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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Religion und Spiritualität
- Sprache: Englisch
Developments in Christian Thought for OCR is an ideal guide for students taking the Developments in Religious Thought component of the OCR Religious Studies AS and A Level course. Drawing on insights gained from many years of teaching experience, Ann Greggs' and Dennis Brown's landmark book follows the OCR specification closely and includes: ·clear and comprehensive discussion of each topic in the specification ·discussion of both historical and cutting-edge theological approaches ·use of excerpts from primary sources to engage students in theological debate ·profiles of important philosophers, theologians and non-religious thinkers ·discussion questions, activity boxes, thought points and suggestions for further reading ·practical ideas on study skills, essay-writing and assessment objectives Developments in Christian Thought for OCR provides a clear, accessible and comprehensive introduction to each of the topics on the course, including Augustine on human nature, death and the afterlife, knowledge of God's existence, the person of Jesus Christ, Christian moral principles, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, religious pluralism and theology, religious pluralism and society, gender and society, gender and theology, the challenge of secularism, liberation theology and Marx. Written by two experienced teachers and textbook authors, Developments in Christian Thought for OCR will assist students of every ability to achieve their best. This book, which covers component 03 of the OCR H173 and H573 specifications, should be paired with Religion and Ethics for OCR by Mark Coffey and Dennis Brown, which covers component 02, and Philosophy of Religion for OCR by Dennis Brown and Ann Greggs, which covers component 01.
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CONTENTS
Cover
Front Matter
Foreword: What is Theology?
Section I Human Nature
1 Augustine’s Teaching on Human Nature
Introduction
Who was Augustine?
Controversy with Donatism
Controversy with the Pelagians
Augustine on Pelagius
Augustine on human nature
2 Death and the Afterlife
Introduction
Influences on Christian teaching on the afterlife
Resurrection
Heaven
Hell
Purgatory
Election
Limited Election
Unlimited Election
Universalism
The Parable of the Sheep and Goats (Matthew 25)
The Kingdom of God
Section II Foundations: The Knowledge of God
3 Knowledge of God’s Existence
Introduction
Knowledge of God
Natural/Revealed Theology introduction
Faith and reason
Barth/Brunner debate
4 The Person of Jesus Christ
Introduction
The Apostles’ Creed
Jesus as Son of God
Jesus’ knowledge of God
How human was Jesus?
Jesus the teacher of Wisdom
Jesus as liberator
Difficulties with the view of Jesus as liberator
Section III Living
5 Christian Moral Principles
Introduction
The Bible – theonomous ethics
Heteronomous ethics: Bible, Church and reason as the sources of Christian ethical practices
Autonomous Christian Ethics: love (agape) as the only Christian ethical principle that governs Christian practices
6 Christian Moral Action
Introduction
Who was Dietrich Bonhoeffer?
Duty to God and to the State
Obedience to God’s will
Leadership
The cost of discipleship
Relevance of Bonhoeffer’s theory in society today
Section IV Pluralism
7 Religious Pluralism and Theology
Introduction
Exclusivism
Inclusivism
Criticisms of inclusivism
Pluralism
8 Religious Pluralism and Society
Introduction
Inter-faith dialogue
The Scriptural Reasoning Movement
Section V Society
9 Gender and Society
Introduction
Gender and Gender Roles – The Changing View
Christian teaching on the roles of men and women in the family and society
Roman Catholic responses to feminism: Mulieris dignitatem
Christian responses to contemporary secular views about the roles of men and women in the family and society
10 Gender and Theology
Introduction
Brief history of the role and status of women throughout history
Mary Daly
Rosemary Radford Ruether
Is Christianity essentially sexist?
The Christa controversy
Section VI Challenges
11 The Challenge of Secularism
Introduction
Sigmund Freud
Richard Dawkins
Should Christianity play a part in public life?
Is Christianity a major cause of personal and social problems?
Is secularism an opportunity for Christians?
12 Liberation Theology and Marx
What is Liberation theology?
Use of biblical teaching
The theological roots of Liberation theology
Theological motivation for the preferential option for the poor
The preferential option for the poor
The influence of Karl Marx on Liberation theology
Liberation theology’s teaching on ‘The preferential option for the poor’
Stretch and challenge: Black Liberation theology
Study Skills and Assessment
Crafting your essay argument
Dialogue not monologue
Essential skills and strategies for success
Reading and planning your essay
Essay strengths
Essay weaknesses
Elements of essay writing: consider how you can sharpen these in making an informed, coherent and persuasive argument
Transitional phrases
Scaffolding your essay
Note-taking throughout the course
Be strategic about your planning and preparation
Why essays make you employable
Not losing sight of the wood for the trees – seeing the big picture of your argument
Assessment
Glossary of Key Terms
Illustration Credits
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
The Conversion of St Augustine, by Fra Angelico
Plotinus’ hierarchical understanding of the relationship between Soul, Intellect…
Adam and Eve are driven out of Paradise
Key points in Augustine’s doctrine of Grace
Chapter 2
Abraham accepting God’s call
A detail from Hell, by the medieval Dutch painter Hieronymus Bosch
Gustave Doré’s illustration of heaven in medieval Florentine poet Dante’s Divine…
Chapter 3
Thomas Aquinas by Gentile da Fabriano, circa 1400
Chapter 4
An ancient icon of Jesus and the Virgin Mary in a Coptic Church in Egypt
This mother will exercise her authority to teach her child wisdom, morality and …
Chapter 5
Pope Francis
Chapter 6
Dietrich Bonhoeffer at Finkenwalde
Chapter 7
Symbols representing different world religions
‘The Temple of All Religions’, Kazan, Russia. A symbol of interfaith harmony
Hick’s view that theology should take a pluralistic approach, seeing Christianit…
Chapter 8
Multiculturalism in 21st-century Britain
Chapter 9
Women workers breaking down gender stereotypes
Chapter 10
British Post-Christian philosopher, Daphne Hampson
Controversial statue of Jesus as feminine by Edwina Sandys
Chapter 11
The Magen David (Star of David) is a universally recognised symbol of Judaism
The Crucifix is a symbol of Christianity, especially for Roman Catholics
Sigmund Freud by Max Halberstadt
Chapter 12
Oscar Romero was a leading figure in Liberation Theology in El Salvador. He was …
Pie in the sky is what some Christians believe heaven will be like
Karl Marx argued that religion was ‘the opium of the people’
Guide
Cover
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
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DEVELOPMENTS IN CHRISTIAN THOUGHT FOR OCR
THE COMPLETE RESOURCE FOR COMPONENT 03 OF THE NEW AS AND A LEVEL SPECIFICATION
DENNIS BROWN
ANN GREGGS
polity
The teaching content of this resource is endorsed by OCR for use with specification AS Level Religious Studies (H173) and specification A Level Religious Studies (H573). In order to gain OCR endorsement, this resource has been reviewed against OCR’s endorsement criteria.
This resource was designed using the most up to date information from the specification. Specifications are updated over time which means there may be contradictions between the resource and the specification, therefore please use the information on the latest specification and Sample Assessment Materials at all times when ensuring students are fully prepared for their assessments.
Any references to assessment and/or assessment preparation are the publisher’s interpretation of the specification requirements and are not endorsed by OCR. OCR recommends that teachers consider using a range of teaching and learning resources in preparing learners for assessment, based on their own professional judgement for their students’ needs. OCR has not paid for the production of this resource, nor does OCR receive any royalties from its sale. For more information about the endorsement process, please visit the OCR website, www.ocr.org.uk.
Copyright © Dennis Brown and Ann Greggs 2020
The right of Dennis Brown and Ann Greggs to be identified as Authors of this Work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First published in 2020 by Polity Press
Polity Press65 Bridge StreetCambridge CB2 1UR, UK
Polity Press101 Station LandingSuite 300Medford, MA 02155, USA
All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.
ISBN-13: 978-1-5095-3238-4
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataNames: Brown, Dennis, 1955- author. | Greggs, Ann, author.Title: Developments in Christian thought for OCR : the complete resource for component 03 of the new AS and A level specification / Dennis Brown, Ann Greggs.Description: Medford, MA, USA : Polity, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index. | Summary: “The third OCR-endorsed bestselling textbook for Religious Studies”-- Provided by publisher.Identifiers: LCCN 2019041151 | ISBN 9781509532353 | ISBN 9781509532360 (pb) | ISBN 9781509532384 (epub)Subjects: LCSH: Theology.Classification: LCC BR118 .B764 2020 | DDC 230--dc23LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019041151
The publisher has used its best endeavours to ensure that the URLs for external websites referred to in this book are correct and active at the time of going to press. However, the publisher has no responsibility for the websites and can make no guarantee that a site will remain live or that the content is or will remain appropriate.
Every effort has been made to trace all copyright holders, but if any have been overlooked the publisher will be pleased to include any necessary credits in any subsequent reprint or edition.
For further information on Polity, visit our website: politybooks.com
Dedication
Ann dedicates this book to her Nan, The Troll, with love and thanks for being such an inspiration and for being the best ‘Nan Pat’.
Dennis dedicates this book to his cats, Bramble, Cosmo, Fizz, Ginny and Vesper and thanks them for their valuable contributions during the writing process.
Acknowledgements
This book would not have come about without the support and patience of many people. We would like to thank everybody at Polity Press who has been involved in the writing process, particularly Pascal Porcheron, Ellen MacDonald-Kramer, Neil de Cort and Leigh Mueller, who have worked alongside us and shown patience and understanding when the writing process became frustrating and all-consuming. They have offered their continual support, enthusiasm and encouragement, and the book is much better for their input. We offer thanks also to Polity’s anonymous readers, whose comments were helpful at an early stage of writing.
Ann would like to thank Dennis for his unwavering patience, which she pushed and tested every step of the way during the writing process. She would also like to credit her family – especially her parents, Jacqueline and Paul, who freely offered their time, reading sections of the book and entertaining their grandson whilst the writing process was under way. There are many people who offered support, laughs and understanding, and without them this book would not have been possible – namely, Alison, Carole, Fiona, Gemma, Melanie, Michael, Shona, Tilly and all of the little crazies (Simon, Daniel, Juniper and Abel) who allow her to embarrass them as much as she does her own son. Mostly she pays homage to her son, Billy, who makes her proud and makes her laugh in equal measures. All of this is for him.
Dennis would like to thank Ann for continuing to share her intelligence and understanding of the complex issues discussed in the book, and for the clarity of her writing. Her determined and practical approach to the needs and dynamics of writing under pressure have been admirable.
The authors and publishers are grateful to all who gave permission to reproduce copyright material. While every attempt has been made to acknowledge all the sources we have drawn upon, we would like to apologize if any omissions have been made and would invite any such copyright holders to contact Polity Press, so that these may be rectified in future editions.
Foreword: What is Theology?
Theology is an ancient subject, the name coming from two Greek words – theos (God) and logos (speech/thought), so theology is ‘thinking about God’. The word is most often heard in discussion within monotheistic religions, but, more recently, can also relate to Hindu, Sikh and even some forms of Buddhist contexts too.
Your study of Developments in Christian Thought is essentially an introduction to Christian theology, as you will be discussing some of the main thoughts about God that have engaged Christian theologians for the last 2,000 years.
The question of what ‘theology’ actually is may not be as simple to answer as you might think. This is because the subject has undergone a fundamental change during the last 100 years, from being a vocational subject to being an academic one. If you were studying theology 100 years ago, you would very probably have been:
male
Christian and
training to be a priest/clergyman.
Given these prerequisites, then, you would already have known at least some of the subject matter of theology, from regular attendance at church services. Most obviously, you would have known the Bible, but also some of the major Christian beliefs that you would have learned in church services. You would have been ‘doing theology from the inside’, or, as St Anselm put it, theology was ‘faith seeking understanding’ (fides quaerens intellectum), i.e. instead of simply (blindly) accepting what the Bible or priest said, some people wished to have a deeper understanding of God. They would have used reason and logic to attain this.
This deeper understanding came from studying the Bible in its original languages – Hebrew for the Old Testament, Greek for the New Testament. Theology students would study the biblical documents in the philosophical, social and historical contexts from which they developed, and reflect on the impact these had on early Christianity. They would study Christian doctrines, like the Trinity, or salvation (soteriology), and ponder the impact these have made on Christian communities over time, up to the present day.
Today, Theology is a popular subject of study at university. Most universities will offer courses in Theology, or Religious Studies or Divinity. Some students of Theology will be Christian, but many are not, and this is one of the major differences from 100 years ago, with another positive change being that women may study at this level. Non-religious theologians will be fascinated by the subject matter, having been well taught at school, or by seeing and hearing about religion in the media – for good reasons or bad – and want to know more.
As you work through this book, you will be challenged to think hard about difficult ideas. We hope, however, that by the end of your study of theology, you will have enjoyed the journey as far as we have taken it here. Perhaps you will decide that you want to continue the journey at university, where you will discover further areas of study, and new aspects of the areas you will cover in this book. Whatever choices you make, we hope that you will enjoy the subject matter of theology and find it engaging, challenging and worthwhile. Good luck!
Introductions to TheologyDavid F. Ford, Theology: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press, 2013)
Alister E. McGrath, Theology: The Basics, 4th edn (Wiley-Blackwell, 2017)
Alister E. McGrath, Theology: The Basic Readings, 3rd edn (Wiley-Blackwell, 2018)
General Books on Theology / Christian ThoughtSteven D. Cone, Theology from the Great Tradition (Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2018)
Millard J. Erickson, Christian Theology, 3rd edn (Baker Academic, 2013)
Colin E. Gunton (ed.), The Cambridge Companion to Christian Doctrine (Cambridge University Press, 1997)
Mike Higton, Christian Doctrine (SCM Press, 2008)
Jonathan Hill, The History of Christian Thought (Lion Publishing, 2003)
Alister E. McGrath, Christian Theology: An Introduction, 6th edn (Wiley-Blackwell, 2016)
Daniel L. Migliore, Faith Seeking Understanding: An Introduction to Christian Theology, 3rd edition (Eerdmans, 2004)
Neil Ormerod, Introducing Contemporary Theologies: The What and the Who of Theology Today (Orbis, 1997)
Stephen Pattison, The SCM Guide to Theological Reflection (SCM Press, 2008)
Christopher Ben Simpson, Modern Christian Theology (Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2016)
Anthony Towey, An Introduction to Christian Theology, 2nd edn (Bloomsbury T&T Clark, 2018)
The Structure of This BookThis book is split into six sections, which will help you to achieve a comprehensive knowledge and understanding of what Christian theology is about. Each section has two parts. You will find interconnections between topics in the different sections; this is deliberate, so that you will come to a deeper understanding of theological issues. You will be exploring what Christians believe and how those beliefs came into existence, how they developed over time and how they are discussed today.
SECTION I: HUMAN NATURE. This section begins with a study of a pivotal figure in early Christianity, St Augustine, and his views on what human nature actually is and the relationship of humans with God. The second part of this section looks at different Christian interpretations of another important aspect of human nature, the belief in an afterlife.
SECTION II: FOUNDATIONS: THE KNOWLEDGE OF GOD. This section studies two paths that Christians believe lead to knowledge of God – one natural, one revealed. You will explore the relationship between faith and reason, and discuss how Christians understand the relationship they have with God. This leads to an in-depth investigation of the person of Jesus Christ and his authority.
SECTION III: LIVING. In this section, you will explore two major aspects of how Christians put their beliefs into practice. First, you will study Christian moral principles – where they come from and whether they are unique. The second part of this section focuses on Christian Moral Action, with a study of a significant twentieth-century theologian, Dietrich Bonhoeffer, who taught about the relationship between the Church and the State. You will learn how his principles and actions led to his death.
SECTION IV: PLURALISM. In this section, you will be studying two aspects of how present-day Christianity interacts with other cultures and religions. First, you will discuss whether Christianity has an exclusive relationship with God. Second, you will explore whether other religions can also claim to know God, or whether there are many paths to achieving knowledge of God.
SECTION V: SOCIETY. In this section, you will be studying the effects of changing views of gender and gender roles in Christian thought and practice. This will include both Christian and secular views of the roles of men and women in the family and in society. The second part of this section investigates how feminist theologians have reinterpreted the nature of God and why this is important for 21st-century Christians.
SECTION VI: CHALLENGES. In the first part of this section, you will investigate some of the most important challenges to Christian belief today, specifically those from secularism, including the views of Sigmund Freud (God is an illusion) and Richard Dawkins (Christianity should play no part in public life), and responses to these views. The second part of this section studies the debate between Christianity, in the form of Liberation Theology, and the political ideology of Marxism.
Scholars’ Timeline
SECTION IHUMAN NATURE
CHAPTER 1Augustine’s Teaching on Human Nature
LEARNING OUTCOMES
In this chapter, you will be learning about Augustine’s teaching on human nature
human relationships pre- and post-Fall
Augustine’s interpretation of Genesis 3 (the
Fall
), including:
– the state of perfection before the Fall, and Adam and Eve’s relationship as friends
– lust and selfish desires after the Fall
Original Sin and its effects on the will and human societies
Augustine’s teaching that Original Sin is passed on through sexual intercourse and is the cause of:
– human selfishness and lack of free will
– lack of stability, and corruption, in all human societies
God’s grace
Augustine’s teaching that only God’s grace, his generous love, can overcome sin and the rebellious will, to achieve the greatest good (
summum bonum
)
The Fall:The account in Gen. 3 where Adam and Eve disobey God and are expelled from the Garden of Eden
St Augustine of Hippo (354–430) Augustine was born in Thagaste in Roman North Africa (modern Algeria) at a time when the Romans were having difficulty in controlling dissident groups who were invading some North African provinces. He was educated at Carthage and Milan, and was a Manichaean for several years before becoming a Christian at age 33. He was influenced by Platonism and this comes across in many of his writings. In his famous Confessions, he writes with candour and insight about how he lived with an unnamed woman, with whom he had a son, Adeodatus. Augustine understood God to be the source of all goodness and no evil, but that human nature, like the natural world, had a tendency to fall away from its creator. He saw human nature to be corrupt and needing God’s grace and forgiveness to be saved. Augustine was made priest, then Bishop, at Hippo, and wrote a wide range of books and commentaries. He came into conflict with heretical groups such as the Pelagians and Donatists. His writings have had a major impact on the development of Christian thought.
Introduction
Are human beings naturally positive and good, or are they negative and evil by nature? This question is the subject of this chapter and St Augustine is one of the most important Christian philosophers who have not only studied it but built the foundations of how human nature has been understood ever since. Before we discuss what Augustine had to say, however, it will be useful to think briefly about some examples of human behaviour and what they may have to say about human nature.
Exercise
Look at the following examples and discuss what they have to say about human nature.
In May 2017, Islamist suicide bomber Salman Abedi detonated a home-made bomb, filled with nuts and bolts, in the foyer of the Manchester Arena at the end of an Ariana Grande concert, where most of the attendees were children. The bomb killed 23 people (including the bomber), 10 of whom were under 20, with the youngest aged 8. Of those injured, 112 were treated in hospital, several for life-changing injuries.
In October 2017, it was widely reported in Britain that two young women verbally abused a homeless man, then urinated on his sleeping bag before setting fire to his few possessions, all of which were destroyed.
Also in October 2017, American multi-millionaire property developer Stephen Paddock shot dead 59 people and wounded more than 500 at a Las Vegas country music festival. Around 40 different guns were found in his hotel room.
In 2013, English 6-year-old Emmileah Anderson discovered that some children do not receive any Christmas presents. She wrote to Father Christmas saying that he should give her presents to these children. She then completed a fund-raising walk and raised £300 for a local hospice.
In London in 2015, a cyclist was trapped under the wheel of a bus and would have died before the emergency services arrived, had it not been for the 100-strong crowd who lifted the bus so that the cyclist could be freed. The man made a full recovery after hospital treatment.
Jon Meis, a student at Seattle Pacific University in 2014, observed a gunman shooting at other students, killing 1 and wounding 2 others. While the gunman was reloading his weapon, Meis used pepper spray to disable the gunman and tackled him to the ground. Police arrived and arrested the gunman. Meis, a Christian, who was hailed as a hero, asked that the donations of money that were made to him should be given to the victims.
As you will have noticed, the first three of these examples show that some human beings can be extremely evil, while the other three show that individuals or groups can be extremely unselfish and kind, even to the point of putting their own lives at risk. In the twenty-first century, psychologists attempt to unravel the intentions and motivations of such people to ascertain why they do the things they do. In the fifth century, St Augustine attempted to find out whether humans are essentially good or evil by using the means at his disposal. Before we delve into Augustine’s thoughts on human nature, however, it is very important to know something about his background and formative experiences, as these had a deep impact on his beliefs concerning human nature.
Exercise
How would you define human nature?
Who was Augustine?
The Conversion of St Augustine, by Fra Angelico
His life
It is important to know about Augustine’s life, as it shaped his thought and teaching. Augustine (Aurelius Augustinus) was born in the North African town of Thagaste on 13 November 354, and died in Hippo on 28 August 430. Thagaste, now called Souk Ahras, in Algeria, was an old Roman–Berber city sited 60 miles from the Mediterranean coast. It had been Christianized for at least half a century when Augustine was born. Although his mother Monica was uneducated, she was a devout Christian, while his father Patrick was not. He held minor public office and had responsibility for taxcollecting. Monica was to play a major part in Augustine’s life and he mentions her often, but he rarely mentions his father.
Augustine did not like his school in Thagaste and used to play truant so he could watch games such as bear-baiting. When he was 17, however, a rich neighbour enabled him to go to university in Carthage. Here he studied rhetoric – the art of writing and speaking correctly in eloquent Latin, using as his model much of the greatest literature of his day. Mastering this subject was essential for anyone hoping to join the governing ranks of society. Augustine excelled at rhetoric and became a professor at Carthage, then Rome, and finally Milan. Milan was the seat of government for Italy and Africa at the time, so Augustine came into contact with some of the most influential and important families. He did not, though, pursue these contacts but instead became involved with a pseudo-Christian sect called Manichaeism.
Manichaeism
Manichaeism had been founded by Mani, who was born in 216 CE in Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). He was brought up in the Jewish-Christian Gnostic sect known as the Elkesaites. Mani believed that the teaching of Jesus was incomplete but that the teaching of St Paul contained much truth. Augustine may have become interested in this group because of their views on sexual abstinence. Most Manichees took a vow of sexual renunciation, which was unique to this group, as Christians did not practise monasticism at this time in North Africa. The Manichees, however, had a kind of associate membership called ‘hearers’ that allowed followers to continue with their careers and have mistresses. Augustine had had a mistress since the age of 16, despite the reservations of his mother Monica. Augustine may also have admired Mani’s teaching that the Old Testament could not really be considered part of God’s revelation, as its picture of God as a primitive, vengeful and cruel leader did not compare with the God of Love revealed in the New Testament (NT).
The Manichees believed that the universe was dualistic – there was a cosmic battle between good and evil, and individuals were made up of two opposing souls: one good, the other evil. This explained why people committed wrong actions some of the time and good ones at other times. Manichees taught that the higher human soul becomes trapped in the world of darkness because of the failings of the material body. The aim of following Manichaeism is to liberate the higher soul and allow it to reach the world of light. This can be achieved by strict abstinence from all the evil temptations, including lust, wealth, gluttony, wine and meat.
Platonism
Augustine remained a Manichaean ‘hearer’ for nine years before leaving the group. After his initial enthusiasm, he gradually became disillusioned with the Manichees’ beliefs. He moved, first to Rome, then to Milan in 384 to teach rhetoric, where he got to know a number of intellectuals who lived according to a sophisticated form of Christianity that combined membership of the Church with a non-literal interpretation of the Bible. This suited him very well because he had become dissatisfied with the literal interpretation practised by the Manichees. The Milan group interpreted the Old Testament myths in the light of Platonist philosophy, particularly the version promulgated by Plotinus (205–70 CE).
Plotinus (205–270 CE) Plotinus was an Egyptian mystical philosopher, who reworked Plato’s philosophy in his Enneads. Augustine was deeply influenced by Plotinus’ approach.
Plotinus was born in Egypt and educated in the Greek tradition, and finally settled in Rome. He spent much of his life reworking the philosophy of Plato (for Plato’s philosophy, see Brown and Greggs, Philosophy of Religion for OCR, Polity, 2018, pp. 9–23), though he was also influenced by Aristotle and the Roman Stoics. His philosophical ideas are contained in the six books of his Enneads. Plotinus’ views contain mystical ideas and practical philosophy, and Augustine was deeply influenced by this approach.
The aim of Plotinus’ ideas was to assist a student to return to ‘the One’ or the ultimate Being. For Plotinus, there was a tripartite divinity – the One, the Intellect, and the Soul. Superficially, these might appear to be analogous to the Christian Trinity (Father, Son and Holy Spirit), but, while Christians understood the Trinity as co-equal, Plotinus understood the Soul, the Intellect and the One as successive stages of being. The One cannot be fully described or understood because human language is inadequate for the purpose. Knowledge of the One may only be achieved through the Soul and the Intellect. All three aspects are logical progressions.
Soul:For Christians, this is the immaterial, spiritual part of a human being, which is potentially eternal
After discussions with a group of Platonists, Augustine became very interested in their ideas. He read Plotinus’ writings and was struck by his notion that there was only the Form of the Good, rather than Plato’s whole realm of the Forms (see ibid., pp. 9–13). Augustine also liked Plotinus’ doctrine that knowledge of the One could only be achieved by contemplation and self-reflection, in addition to intellectual study. Augustine, however, found a problem with this, as most people would find it impossible. People live in the material world with all its stresses and difficulties, and these hindrances would result in the soul becoming separate and much less important for them.
Knowledge:There are two kinds of knowledge - natural and revealed
Plotinus’ hierarchical understanding of the relationship between Soul, Intellect and the One
Augustine’s view of the relationship of the soul to the material body is heavily influenced by Platonic philosophy. In his early writings, Augustine taught that the soul could find happiness on its own. Platonism also helped Augustine in presenting a solution to the Problem of Evil (see ibid., pp. 120–4). Augustine argued that evil was not a thing in itself (the Manichees had believed that it was), but was instead the privation or absence of goodness. Ultimately, however, Augustine was not convinced of the lasting value of Platonism. It may have been intellectually stimulating for him, but it lacked emotional and spiritual fulfilment. It was at this point that Augustine met Bishop Ambrose of Milan, a meeting that would lead to Augustine’s ‘conversion’ to mainstream Christianity.
Ambrose of Milan (c.340–397) Ambrose was born into a well-off family and studied law and literature in Rome, before becoming the Governor of Aemelia-Liguria in northern Italy. In 374, he was made Bishop of Milan, before he had been baptized. He was popular as a bishop, but was also a scholar. He wrote several theological works, and had a fundamental influence on Augustine, who travelled to study with Ambrose. It is widely accepted that Ambrose baptized Augustine.
Influence of Ambrose and conversion
Augustine continued to study the Bible during the period when he was interested in Platonism, and continued to consider himself a Christian. The Manichees, too, were seen by Augustine as practising a form of Christianity. While he was teaching rhetoric at Milan, he became acquainted with the city’s Bishop, Ambrose. Ambrose had been elected as Bishop of Milan in 374, even though he was not baptized at the time. He was an outstanding preacher and staunch opponent of heretical ideas. Ambrose convinced Augustine that mainstream Christian doctrines were correct and that the Old Testament was important for Christians because of its symbolic meaning. This was a revelation for Augustine and, as he recounts later in his Confessions (book 8, ch. 12), after hearing the voice of a boy or girl (he could not decide which it was) repeating the words ‘Tolle, Lege’ (take up and read) over and over, Augustine seized his copy of the Bible and read, in the first passage he saw (Romans 13:13–14), St Paul’s statement: ‘Not in riot and drunken parties, not in eroticism and indecencies, not in strife and rivalry, but put on the Lord Jesus Christ and make no provision for the flesh in its lusts.’
Augustine took this as a divine message: ‘At once, with the last words of this sentence, it was as if a light of relief from all anxiety flooded into my heart. All shadows of doubt were dispelled’ (St Augustine, Confessions, p. 153).
This conversion experience was the final piece of the puzzle for Augustine: that true wisdom does not come from intellectual pursuit of Platonism, but requires God’s grace as revealed in Jesus Christ. Augustine, along with his son Adeodatus, was baptized by Ambrose in 387. He remained in Milan until the death of his mother Monica, and his son two years later, before returning to Thagaste in order to concentrate on the spiritual life.
Wisdom:From the Greek word sophos, refers to knowledge that comes separately from sense experience and fosters an understanding of one’s place in society and how a person should live their life.
Augustine joined a monastic community in Thagaste so that he could devote himself to the pursuit of Christian philosophy. In this, he could use the concepts of great philosophers such as Plato and Cicero to draw out the Christian idea of human nature as created to establish union with God. This quest was to occupy Augustine for the rest of his life.
Augustine was ordained a priest in 391, and Bishop of Hippo in 396, when he was 41 years old. He remained there until his death in 430.
Augustine’s time as Bishop was dominated by two important theological controversies, concerning Donatism and Pelagianism. The latter was more important and draining for Augustine, and caused him to change some of his own theological views.
Donatism:A movement declared as a heresy
Pelagianism:The view of a British theologian who argued that Original Sin did not ruin human nature, and that humans are still able to choose freely to do good or evil
Controversy with Donatism
Donatism is named after the fourth-century Bishop of Carthage in North Africa, Donatus Magnus (died c.355). In the third century, Christians in North Africa had been persecuted on the orders of the emperor, Diocletian. Many believers, including clergy, were killed. Some Christians were spared death if they renounced their membership of the Church. If they had Christian texts that they surrendered to be burned, they were allowed to live. If not, they were killed. Many Christians, including priests, surrendered their texts. After the persecution ended, the Christian Emperor, Constantine, declared that all Christians would be allowed to worship freely, and those who had left the religion because of the persecution were taken back into the Church, including many priests. This decision caused a lot of argument among the North African Christian communities and Donatus Magnus became the spokesman for some of them, and his movement became known as Donatism.
Donatus declared that lapsed clergy should not be allowed back into the Church because they had broken their vows. The Donatists argued that priests must be without fault, because part of their role was to administer the Sacrament and to pray for their congregations.
Augustine campaigned for many years against the Donatists in his position as Bishop of Hippo, and finally won the battle against them, at least temporarily. He consistently argued that it was the office held by a priest, which was guaranteed by Christ, rather than the particular holiness of the individual priest, which could not be guaranteed, that made the Sacrament and the priest’s prayers legitimate. After Augustine’s death, however, the Donatists became increasingly separate from mainstream Christianity and finally disappeared after the Muslim conquest of North Africa in the seventh century.
Controversy with the Pelagians
Augustine’s conflict with the Pelagians, from 411 onwards, was much more serious, and caused him to change some of his theological views. Pelagius (c.360–c.420) was a ‘British’ monk, an ascetic who had lived in Rome and inspired a group of holy-minded lay-people who followed him. Pelagius believed that God had equipped humans with potential (posse), volition (velle) and realization (esse). These attributes were the building blocks for humans to attain a saintly, or even a sinless, life. Pelagius and his followers believed that human nature was created by God and embedded in humans so that they could make their own moral decisions. The choices they made and the deeds they committed were for their own benefit, not primarily for God’s. In Pelagius’ words: ‘In his willing, therefore, and doing a good work consists man’s praise … Whenever we say a man can live without sin, we also give praise to God by our acknowledgement of the power we have received from him, who has bestowed such power to us’ (J. Stevenson and W. H. C. Frend, Creeds, Councils and Controversies: Documents Illustrating the History of the Church AD 337–461, SPCK, 1989, pp. 232–3).
Psychologically, this may be seen as normal thinking for many people – that one’s character is judged by the good actions one does. For example, a person might run a marathon to raise money for a charity or other good cause, and this might help friends to think that they are a ‘good’ person. The danger of this way of thinking, however, is that, if a person can gain merit by their own actions, what need is there for God? If the Pelagians were able to be so holy as to be sinless, did that mean that they were not tainted by Original Sin, which came from Adam and Eve in the Fall? If they were not in need of redemption, why would they need Christ?
Pelagius taught that:
individual humans could achieve moral perfection in this life without any assistance from God.
Adam’s sin did not have a direct influence on humans coming after him. Instead, he was an example to humans. Humans are not sinful at birth: they make a choice either to do good or to do evil.
newborn children do not have to be baptized.
humans have free will and can choose to serve God, and live a virtuous life, as Jesus did, or they can choose freely to go against God, as Adam did.
there is no
predestination
.
there is no Original Sin.
Predestination:The idea that some people are chosen before their birth, by God, to be saved, and others not.
These views were radical for Christians at the time, and were diametrically opposed to mainstream Christian views. As you will see in the following paragraph, Augustine argues forcefully that Pelagius was absolutely wrong in his teaching.
Augustine on Pelagius
According to the British theologian, Henry Chadwick, the dispute between Augustine and Pelagius developed only gradually. Chadwick argues that Augustine and Pelagius actually had more in common than might appear to be the case. They both believed that humans were born sinful. Where they differed was Pelagius’ view that sin and evil were contingent, non-necessary facts, so humans could freely choose to live a holy life without sinning. Augustine strongly disagreed. He argued that Pelagius was wrong to say that sin and evil were only contingent (non-necessary) facts. Augustine’s view was that, since the Fall, when Adam and Eve sinned against the will of God, all human nature is corrupt in its entirety, without exception. Further, he argued that Adam’s sin is carried on through every generation. This is why, according to Augustine, all humans are born ‘in sin’ and this makes it impossible for them to make good, appropriate choices, and renders them incapable of following God’s law. Redemption from their sins could only be brought about by the grace of God. In his argument with Pelagius, Augustine developed a hard-line view that was reminiscent of the Manichaean teaching that only a select few – The Elect – would be saved by God, not everyone.
The Elect:In Augustine’s view, the select few who would be saved by God
Frustratingly for Augustine, the Council of Diospolis in 415 upheld Pelagius’ teachings as consistent with orthodox Christian views. Just three years later, however, in 418, at the Council of Carthage, Augustine’s arguments persuaded the attending bishops to condemn Pelagius’ teachings, and adopt Augustine’s teaching on Original Sin and the need for God’s grace for salvation. This condemnation of Pelagius was ratified, shortly after Augustine’s death, at the Council of Ephesus in 431.
Augustine on human nature
Human relationships before and after the Fall
Augustine’s writings on Genesis
Augustine’s views on human nature begin with his study of the early chapters of Genesis. He believed that these chapters were absolutely central for Christians to understand God’s will for human beings. Over a thirty-year period, he produced three separate and quite different commentaries on them, and a separate book focusing only on Genesis 1:
On Genesis: A refutation of the Manichees
(388–9). This is an allegorical interpretation, arguing against the Manichaean view of creation. He emphasizes the goodness of creation against the pessimistic Manichaean view of it.
Unfinished literal commentary on Genesis
(393–5). He intended this to be a more straightforward interpretation of Genesis, for church members. It was left unfinished, probably because he worked on it while performing church duties in Hippo. He comments only on Genesis 1.
Confessions, books 10–13
(c.397). Augustine was Bishop of Hippo by this stage, and produced a commentary on Genesis 1 only, incorporating both literal and allegorical elements. He discusses the themes of time, eternity, the work of God in Creation, and the days of Creation.
The literal meaning of Genesis
(401–16). This was written during the period when Augustine was in conflict with the Donatists and Pelagians. His aim was to refute false views of Genesis and to uphold the ‘proper literal meaning’, unless to take it literally would be absurd.
Human will before the Fall
The traditional Christian view of the accounts of Creation in Genesis is that God deliberately planned and created the world and that humans have a unique place in it, being given a relationship with God, thus setting them apart from all other creatures. They are also given the special responsibility of ruling (exercising dominion) over the world and all the creatures in it. Gen. 1: 26–7 says:
Then God said, ‘Let us make humankind in our image, according to our likeness; and let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle and over all the wild animals of the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth.’ So God created humankind in his image, in the image of God he created them; male and female he created them.
Humans are given this unique position at the head of creation, but this role carries with it certain responsibilities – stewardship, abiding by God’s rules, multiplying and living up to the privilege of being made in the image of God (Imago Dei). According to Augustine, this is the only time when the human body, will and reason are in complete harmony with each other. He thought that, at this time, humans lived together in loving friendship, in harmony with each other, other creatures and with God. In particular, he talks positively about the relationship between Adam and Eve. Eve’s position in creation is secondary to that of Adam, but she is necessary to him for reproduction:
Stewardship:According to Augustine, God gives humans special responsibilities to look after the earth
Imago Dei: Latin for ‘in the image of God’
If it were not the case that the woman was created to be Adam’s helper, specifically for the production of children, then why would she have been created as a ‘helper’ (Gen. 2: 18)? If it is necessary for one of two people living together to rule and the other to obey so that an opposition of wills does not disturb their peaceful cohabitation, then nothing is missing from the order we see in Genesis directed to this restraint, for one person was created before, the other afterwards, and most significantly, the latter was created from the former, the woman from the man. I cannot think of any reason for woman’s being made as man’s helper, if we dismiss the reason of procreation.
(Augustine, The Literal Meaning of Genesis IX, 5, in Elizabeth A. Clark, Women in the Early Church, Liturgical Press, 1983; rpt 2017, p. 12)
Exercise
‘I cannot think of any reason for woman’s being made as man’s helper, if we dismiss the reason of procreation.’ Discuss this statement. What reasons might a fifth-century person give for agreeing or disagreeing with Augustine’s statement?
Augustine talks of how the human will is heavily influenced by two concepts – cupiditas (love of self and selfish needs) and caritas (generous love of others). By cupiditas, Augustine meant having a selfish attitude, a love of possessions and things that a person desires for their own needs or wishes. A greedy, self-centred, lustful person is consumed by cupiditas. Caritas, on the other hand, says Augustine, is to live according to Jesus’ example of agape, which is the concept that differentiates Christians from other people: a selfless and generous love for the wellbeing and good of others. He quotes Paul’s statement in 2 Cor. 13:11: ‘Mend your ways; take our appeal to heart; agree with one another; live in peace; and the God of love and peace will be with you.’
Cupiditas: Latin word, used by Augustine, for self-love
Caritas: Latin word, used by Augustine, for generous love
Agape:Jesus taught that selfless love was the highest form of love
Both of these are necessary ideas to understand his thinking on the human will. He says that, for genuine love to exist between two people, each must first love themselves in order to love anyone else. When this happens, it leads to the love of God.
Augustine talks extensively about the importance of friendship in his own life. In the City of God (XIX,19), he warned his fellow monks that they should not be so devoted to prayer and study that they forgot the needs of their brothers. His vision of the monastic community was not one of asceticism and solitary meditation, but of a community of like-minded men who together searched for God. It is in this monastic context that Augustine felt that true friendships could be forged and maintained. He believed that friendships could help individuals to become better Christians. Friends can help each other learn about God, and each individual’s relationship with God, in a way that engaging in a solitary search for God could not achieve.
Exercise
How would you define ‘friendship’? How might it differ from ‘love’?
Human will after the Fall
Augustine’s teaching on the Fall is based on and influenced by his reading of Genesis 1–3. He bases his ideas on the Fall by treating the texts both as literally (historically) true and also as having symbolic meaning. In his view of human nature, Augustine began with what human life must have been like before Adam and Eve’s fall from God’s grace. At this stage, he thought that Adam and Eve lived in the Garden of Eden in close touch with God. God had created a fertile garden for Adam to work in and to enjoy its produce (2:16–17). God created Eve to be Adam’s companion and they lived together in loving friendship, in harmony with the idyllic world of Eden. They enjoyed a sexual relationship, but this did not include any element of lust, because this was part of Eve’s punishment after the expulsion from Eden (3: 16). Both Adam and Eve lived in the garden without clothes, perhaps a symbol of their innocence until they had to hide their nakedness from God with fig leaves.
The next element in the narrative is when Adam and Eve make a choice about knowing the difference between good and evil, when tempted by the serpent (Gen. 3: 1–7).
Original Sin
In his City of God, Augustine has a lengthy discussion of the Fall. His key question was to know why Adam and Eve broke away from their perfect relationship with God in the Garden of Eden. For Augustine, the reason was pride. Adam and Eve had been tempted by the serpent to eat the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil, and, having eaten it, they thought that they were equal with God, able to know (Yada) what only God knew, including the difference between good and evil. Their pride resulted in them becoming separated from the special harmonious relationship they had shared with God, and with each other. Their choice resulted in the first sin: Original Sin. Having committed this sin, they could not return to the perfect relationship with God. They condemned themselves to life – mortal life – outside the Garden of Eden. The consequences are spelled out in Genesis 3:14–19:
Yada: A Hebrew word meaning ‘able to know’
And to the man he said, ‘Because you have listened to the voice of your wife, and have eaten of the tree of which I commanded you, “You shall not eat of it”, cursed is the ground because of you; in toil you shall eat of it all the days of your life; thorns and thistles it shall bring forth for you; and you shall eat the plants of the field. By the sweat of your face you shall eat bread until you shall return to the ground, for out of it you were taken; you are dust, and to dust you shall return.’
Augustine argued that all human beings were present in Adam’s sin and therefore condemned by it. Because of Adam’s sin, no human could be perfectly good. Augustine then argued that Adam is no longer able to control his libido and his bodily desires, particularly his lust for sexual intercourse. He calls this drive concupiscence. Augustine was careful to reject the Manichaean belief that the body is evil, and also the Neo-Platonist view that the body is imperfect. He says that the body cannot be evil because it was created by God, who is perfect, and everything created by God is good (Gen. 1: 31) Since the Fall, however, the human will is weak and allows concupiscence to dominate human life. This applies to all areas of daily human life, but especially to sexual intercourse. Adam and Eve chose the path of cupiditas – lust, selfishness and attachment to material possessions. Through sexual intercourse, and Adam’s ‘seed’, every person is tainted with Original Sin and cannot live a morally pure life. Adam’s Original Sin has corrupted the whole of humanity and no human is capable of getting out of their sin by their own efforts. Only God can save people by his grace through the salvation offered by Jesus Christ. Even those who live a religious life as a monk or nun (and therefore do not engage in sexual intercourse) are still tainted by Original Sin and cannot save themselves.
Concupiscence: Augustine’s term for uncontrolled desires, including sexual lust
Adam and Eve are driven out of Paradise
God’s grace
Augustine, along with many other ancient theologians, was convinced that no human could ever be reconciled with God by their own efforts. Humans could not, on their own, choose how to help themselves. They could not even choose what was the right thing to do, never mind choosing to do it. For Augustine, the only way that the relationship between humans and God could be rectified was for God to take the initiative through his divine grace. Augustine said: ‘This grace, which perfects strength in weakness, brings everyone who is predestined and called by God to supreme perfection and glory. This grace not only shows us what we ought to do, it makes us do it. It not only makes us believe what we ought to love, it makes us love it’ (Augustine, On the Grace of Christ, 13).
Grace:God’s unconditional love and gifts to humanity. An important term for Augustine
Humans never deserved God’s grace, but God was willing to offer it freely to any human who asked for it. The only way that this could happen was through the self-sacrifice of Jesus on the cross. By giving himself up to be killed, Jesus made himself a sacrificial offering for the sake of all humans. This was the only way that the price for the sin of Adam and Eve at the Fall could be paid.
Just as the power of Original Sin forces humans to do what is wrong, so the power of grace forces them to do what is right. Augustine taught that, after the Fall, the human soul became divided. Humans continued to know the difference between good and evil, but, because of their desires, often chose to do evil instead of good.
Augustine references Paul’s teaching in Romans 7:14–20, where he refers to this state:
We know that the law is spiritual; but I am not: I am unspiritual, sold as a slave to sin. I do not even acknowledge my own actions as mine, for what I do is not what I want to do, but what I detest. But if what I do is against my will, then clearly I agree with the law and hold it to be admirable. This means it is no longer I who am the agent, but sin that has its dwelling in me.
Key points in Augustine’s doctrine of Grace
This idea goes back to an ancient Greek philosophical term used by Aristotle, akrasia (the weakness of will), though Augustine rejects Aristotle’s interpretation of it. He also rejects Aristotle’s use of the term sophrosyne: the idea that humans can live well by using their self-control or by performing acts of charity.
Akrasia: Aristotle’s word for weakness of the will, related to the moral life
Sophrosyne: Aristotle’s word for showing self-control, moderation and a deep sense of one’s self, resulting in true happiness
For Augustine, grace was the gift of God to all humans who wished to accept it. His was a doctrine of internal grace, whereby God acts within the human will, forcing it to do what is good and avoid doing what is evil. This is the opposite of what Pelagius had taught – external grace, whereby God provides humans with the means to do what is right but leaves them to make the decision themselves.
Internal grace: Augustine’s view that God works within the human soul, forcing it to do good and avoid evil
External grace: Pelagius’ idea that God provides the means to do what is right, but leaves people to make decisions themselves
Augustine taught that grace is the only means by which humans may be saved from eternal damnation and punishment because of their sinful nature. Salvation cannot be earned.
Interpreting Augustine today
Introduction
The influence exercised by the life of St Augustine has been immense throughout the Western Church in the last 1,500 years. His doctrines of the Fall, of Sin and of Grace were unquestioned. Medieval theologians gave him the title ‘The Doctor of Grace’. Most medieval thinkers, including Thomas Aquinas (1225–74), considered themselves to be Augustine’s disciples. In some of the arguments between Protestants and Roman Catholics in the Reformation period, both sides appealed to Augustine’s writings and judgements to support their views on contentious issues such as grace. On the other hand, as British theologian Jonathan Hill explains:
Augustine came under heavy fire from the Orthodox Church, who disagreed with most of his characteristic doctrines – above all his doctrine of the Trinity. To this day, the Western belief that the Spirit proceeds from the Son as well as from the Father is a major barrier to ecumenical dialogue between East and West. Moreover, many Protestant theologians themselves deplore the hold that Augustine has exercised over their history, lambasting him for his pernicious views on sin, damnation and sex.
(The History of Christian Thought, p. 88)
The Fall and Original Sin
A key question for modern readers of Augustine – and, more generally, for Christian believers – is whether his teachings on the Fall and on Original Sin make sense in the twenty-first century. Many of his ideas on these issues come from his reading of chapters 1–3 of Genesis. Augustine read these chapters literally, as historical narratives, for the most part. In the intervening 1,500 years, however, most scholars and very many believers understand them in a very different way – as mythological accounts of how an ancient people struggled to understand the reason for their existence, to express their belief in God who created their world, and their belief that they had a relationship with that God. The majority of Christian believers do not think Genesis 1–3 are historical documents. For these believers, Adam and Eve are not historical figures and the Fall was not a historical event.
Exercise
Archbishop James Ussher (1581–1656) used all the dates in the Bible to calculate the age of the universe from its creation by God. In his book The Annals of the World, published in 1658 after his death, he worked out that the earth was created on 22 October 4004 BCE. Interestingly, this date was also calculated by Dr John Lightfoot (1602–75) some years earlier, in 1644. Lightfoot added that Creation occurred at 9.00 a.m.
Find out more about Ussher and Lightfoot, particularly how they arrived at their conclusions about the date of the earth. Make a list of any difficulties their approach might raise for 21st-century readers. Discuss with your classmates.
