thereby have to be taken into consideration [74, 75].
1.3.3 Hydrogen-Bonding Interaction
If hydrogen is close to an atom that is very good at attracting electrons (such as N, O, or F), the hydrogen end of the bond becomes very positively charged and the other atom becomes negatively charged (i.e., polar). Hydrogen is the smallest atom in the periodic table, which makes it possible for hydrogen atom and the other atom to get very close together. The combination of high polarity and close approach result in the interaction being particularly strong due to the force of attraction between two opposite charges. This is proportional to the magnitude of their charges divided by the square of the distance between them. In fact, the interaction is so strong that it dwarfs all other dipole–dipole attractions [76].
The hydrogen bonding is considered to play an important role in the stability of the cyclodextrin complexes in aqueous solution. It may, furthermore, contribute to a conformational change either in the cyclodextrin, the guest, or both, which results in a more stable complex [72, 73].
1.3.4 Release of Enthalpy-Rich Water
When water is substituted from the cavity of the cyclodextrin, a decrease in energy occurs. This is caused due to an increase in solvent–solvent interaction, since the surface contact between solvent and cyclodextrin cavity, as well as between solvent and guest molecule, is reduced. Furthermore, water inside the cyclodextrin cavity cannot possess its tetrahedral hydrogen-bonding capacity compared to those in the surrounding solvent, and it is therefore often reported as high-energy water or enthalpy-rich water. One of the main driving forces for complexation could, therefore, be the release of this high-energy water from the cyclodextrin cavity, which, allowing them to form their full complement of hydrogen, bonds with the surrounding water [71, 72].
1.3.5 Release of Conformational Strain
α-Cyclodextrin has lowest number of glucose units. Torsion of the cyclodextrin molecules would be affected upon penetration of the guest molecule into the cavity; thus, release energy and conformational strain become important [71, 72].
1.3.6 Inclusion Complex Formation with Various Environments
Properties of the guest molecule, active material, the equilibrium kinetics, thermodynamic parameters, formulation of ingredients and processes and the use dosage form affected on the method choice for inclusion complex formation. Methods that are used for inclusion complex formation are dry mixing, mixing in solutions and suspensions followed by a suitable separation, the preparation of pastes, and several thermomechanical techniques. By increasing the number of water molecules in the surrounding environment, rate of inclusion complex breaking becomes faster. In highly dilute and dynamic system such as the body, the guest molecule has difficulty finding another cyclodextrin to reform the complex and is left free in solution [62, 77].
By the formation of inclusion complex between cyclodextrins and guest molecule, a crystalline structure is formed and is divided into cage-type, channel-type, and layer-type arrangement, which is dependent on guest molecule. Small guest molecules can be enclosed in the host cavity, so the arrangement is cage type, where both the ends of the host cavity are closed by the adjacent molecules to create an isolated cage and the arrangement of cyclodextrin molecules are in a zigzag mode. If guest molecule is a large molecule, such as an alkyl chain or a linear polymer, the arrangement is channel type or column structure. The guest molecule can be incorporated in cyclodextrin cavity and make an infinite cylindrical channel [6, 78]. The other types of cyclodextrin arrangements are head-to-head and head-to-tail arrangements.
In head-to-head arrangement, secondary hydroxyl groups of two cyclodextrins face each other and are connected by hydrogen bonds to create a barrel-like cavity, but in the head-to-tail arrangement, the primary hydroxyl side faces the secondary hydroxyl side of the next molecules exposing hydrogen bonds and cyclodextrin rings are linearly stacked. When the guest molecule is large, it cannot be fully incorporated in cyclodextrin cavity and layer arrangement is observed [79]. The relation between complex formation, cyclodextrin, and guest molecule is described by Equation (1.1), and dissociation constant KD can be quantitatively described by Equation (1.2).
Formation of inclusion complex in solution state involved entire the guest molecule inside the CD cavity which led to rupture water molecules inside the CD ring and around the guest, and interactions between the guest molecules and hydroxyl groups on CD cavity are formed, crystalline complex formed and water molecules is reconstructed around the complex [46, 47]. These interactions between the components of the system are favorable driving force for complex formation and they replaced the guest into the cyclodextrin cavity, which led to decrease in the repulsive forces when polar water molecules are displaced from the apolar cyclodextrin cavity to join the larger pool, so that the number of hydrogen bonds formed increases. In the inclusion formation process, cyclodextrin ring strain decreases and high-energy conformation of the CD–water complex shifts to the lower energy conformation, and an apolar–apolar association, resulting in a more stable lower energy state overall [43, 47, 56].
The formation of inclusion complex entrapped guest molecules and increased their shelf life under various conditions and against environmental parameters such as oxidation or chemical reaction. By dissolving a dried complex in water and increasing water content in the surrounding environment, complex separation is increased, so the concentration gradient shifts the equilibrium in Equation 2.7 to the left [56, 57].
Body is a highly dilute and dynamic system. The rates of formation/dissociation of complexes are close to diffusion-controlled limits because low guest availability in the body and increasing temperature weaken the complex and contribute to the dissociation of guest [43, 47]. The temperature plays an important role when the guest is lipophilic and has access to tissue but not cyclodextrin; so the tissue acts as a sink and causes dissociation of the complex following the simple mass action principles. The inclusion complex fully or partially covered the guest molecule and let to a stable product. It changed physical and chemical properties of the guest molecule. Cyclodextrins may enhance the aqueous solubility of highly insoluble drugs or insoluble compounds because of their ability to form hydrogen bonds with insoluble drugs and form a partially water-soluble inclusion complex, which is the most important applications of cyclodextrin inclusion complexes along with controlled release of the drug and inhibitor corrosion compounds. Various techniques are used for the formation of inclusion complexes. They are dependent on the natural properties of selected guest molecule, final application of guest molecule, and equipments available [43, 47, 56, 57].
One of the most commonly used techniques is adding the guest molecule to an aqueous solution of cyclodextrin with stirring under different conditions. The complex either precipitates out immediately or upon slow cooling and/or evaporation (based on stirring condition) and the precipitate is collected. This method is called coprecipitation. It is used for a wide range of guest molecules, but scaling it up is difficult because a large quantity of water is required. The main advantage of this technique is that complex formation is visible by the disappearance of the guest [80, 81].
Another method has been investigated. It needs less water. This method is called slurry complexation. In this method, cyclodextrin at a 50–60% solids concentration suspended, the aqueous phase becomes saturated with cyclodextrin in solution and, as guest molecules complex with the dissolved cyclodextrin, the complex precipitates out of the aqueous phase [80, 81]. Another method is paste complexation that involves adding a small amount of water to the cyclodextrin to form a paste (most suitable for industrial synthesis). The resulting complex can be dried directly and milled to obtain a powder if a hard mass is formed [80–82].
Heat is a double-effect parameter. First it increases the amount of CD dissolved and increases the probability of complexation. Second, it destabilizes the complex, with most complexes beginning to decompose at 50–60 °C. Though the heat stability varies with different guest molecules, some can be highly thermally stable. For extremely fine and unstable complexes, a desiccator or freeze dryer may be used to dry the complexes in order to minimize the decomposition of the volatile guest [81, 82].
Due to the solubility of cyclodextrin and easily displacement from the cavity, water is usually the preferred solvent for complexation techniques. If guests have low solubility in water, complexation can be very slow or impossible. An organic solvent can be used to dissolve the guest, but the solvent must be removed by evaporation or other methods. Furthermore, the use of too much solvent can cause the guest to be so dilute that it does not come in contact with the cyclodextrin in a sufficient amount to facilitate complexation [56, 57].
For high molecular weight oils, interaction with cyclodextrins is rather than themselves, for this reason the amount of solvent is increased, accompanied by sufficient mixing in order to disperse and separate the guest molecules from each other, so different complexation techniques, such as paste or dry mixing could be more efficient for these types of guest molecules [58].
Inclusion complex of cyclodextrin can exist in both liquid and solid state, with their structures differing significantly in each state. In solution, the formation of inclusion complexes is not a fixed state but rather a dynamic equilibrium between complexed and noncomplexed guest molecules where the guest molecule continuously associates and dissociates from the host [81, 82].
The guest is trapped within the cavity, and the entire complex is solvated by water molecules. In the crystal state, the guest may be included in a void space of a lattice or merely be aggregated to the outside of the cyclodextrin, forming a microcrystalline or amorphous powder and this may lead to the formation of nonstoichiometric inclusion complexes. One of the benefits of preparing inclusion complexes in solution is that more cyclodextrin molecules become available for complexation. In the crystalline form, only the surface molecules of the cyclodextrin crystal are available for complexation [56, 57, 82].
1.4 Important Parameters in Inclusion Complex Formation
Inclusion complex of cyclodextrin and guest molecule is a stoichiometric molecular phenomenon in which cyclodextrin cavity traps guest molecules and interacts with them. The interaction is due to noncovalent forces such as van der Waals forces, hydrophobic interactions, and other forces and is responsible for the formation of a stable complex [46, 47].
Depending upon the weight of a guest molecule, number of trapped guests in cyclodextrin cavity is determined. Although generally one guest molecule is included in one cyclodextrin molecule. For guests with low molecular weight, more than one guest molecule may fit into the cavity; and for guests with low molecular weights it is possible that more than one cyclodextrin molecule bind to the guest. In principle, only a portion of the molecule must fit into the cavity to form a complex. As a result, 1:1 molar ratios are not always achieved, especially with high- or low-molecular-weight guests [59, 60].
1.4.1 Effects of Temperature
Temperature has double effect upon cyclodextrin complex formation. Increasing temperature may increase solubility of the complex but may destabilize it. Therefore, controlling temperature is very critical. It needs to be balanced. With
