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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
- Sprache: Englisch
This guide integrates theory and practice to offer practical solutions for architects to improve their design management skills.
This unique guide helps architects improve their management skills by addressing the relationship between the management of the design project and the design office. The author demonstrates how a professionally managed project, conceived and delivered within a professionally managed office ensures that client values are translated into construction without loss of creativity.
Design Management for Architects divides into two parts. Part 1: Managing Creative Projects covers the context and infrastructure of projects; looks at client values; describes developing, detailing and realising the design; and shows how to learn from projects. Part 2: Managing Creative Organisations describes the business of architecture; explains how to manage creative people and the design studio – covering communication and knowledge-sharing, information management, financial management and attracting/retaining clients.
This second edition has been extensively rewritten in response to student feedback and to the rapid evolution of design management in architecture. New features include:
- the ‘Why Management?’ question addressed in a design context
- Vignettes to demonstrate the value of design management
- practical advice is incorporated into each chapter under ‘Project to Office Interface’
- more specifics on the design manager role, and the contribution of ICTs (including BIM) to effective design management.
By integrating theory and practice, and offering practical solutions for architects to improve their design management skills, this book provides clear guidance to all designers and (design) managers.
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Seitenzahl: 477
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2014
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Contents
Preface
About the Author
Chapter One : Why?
Why management?
Why design management?
The role of the design manager
Taking on the role
Scope of the book
Part One : Managing Creative Projects
Chapter Two : The Business of Projects
Understanding projects
Quality
Time control
Cost control
Design control
Assessing value and risk
Procurement and influence
Interaction within projects
Project frameworks
The project-to-office interface
Chapter Three : Establishing the System Architecture
Starting as you mean to go on
Team assembly
Selection criteria
Communicating to achieve objectives
Managing meetings effectively
The project-to-office interface
Chapter Four : Exploring Client Value
Understanding the briefing phase
Approaches to briefing
Understanding the client
Establishing value parameters
The written brief
Reviewing the brief
The project-to-office interface
Chapter Five : Creating Design Value
Collaborative design
Detailing the design
Design conversations
Design critiques, charettes and reviews
Programming and coordinating design work
Approvals and compliance
Coordination of production information
The project-to-office interface
Chapter Six : Realising Design Value
Getting involved
Working with the contractor’s design manager
Programming
Interaction during construction
Misunderstanding and conflict
Requests for information and design changes
Closing out projects
The project-to-office interface
Chapter Seven : Evaluation and Learning
Lifelong learning
Learning from projects
Learning from the product
Evidence-based learning
Reflection in action
Action research and learning
The project-to-office interface
Part Two : Managing Creative Organisations
Chapter Eight : The Business of Architecture
Architectural practice
The professional service firm
Clients and the market for services
Management of the business
Market analysis
The office-to-project interface
Chapter Nine : Managing Creative People
Getting the balance correct
Office culture
Psychological wellbeing
Recruitment and retention
Skills development
The office-to-project interface
Chapter Ten : Managing the Design Studio
A creative space
The project portfolio
The design manager’s role
Models of design management
The traditional model
The sequential model
Managing design effort
Identifying good habits and eliminating inefficiencies
The office-to-project interface
Chapter Eleven : Communication, Knowledge Sharing and Information Management
Communication within the office
Communication with other organisations
Effective communication strategies
Knowledge retention and sharing
Information management
Preparation of information
Implementing an IT strategy
The office-to-project interface
Chapter Twelve : Financial Management
Cash flow and profitability
Sources of income
Fee bidding and negotiation
Invoicing and cash flow
Controlling expenditure
Financial monitoring and evaluation
Crisis management
The office-to-project interface
Chapter Thirteen : Attracting and Retaining Clients
Promoting a brand image
The client’s perspective
The architect’s perspective
Communicating with clients
Promotional tools
Architects’ signboards
Managing marketing activities
The office-to-project interface
Further Reading
Architectural Management
Design Management
Practice Management
Project Management
Index
This edition first published 2014© 2007 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd, © 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Emmitt, Stephen.Design management for architects / Stephen Emmitt. – Second Edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-118-39446-5 (pbk.)1. Architectural design. 2. Architectural practice–Management. I. Title. NA2750.E46 2014 720.68–dc23
2013038758
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.
Cover image: www.hisandhersdesign.co.ukCover design by Sophie Ford, His and Hers Design
Preface
It was during the 1960s that the architectural profession in the UK started to take the issue of management seriously. The RIBA’s reportThe Architect and His Office(1962) highlighted the architect’s lack of managerial acumen, which resulted in the subsequent publication of many guides, such as the RIBA Plan of Work andArchitect’s Job Book. This early work has been continually revised and updated over the years, providing architects, architectural technologists and technicians with essential guidance to the administration of individual projects. Interest in the management of design has also been growing, with the growth of the design management literature and the evolution of the design manager role within the fields of architecture and construction. Parallel to this has been the growth and evolution of construction management literature, which more recently has started to expand into the areas of design management and briefing. Since the 1960s there have been considerable changes in our approach to the management of construction projects and, despite many good examples of how to manage the processes effectively and professionally, we still see reports urging us to do it better. In addition to the reports and initiatives aimed at the construction sector, there have also been a small number of reports aimed specifically at architects. These have emphasised the need for better management of design activities and design offices, while also raising questions about how, and what, architects should be taught. Whatever our view, it is difficult to ignore the fact that our fellow professionals leave university with a thorough understanding of how to manage projects and commercial enterprises. The result is that architects often find it difficult to relate to their fellow project contributors and frequently find themselves excluded from important decision-making stages at pivotal stages in the life of a project. Architects have a significant part to play in the realisation of creative and exciting buildings, but this is difficult to achieve when positioned outside the management culture. It is imperative in a highly competitive business environment that architects are able to demonstrate professional management skills and leadership competences to their clients and hence retain (or regain) an important place in the planning and management of our built environment. Similarly, it is fundamental that architects are able to communicate with fellow professionals in an environment of greater collaboration and integral working; this requires an understanding and appreciation of management.
As students we spend a great deal of time, effort and emotional energy on learning to design, only to find that on entering practice we are suddenly constrained by many different pressures and controls. Administration seems to be endless and managerial controls too restrictive. Frustration is immediate, not necessarily because there is less time to devote to design, but because we have inadequate grounding in the management of design. My own managerial skills were honed in architectural practice through experience (good and bad), combined with reading many books and articles on management, and, when time permitted, reflection on daily practice. At the time there were few publications that dealt with managing the complexities of design and/or creative architectural practices. Books aimed at architects were primarily concerned with the administration of individual projects, not with the management of creative staff, nor for that matter with the interrelationship between the project portfolio and the office – a situation that has changed little over the years. My aim was to write a book that would be pertinent, stimulating and above all useful for architects entering architectural practices, essentially the type of book that I would have welcomed when starting out. The approach taken is to address the synergy between the management of projects (Part One) and the management of design offices (Part Two). It is the interdependency of architects’ and clients’ businesses, represented in projects, that colours, shapes and determines the quality of our built environment. The premise is that to be successful we need to ensure that projects are managed professionally and are conceived and delivered within a professionally managed office. It is through effective management of the design office and the project portfolio that client values may be translated into a physical artefact with minimal loss of creativity.
This book has been a complex and lengthy undertaking, bringing together many, often disparate, areas under one set of covers. The ideas and concepts presented were first developed when I was working as a design manager in an architect’s office and were subsequently refined through interaction with a wide variety of construction professionals in practice and academia. The academic environment has allowed time and space for the ideas to be researched, tested and developed further.
Since the first edition of this book was published there has been a significant change in the way the construction industry is using information communication technologies (ICTs) and building information modelling (BIM). In particular, BIM changes the way in which project contributors interact, requiring a more collaborative, open and, one might argue, trusting relationship. Combined with the move towards integrated project delivery, leaner processes and the rapid uptake of the (construction) design manager role by contracting organisations, the environment in which architects operate has been evolving. No longer is design, or for that matter the management of design, the exclusive domain of architects in a collaborative, digital, marketplace. In this edition I have tried to show how such changes are an opportunity for architects (and the architectural profession as a whole) to take a fresh look at their roles and the services they offer their clients. Working on the Second Edition has also given me the chance to respond to readers’ feedback, clarify the content and better emphasise the role of the design manager from an architect’s perspective.
I am very conscious that the way in which architectural practices and projects are managed is heavily influenced by context, prevailing socioeconomic conditions, technologies and people. There is no one best approach; no easy answer, no quick fix. Instead a lot of time and effort is required to build effective ways of working and demonstrate leadership. As professionals we can never be content, nor complacent; there is always room for improvement in process and application, no matter how major or minor, as we strive for perfection in everything we do. I encourage readers to take the issues presented here, think critically and apply and/or adapt them to suit their own, very special, context.
Stephen Emmitt
About the Author
Stephen Emmitt, BA(Hons), Dip. Arch, MA(Prof. Ed.), PhD, is Professor of Architectural Technology at Loughborough University. He is a registered architect with industrial experience gained in a wide range of architectural practices. He formerly held the Hoffmann Chair of Innovation and Management in Building at the Technical University of Denmark and is currently Visiting Professor in Innovation Sciences at Halmstad University, Sweden. Teaching and research interests cover architectural practice, design management, architectural technology, architectural detailing and innovation in construction. Stephen has taught and facilitated design management workshops in the UK, Europe and Asia.
As an architect Stephen worked as a design manager, responsible for the effective and efficient delivery of projects and the strategic management of the architectural office. Responsibilities centred on two areas: the effective interface between design and production, and the efficient management of the project portfolio. Application of process and product innovations was central in the drive for consistent management of the architectural office and consistent service delivery to clients. It was this experience that led to his first book in 1999,Architectural Management: A Competitive Approach, since which time he has authored and edited many books on architectural management and architectural technology, in addition to over 120 peer reviewed articles. Recent books on design management includeArchitectural Management: International Practice and ResearchandCollaborative Design Management.
Stephen has been an advocate for better management for architectural practice since the 1980s. He served on the Manchester Society of Architects’ Professional Practice Group and then joined the CIBW096 Architectural Management Group in 1994, since which time he has been an active member, first as Press Officer and more recently as Joint-coordinator of the Group. He is currently a member of the Chartered Institute of Builders’ (CIOB) Design Management Working Group. It was the experience of teaching management to architectural students that identified the need for a simple and straightforward guide to design management – the primer for the first edition ofDesign Management for Architects– which was translated into Chinese in 2011. This Second Edition has been extensively rewritten in response to further student feedback and rapid evolution of design management in architecture.
Current Wiley Blackwell titles by Stephen Emmitt:
Architectural Management: International Research and PracticeArchitectural Technology, Second EditionArchitectural Technology: Research and PracticeBarry’s Introduction to Construction of Buildings, Third EditionBarry’s Advanced Construction of Buildings, Third EditionConstruction CommunicationPrinciples of Architectural Detailing
Chapter One
Why?
Architects play a pivotal role in the delivery of value to their clients, building users and community alike. The unique value architects add to their clients’ lives and businesses is grounded in an ability to deliver something that their competitors cannot: design vision. Design ability is, however, not enough in a highly competitive market as clients seek suppliers who can provide a professionally managed service, effectively and quickly. This means that architectural practices need to constantly monitor the business environment in which they operate and continually improve the way in which they approach the business of design. Design management plays a crucial role in this regard, helping professional design offices to deliver a consistent level of service, which in turn helps the business to secure a continual flow of finance, return a profit on its projects and provide a platform for creating great architecture. However, there may be some doubts in the minds of architects as to the true value of management to their profession. Therefore, this introductory chapter seeks to explain why management and design management is so important to the modern architectural business. This helps to provide some context to the chapters that follow.
Why management?
Architectural practice is a ‘conversation’ with projects and society – a process of testing, developing, applying and reflecting on design knowledge. Architects learn from projects and from the work of others by developing ideas, propositions and ways of working to suit the culture of their office and the needs of their clients. We develop a way of working, a type of (architectural) language, which becomes ever richer over time. This informs the practice of architecture, which flexes and adapts to each new project. The way of working also informs the business of architecture, a parallel (commercial) language that underpins and nourishes the language of architecture.
Good design management should be one of the core values of a successful architectural practice, the controlling mechanisms that allow the chaotic creative process to be transformed into fee generating activities. Management is, however, often seen as a way of coping with the chaos of design rather than something that adds value to the business. Indeed, it is not uncommon for the business aspects to be viewed as a ‘necessary evil’, with the vast majority of professional designers preferring to concentrate on design rather than business. This could be interpreted as architects’ reluctance to embrace management, although it is rarely so clear-cut given that elements of management are inherent to all projects. It is not easy to divorce the act of designing from the business of design, although this is rarely acknowledged in architectural education (which tends to ignore management issues); nor is it particularly well demonstrated in the architectural literature.
The stereotypical view, which architects’ competitors like to promulgate, is that creative designers lie outside the bounds of managerial control. This is a convenient image for some designers to hide behind when it suits. It is true that creative people do not respond particularly well to tight control and the tick-box mentality of many management approaches. The challenge appears to be less with the concept of managementper seand more with applying sensitive and appropriate managerial frameworks. Managerial principles and methods should place minimal demands on the designer and provide adequate space to accommodate the inherent uncertainties that come with design projects. At the same time the managerial frame should provide guidance to the individuals who work within the office and hence reassurance to the clients who commission the work. Good managerial frameworks tend to be relatively simple and largely invisible. Poor managerial frameworks tend to be unnecessarily complicated and highly visible because they disrupt the way in which designers like to work.
According to many research reports and anecdotal feedback from clients, it is the managerial skills that architects need to improve. One indicator of the architect’s lack of managerial acumen can be found in the reports issued by the Architects Registration Board (ARB). Their annual report of 2004/5 presented a list of the ten most common complaints it receives from clients. The ARB advises architects to adhere to the Architects Code as one way of avoiding the pitfalls that can result in an appearance before the Professional Conduct Committee. Following good management practices and procedures also helps, since all of the complaints listed by the ARB are concerned with management (and the failure to communicate). These complaints are listed below with a brief comment on how to avoid them.
Adopting a professional and consistent approach to the management of the architectural practice and its projects may not eliminate all problems, but it will help architects to avoid the problems reported above and will go some way to keeping clients happy. Adopting a consistent approach to management will also help the business, as demonstrated in Vignette A.
Why design management?
It is not necessary for every member of an architectural practice to be a business executive, or for that matter passionate about management, but it is important that architects understand the commercial environment in which they work and the value of managing design consistently and efficiently. The challenge for the business owners is not to impose restrictive managerial and administrative constraints on creative individuals; rather it is to provide better, more appropriate, management that both supports the creative process and facilitates the delivery of an excellent service. To do this it is necessary to understand the value of good design management and the role of the design manager, the rationale behind this work.
In many small and medium sized architectural offices it is the owners (directors, partners and associates) who manage and oversee design quality, which is often performed in a ‘hands on’ manner. Close proximity of staff within an intimate environment allows informal exchange of knowledge and relatively consistent standards of work. There may be little in the way of formal procedures and reporting, but because the office is small all staff should know what is required from them. In medium to large offices it is more likely that one or more individuals will be designated ‘design manager’, overseeing design quality on behalf of the business owners, acting as the interface between the owners and the staff working on the projects. Because of the size of the offices it is less easy for staff to interact on such an intimate level and so it is necessary to state what is expected of the staff (and the design manager) in the office handbook or via quality management documentation. These expectations will be reinforced via daily interaction, and more formally in office meetings. In Vignette A neither of the architectural offices employed a design manager, although the role was performed implicitly by the owners of the more successful business (Office A).
The design manager role first appeared in the 1960s, although it has not been particularly common for architectural practices to employ design managers. Instead it has been the contractors who have embraced the design manager role, with construction design managers now a common sight in the majority of the large to medium sized contracting organisations. Together with changes in procurement routes and the uptake of technologies such as BIM this has resulted in contractors taking on greater responsibility for design, often pushing the architects out of the decision making process. This may have implications for the overall quality of the building design as well as implications for the architect’s business. More recently architectural practices have started to respond to the changing market and have started to employ design managers and/or to explicitly promote their design management services.
The role of the design manager
At a strategic level, design managers are responsible for all aspects of design. Although the role encompasses many project management skills, a passion for design quality makes the role unique. It is the design manager who is employed to oversee (manage) all design activity within the office and to ensure a consistent and coordinated approach to every project in the project portfolio. This relieves the designers and engineers of unnecessary administrative and managerial burden, allowing them to concentrate on what they do best: design and engineer. To be effective in the role design managers need to understand how designers, engineers and contractors work. This requires a broad understanding of a wide range of discipline-specific knowledge. He or she should also be able to communicate effectively across a broad spectrum of organisations and levels and demonstrate consistent leadership. This calls for a collaborative approach, excellent interpersonal (‘soft’) skills and the ability to make informed decisions on a strategic and operational level.
Strategic decision making.
Strategic decisions are concerned with the long-term direction of a project or an organisation. It is the strategic decisions that set the agenda for the effectiveness and profitability of each project (and hence profitability for the business). At a strategic level the design manager will be working closely with the business owners to ensure that project and business deliverables are met.
Operational decision making.
Operational decisions concern day-to-day problem solving in the workplace. Operational decisions are about getting tasks completed and are concerned with the flow of resources (information, people and materials) and the adherence to processes. At the operational level the design manager will be liaising with a wide range of designers and forming the interface between the designer team and the contractors. It is the architectural design manager who will interface with the contractor’s (and subcontractors’) construction design manager(s).
Tension between the decisions made within the office and those made at the individual project level makes design management a fascinating, challenging and rewarding activity. Creative tension can help to stimulate innovation in product and process and fuel a proactive approach to producing great architecture. In simple terms, the design manager is tasked with the management of people, technologies, information and resources:
People.
Design as an activity involves interaction with a wide range of ‘designers’ and supporting technical staff. Design is carried out primarily within professional design offices and collaboratively within projects through the use of collaborative information technologies. The design manager needs to provide the right physical and virtual environment in which individuals can share knowledge and work together to create designs that respond to the client brief. The output of the design process is design information.
Technologies.
People need technologies that enhance their working lives; thus computer software and hardware have to be carefully selected to match the requirements of the office, as do information communication technologies (ICTs) and building information models (BIMs). Establishing a good fit between the available (and affordable) technologies and those who use them will enhance performance.
Information.
Design involves interaction to create, review and coordinate a vast quantity of information. The design manager’s role is to ensure that the information leaving the office is consistent in terms of quality, is complete and is error free. This information must be translated by constructors into a physical artefact. Once received, one of the construction design manager’s most important tasks is to review the information to ensure that the building can be constructed safely and efficiently. Any queries will be addressed to the architect’s design manager.
Resources.
Allocating the correct amount of time and the most appropriate people to a specific design task is a fundamental skill of design managers. Additional resources, such as the availability of appropriate software, ICTs and BIM will also play a part.
Design managers are first and foremost responsible for providing leadership to the designers, both within the office and (indirectly) via individual projects. In the design office environment the emphasis is on creating design value and transforming it into design information. In the project environment the emphasis is on delivering design value by translating information into a physical artefact, and is usually managed by the contractor’s design manager (see Figure 1.1). These are culturally different worlds connected by a common desire to deliver value to the client and make a return on investment. Increasingly, the relationship between the designers and the contractors is being transacted by design managers employed by designers and contractors.
Figure 1.1 Design manager’s relationship with construction design managers.
Figure 1.2 Synergy between office and project.
It is the synergy between individual projects and the design office that affects the financial health of an architectural business. More specifically, it is the effectiveness of the relationship between clients and architects that is fundamental to the creation and delivery of exciting architecture (Figure 1.2). Engagement with the sponsors of building projects allows for the discussion of goals, opportunities, risks, values and business culture; the closer the interaction between the design office and the client, the better the understanding.
What value does a design manager bring to the business?
Employing one or more design managers is expensive and so it is necessary to clearly demonstrate their value to the business before a decision to employ is taken, as is the case in Vignette B. A similar sentiment can be extended to the promotion of staff to a design manager role because with increased responsibility comes the expectation of a better salary.
Demonstrating value is not an easy task because many of the actions of the design manager are concerned with assisting individuals within the office, and these are not easy to measure or quantify. However, the value of the role should not only be assessed in terms of time/resources/cost savings but there is also a major benefit in terms of staff morale and general wellbeing. These may be relatively intangible indicators, although they can be demonstrated in low staff turnover, low levels of stress and little or no incidences of staff burnout. Freeing up the business owners (partners and directors) to concentrate on the business and client relations is another benefit, which is not easy to put costs to, but which adds considerable value to the business.
Taking on the role
Management is concerned with leadership and taking action. Fortunately, the creative thinking skills encouraged in architectural education are also highly relevant to management, as both are concerned with framing and solving problems. Creative management is less concerned with systems and procedures, and more with individuals and their ability to apply their knowledge, skills and competences efficiently. Good managers know how to work with people and systems; they understand the importance of getting the right people for the required work, getting everything in place before work starts and providing appropriate leadership.
Design professionals will develop management competences as their careers develop, with those excelling in management moving into formal or informal design management roles. The formal design management role carries a considerable amount of responsibility and can be a highly rewarding career move, in terms of both job satisfaction and financial reward. Some architects will be promoted to a design management role by their current employer, while others will move to a new employer to take up the position. In both situations it is important to define one’s management style and ensure the owners of the business and the staff understand how one intends to operate. It is also essential to resist the temptation to design, which may undermine the designers and will distract the design manager from the design management task.
When entering a design office as a new member of the office it is inevitable that the design manager will initially be perceived as an outsider and as ‘management’ by the designers. In the first few weeks the design manager will be greeted with a degree of caution and the staff will be defensive and guarded when communicating. New design managers should expect to take somewhere between three and six months as a minimum to get to know how the office and the staff work and start to develop empathy and trust. The challenge is slightly different for those promoted internally. They will be familiar with office systems and the staff, which makes the job a little easier at the outset. However, they may be too familiar with office systems and staff, which may make it difficult to be objective and see what needs to be improved. Moving from being a member of the design office to a management role will put the individual in a different position and relationships with staff will change, and this can also prove problematic for some individuals.
All new design managers should have a desire to take on the role and have empathy with designers. They should:
Observe and listen.
Watch how the members of the design office work and interact with their colleagues. Listen to the hum of the office as designs are conceived and developed, and be alert to the discussions. It is the day-to-day actions of the staff and the informal conversations that reveal how well the office procedures fit the working methods of the staff, often helping to identify inefficiencies or bottlenecks in the flow of work.
Develop.
Develop empathy with all staff and build trust. Try to get to know individual strengths and weaknesses as fast as possible, since it helps with programming and allocation of duties. Find out what each member likes doing and also what they dislike about their job function and try and work with them to maximise the positives and minimise the negatives.
Discuss.
Discuss individual workloads and existing proce
dures with all staff members. Encourage an open communication culture in which individuals are happy discussing difficult
issues, confident that the design manager will try and sup
port them.
Act.
It may be possible to make a series of minor and incremental changes quite quickly to help improve the effectiveness of the design studio. All changes, no matter how small, must be discussed with the staff and adjusted to accommodate feedback before they are implemented. Failure to do so will result in a loss of trust and the development of an ‘us and them’ culture, which is not conducive to effective design management.
Provide feedback.
The design manager acts as an interface between staff and the owners of the business and must develop a team ethos. Strategic feedback helps to share knowledge and keep all members of the business up to date with developments. An essential job requirement is to keep everyone informed.
By undertaking these tasks design managers will be well positioned to minimise ineffective habits (process waste) and maximise good habits (process value). By concentrating on the individuals within the office and providing leadership it will be possible to develop and maintain an efficient and happy working environment.
Scope of the book
The act of designing can be both intoxicating and addictive, but design is not the only differentiating factor when clients or contractors are making their choice of consultants. Architects need to demonstrate the ability to deliver high quality designs and a high quality service. This means that architects need to keep up to date with current management thinking and its application to everyday practice if they are to remain competitive. This is no easy task. Management literature varies enormously in its scope, drawing on disparate fields such as labour economics, sociology, human resources and industrial psychology. Each of these interrelated fields helps to provide a set of lenses through which to view the world, but no one model or theory transfers easily to the professional service firm. Managerial principles and techniques applicable to industrial production or mass consumer markets, based on standardised processes, identical products and repetitive tasks, may not be relevant to a creative, client-driven enterprise such as an architectural practice. Indeed, one might be excused for arguing that few of these approaches are applicable to professional service firms. Management literature is also full of ‘instant’ solutions to rather complex sociological challenges, and so we should not be too surprised when they are found to be poor solutions when viewed with the benefit of hindsight. Which brings us to the question: what type of management is appropriate for architectural firms? It is a question this book aims to answer.
This book provides a simple and pragmatic guide to the management of projects and design offices from an architect’s perspective. The aim is to provide insights into the world of design management and demonstrate the value that design management offers to architectural practices and their clients. The objective is to address the managerial frames in which design activity – problem framing and problem solving – is enabled and delivered. Emphasis is primarily on the softer issues underpinning the management of design with a focus on how people behave within a project environment and within the design office. The argument is for better integration between creative organisations and creative projects. This is achieved through a better understanding of how we interact with others and how we apply and react to managerial procedures. As a starting point the book adopts the philosophy advocated by Bruntonet al. (1964) and explores the synergy between design offices and their project portfolios. In recognition of the distinction between design management in projects and design management within the design office the book is presented in two interdependent parts. Part One addresses the management of projects. Emphasis is on the design of the most appropriate project culture to stimulate creative design and realise value in exciting and functional buildings. Part Two explores the management of the professional design office. Emphasis is on the design of the most appropriate office culture; implementing flexible systems that allow creativity to flourish and the staff to enjoy the act of creating great architecture. Each chapter concludes by looking at the synergy between project and office from the perspective of the design manager. Notes and suggestions for additional reading are also provided. The principles and tools outlined in the chapters that follow aim to show that creative design management can offer considerable benefits to all architectural businesses, regardless of size and market orientation. It is through a professional approach to design management that design organisations are better positioned to make a positive input to the quality of our built environment.
Part One
Managing Creative Projects
Chapter Two
The Business of Projects
Architectural practices are project-driven organisations. They are dependent on the sponsors of construction projects and in many cases the major contractors for their existence and profitability: no projects, no business. In a competitive marketplace architectural practices must be able to articulate the value of their designs and clearly set out how they are going to manage risk, costs and programmes and deliver a high quality service. It is the individual projects that provide a vehicle to practise design and hence realise architecture. The primary goal is to deliver maximum value for the customer, while making a reasonable profit on the resources invested. To do this in a consistent and effective way requires the implementation of quality management and an appropriate philosophy for minimising waste and maximising value to the business. This will be achieved through a consistent approach to design management within the office and an appropriate level of control over design decisions at the project level. The former is in the hands of the architectural office; the latter is in the hands of the project contributors and is influenced by the type of procurement route, contracts and shared responsibilities.
Understanding projects
Architectural education is first and foremost concerned with educating architects in the art of design. As such, there is little space left within the curriculum to devote much attention to the commercial realities of projects. This tends to be learned through the act of engaging with projects in the workplace. It is here that many architects quickly come to realise that there is a significant difference in understanding between the designers, clients and contractors. This stems from different perspectives:
From the client’s perspective the project is a means to an end. Designers and contractors are employed to fulfil a need.
The focus of the designers is on creating design value and generating a fee.
Contractors’ aim to deliver value to the client and return a profit on the resources invested.
These are culturally different worlds, brought together temporarily through a project. In essence a project is the harmonious weaving together of people, materials, technologies and place. Being able to understand and hence respond to different perspectives, needs and wants will be influential in helping the architectural practice to deliver a quality service. The role of the design manager is to analyse the project context and respond to the project deliverables in a timely and consistent manner.
Project deliverables
Project management literature has identified three project deliverables that compete for attention and hence place a degree of tension in the system. These are cost, time and quality, represented in Figure 2.1. The theory is that placing emphasis on one project deliverable, for example time, can cause the other deliverables to suffer. This would equate to fast project, high cost and low quality. Of course, with adequate forward planning and excellent design and realisation teams, it is possible to deliver high quality buildings quickly and at reasonable cost. These three aspects are explored a little further, together with the addition of a fourth parameter: design.
Quality.
A lot of work has been done in manufacturing to ensure processes are defect free, thus ensuring a quality product every time. Artisans would guarantee a similar level of assurance through application of their craft. Clients will want to see evidence of quality control and quality management procedures. The quality of the finished artefact will be partly subjective, but mainly objective when analysed against the client brief.
Figure 2.1 Project deliverables.
Time.
Time is a precious resource that has an economic value. For commercial enterprises the sooner clients receive their building the greater the financial return. Building designers and builders able to minimise the amount of time required to assemble a building, from inception to occupancy by the client, have a competitive advantage over those who cannot, which is a service many clients are willing to pay a premium for. Similarly, architects that consistently deliver designs and buildings on time will have a competitive advantage over those who cannot.
Economy.
Financial control of individual projects is paramount in the minds of clients, who demand cost certainty, and is a natural focus of project management. Although financial control and monitoring is important, decisions should be taken with due consideration for the building design and the performance of the building over its entire life cycle. Design managers will contribute to project cost certainty through management of the design decisions made and encoded in project/contract documentation.
Design.
Design is often the missing factor in the mind of the project manager; at best implicit in quality. It is the design manager who has to champion the design – promoting the value of design to all project stakeholders and defending the design team and design decisions.
These parameters need to be viewed in terms of the prevailing legislation, environmental sustainability and ethical business.
Quality
Quality is a negotiated, and often subjective, project parameter that is determined by budget, time, the decisions made, and the actions taken during the project. Trying to define quality objectively is a real challenge because of the complex nature of building and the large number of parties who have a stake in achieving quality and different perspectives of quality. Design managers will be concerned with the quality of the product and the quality of the service provided.
Quality of the product is usually the quality of the drawings and other supporting design documentation. Indirectly this also relates to the quality of the finished building, although the build quality is largely outside the control of architects in the majority of contractual arrangements. Quality of the service provided will mostly relate to the client’s perceived level of service. This will be coloured by the interactions with the client throughout the life of the project.
Quality control
Quality control (QC) is a managerial tool that ensures work conforms to predetermined performance specifications and adherence to current codes, standards and regulations. For professional service firms QC is concerned with checking project documentation against the agreed standards. Checking drawings, written specifications and associated documentation before issue, and checking other consultants’ documentation for consistency with the overall design concept and project parameters, will help to control the quality of the information produced. This, in turn, will help to reduce the number of requests for information during the construction process and may go some way in helping to reduce the number of requests for design changes.
Quality assurance
Quality assurance (QA) is a formally implemented management system that is certified and constantly monitored by an independent body, such as the British Standard Institution (BSI), to ensure compliance with the ISO 9000 series. This is a highly effective managerial system that can bring significant benefits to an architectural practice. The design manager’s role is to ensure that procedures are simple and enhance the effectiveness of work within the project and within projects.
Total quality management
Provision of a quality service is fundamental to the competitiveness of a modern organisation. Attempting constantly to please the client or customer is central to the total quality management (TQM) philosophy. It is a people-focused management concept that aims at continual improvement and greater integration through a focus on client satisfaction – essentially a soft management tool involving pride in one’s work and the constant desire to improve upon past success. This is a philosophy ideally suited to professional service firms.
