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Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
Kategorie: Geisteswissenschaft
Sprache: Englisch

Beschreibung

Combine traditional techniques with modern media for more communicative renderings

Digital Drawing for Landscape Architecture: Contemporary Techniques and Tools for Digital Representation in Site Design, Second Edition bridges the gap between traditional analog and new digital tools by applying timeless concepts of representation to enhance design work in digital media. The book explores specific techniques for creating landscape designs, including digitally rendered plans, perspectives, and diagrams, and the updated second edition offers expanded coverage of newer concepts and techniques. Readers will gain insight into the roles of different drawings, with a clear emphasis on presenting a solid understanding of how diagram, plan, section, elevation, and perspective work together to present a comprehensive design approach.

Digital rendering is faster, more efficient, and more flexible than traditional rendering techniques, but the design principles and elements involved are still grounded in hand-rendering techniques. Digital Drawing for Landscape Architecture exploits both modalities to help designers create more beautiful, accurate, and communicative drawings in a professional studio environment. This second edition contains revised information on plan rendering techniques, camera matching workflow, and color selection, along with brand new features, like:

Time-based imagery and tools
Workflow integration techniques
Photoshop and Illustrator task automation
Over 400 updated images, plus over 50 new examples of award-winning work

The book takes a tutorial-based approach to digital rendering, allowing readers to start practicing immediately and get up to speed quickly. Communication is a vital, but often overlooked component of the design process, and designers rely upon their drawings to translate concepts from idea to plan. Digital Drawing for Landscape Architecture provides the guidance landscape designers need to create their most communicative renderings yet.

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Leseprobe

Titlepage

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgments

Part 1: Concepts

Chapter 1: Introduction/Overview

Chapter 2: Analog and Digital Rendering Comparisons

Editability and Efficiency

Commonalities and Parallels

Hybrid Techniques

Chapter 3: Basic Overview of Digital Concepts

Raster-Based Programs

Vector Images

Adjustment Layers

Masks and Channels

Smart Objects

Smart Filters

Blending Modes

Part 2: Workflows

Chapter 4: Digital Drawings in the Design Process

Applications for Specific Tasks

Moving between Analog and Digital Techniques

Chapter 5: Setting up the Document

Chapter 6: Base Imagery and Scaling

Chapter 7: Source Imagery/Entourage

Chapter 8: Managing Large Files

Flattening Layers

Saving Layer Groups for Flattening

Printing Issues

Chapter 9: Automation

Recording Actions in Photoshop

Playing Actions in Photoshop

Batch Processing in Adobe Bridge

Batch Rename in Bridge

Part 3: Design Diagrams

Chapter 10: Setting up an Illustrator Drawing

Document Size/Color Mode

Based Programs for Design Diagrams

Importing an Aerial Photo into Illustrator

Chapter 11: Linework in Illustrator

Shape Tools

Pen Tool

Editing Tools

Appearance of Lines and Shapes

Stroke Weight and Dashed Lines

Transparency

Appearance Palette

Chapter 12: Custom Linework

Creating a Pattern Brush from Shapes

Altering the Pattern Brush

Updating the Pattern Brush with New Shapes

Chapter 13: Additional Diagramming Tools

Blend Tool

Live Paint

Transform Each

Image Trace

Chapter 14: Symbols

Creating Symbols from Custom Artwork

Updating/Replacing Symbols

Managing Symbols

Creating Clipping Masks for Image Symbols

Chapter 15: Text, Leaders, and Page Layout

Text Tools

Differences between Point Text and Paragraph Text

Formatting Text

Custom Type Tools

Creating Text with a Clipping Mask

Leaders

Layout

Chapter 16: Exploded Axonometric Diagrams

Chapter 17: Time-Based Imagery

Loading an Image Sequence

Tweening between Layer States

Image Stacks

Part 4: Plan/Section Renderings

Chapter 18: Importing PDF Linework

PDF Linework

Adjusting the Appearance of Linework

Chapter 19: Applying Color to a Plan Rendering

Technique 1: Applying Color with the Paint Bucket Tool

Technique 2: Applying Color Using Adjustment Layers

Saving Channels

Chapter 20: Shading Techniques

Selecting Fills

Saving Selections and Manual Shading

Automating the Shading of Edges

Chapter 21: Creating Textures

Creating a Texture from an Existing Photograph

Creating a Seamless Pattern Using the Offset Filter

Creating the Pattern and Applying It to the Rendering

Managing Patterns

Texturing with Filters

Chapter 22: Brushes

Standard Brushes

Custom Brushes

Chapter 23: Plan Symbols with Smart Objects

Creating Smart Objects

Duplicating and Editing Smart Objects

Managing Smart Objects

Smart Filters

Chapter 24: Creating a Section Elevation

Part 5: Perspectives

Chapter 25: Perspective Drawings

Composition

Virtual Cameras

Exporting and Rendering

Detail

Color

Contrast

Brightness

Two-Dimensional Photoshop Adjustment Layers, Opacity, and Screening

Two-Dimensional/Three-Dimensional Z-Depth

Three-Dimensional Atmosphere/Environment

Understanding Level of Detail

Chapter 26: Camera Match Three-Dimensional Object to Site Photo

Camera Match with 3ds Max 2014

Match Photo with Tremble SketchUp

Chapter 27: Create a Photoshop Perspective Collage

Chapter 28: Developing a Perspective Image in Photoshop from a Three-Dimensional Model

Base Model

Adding Site Context

Textures

Adding Vegetation

Adding Scale Figures

Bibliography

Index

End-User License Agreement

List of Illustrations

Figure 1.1

Figure 1.2

Figure 1.3

Figure 1.4

Figure 1.5

Figure 1.6

Figure 1.7

Figure 2.1

Figure 2.2

Figure 2.3

Figure 2.4

Figure 2.5

Figure 2.6

Figure 3.1

Figure 3.2

Figure 3.3

Figure 3.4

Figure 3.5

Figure 3.6

Figure 3.7

Figure 3.8

Figure 3.9

Figure 3.10

Figure 3.11

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Figure 3.13

Figure 3.14

Figure 3.15

Figure 3.16

Figure 3.17

Figure 3.18

Figure 3.19

Figure 3.20

Figure 3.21

Figure 3.22

Figure 3.23

Figure 3.24

Figure 3.25

Figure 3.26

Figure 3.27

Figure 3.28

Figure 3.29

Figure 3.30

Figure 3.31

Figure 3.32

Figure 3.33

Figure 3.34

Figure 3.35

Figure 3.36

Figure 3.37

Figure 3.38

Figure 3.39

Figure 3.40

Figure 3.41

Figure 3.42

Figure 3.43

Figure 4.1

Figure 4.2

Figure 4.3

Figure 5.1

Figure 5.2

Figure 6.1

Figure 6.2

Figure 6.3

Figure 6.4

Figure 6.5

Figure 6.6

Figure 6.7

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Figure 6.36

Figure 7.1

Figure 7.2

Figure 7.3

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Figure 7.6

Figure 7.7

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Figure 8.1

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Figure 9.1

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Figure 10.1

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Figure 11.21

Figure 11.22

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Figure 12.1

Figure 12.2

Figure 12.3

Figure 12.4

Figure 12.5

Figure 12.6

Figure 12.7

Figure 12.8

Figure 12.9

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Figure 13.1

Figure 13.2

Figure 13.3

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Figure 14.1

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Figure 15.1

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Figure 15.45

Figure 16.1

Figure 16.2

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Figure 16.9

Figure 17.1

Figure 17.2

Figure 17.3

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Figure 18.1

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Figure 18.10

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Figure 18.20

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Figure 19.1

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Figure 19.33

Figure 19.34

Figure 19.35

Figure 19.36

Figure 20.1

Figure 20.2

Figure 20.3

Figure 20.4

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Figure 20.17

Figure 21.1

Figure 21.2

Figure 21.3

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Figure 21.7

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Figure 22.1

Figure 22.2

Figure 22.3

Figure 22.4

Figure 22.5

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Figure 22.7

Figure 22.8

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Figure 23.1

Figure 23.2

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Figure 23.7

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Figure 24.1

Figure 24.2

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Figure 25.1

Figure 25.2

Figure 25.3

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Figure 25.7

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Figure 25.10

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Figure 26.1

Figure 26.2

Figure 26.3

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Figure 26.15

Figure 27.1

Figure 27.2

Figure 27.3

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Figure 27.10

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Figure 27.20

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Figure 27.22

Figure 27.23

Figure 27.24

Figure 27.25

Figure 28.1

Figure 28.2

Figure 28.3

Figure 28.4

Figure 28.5

Figure 28.6

Figure 28.7

Figure 28.8

Figure 28.9

Figure 28.10

Figure 28.11

Figure 28.12

Figure 28.13

Figure 28.14

Figure 28.15

Figure 28.16

Figure 28.17

Figure 28.18

Figure 28.19

Figure 28.20

Figure 28.21

Figure 28.22

Figure 28.23

Figure 28.24

Figure 28.25

Figure 28.26

Figure 28.27

Figure 28.28

Guide

Cover

Title Page

Front Matter

Foreword

Preface

Part 1: Concepts

Chapter 1: Introduction/Overview

Start Reading

Chapter 2: Analog and Digital Rendering Comparisons

Chapter 3: Basic Overview of Digital Concepts

Part 2: Workflows

Chapter 4: Digital Drawings in the Design Process

Chapter 5: Setting up the Document

Chapter 6: Base Imagery and Scaling

Chapter 7: Source Imagery/Entourage

Chapter 8: Managing Large Files

Chapter 9: Automation

Part 3: Design Diagrams

Chapter 10: Setting up an Illustrator Drawing

Chapter 11: Linework in Illustrator

Chapter 12: Custom Linework

Chapter 13: Additional Diagramming Tools

Chapter 14: Symbols

Chapter 15: Text, Leaders, and Page Layout

Chapter 16: Exploded Axonometric Diagrams

Chapter 17: Time-Based Imagery

Part 4: Plan/Section Renderings

Chapter 18: Importing PDF Linework

Chapter 19: Applying Color to a Plan Rendering

Chapter 20: Shading Techniques

Chapter 21: Creating Textures

Chapter 22: Brushes

Chapter 23: Plan Symbols with Smart Objects

Chapter 24: Creating a Section Elevation

Part 5: Perspectives

Chapter 25: Perspective Drawings

Chapter 26: Camera Match Three-Dimensional Object to Site Photo

Chapter 27: Create a Photoshop Perspective Collage

Chapter 28: Developing a Perspective Image in Photoshop from a Three-Dimensional Model

Bibliography

Index

End-User License Agreement

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Digital Drawing for Landscape ArchitectureContemporary Techniques and Tools for Digital Representation in Site Design

Second Edition

Bradley Cantrell

Wes Michaels

Copyright

Cover Design: Wiley

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at www.wiley.com/go/permissions.

Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with the respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom.

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Wiley publishes in a variety of print and electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some material included with standard print versions of this book may not be included in e-books or in print-on-demand. If this book refers to media such as a CD or DVD that is not included in the version you purchased, you may download this material at http://booksupport.wiley.com. For more information about Wiley products, visit www.wiley.com.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Cantrell, Bradley.

Digital drawing for landscape architecture : contemporary techniques and tools for digital representation in site design / Bradley Cantrell, Wes Michaels. — Second edition.

pages cm

Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-118-69318-6 (pbk.); ISBN 978-1-118-93308-4 (ebk); ISBN 978-1-118-93891-1 (ebk)

1. Landscape architecture--Computer-aided design. 2. Landscape design—Data processing. I. Michaels, Wes. II. Title.

SB475.9.D37C36 2015

712.0285—dc23

2014011446

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Foreword1

It is easy these days to assume everyone knows how to use new media. One probably imagines that by now new electronic media and image making are embedded in the DNA of everyone who uses a computer, personal device, or other digital tools. But the reality is that media and image making are an art form with learned techniques and protocols. There is always need for excellent tutorials that describe basic techniques and their application and I am pleased that Digital Drawing for Landscape Architecture is providing for a new generation of landscape architects training in contemporary digital media and its application as an emerging art form.

I come from the generation that learned manual graphic techniques came of age using digital applications as an extension of these traditional techniques. As a student, I remember learning photography by reading manuals and silk-screening from printmaking books. Skills like collage and montage were acquired much more intuitively, and other techniques such as press-on lettering were learned on the job in an office. It is interesting to me to see how much of the old methods are built into the new digital procedures. One of my favorite Photoshop filters is pixelate-mezzotint. From my knowledge of printmaking, this filter makes clear sense to me. Likewise cut and paste tools are basically collage techniques, and dry brush and cross hatch, etc., are based on traditional art processes. Expanded electronic techniques go beyond mere digital adaptation of the traditional to create new graphic and design possibilities that were difficult or even impossible to achieve before. Certain kinds of geometric distortions, such as stretching, bending and inversions, are not only transforming the representation of landscape design but also design itself as new forms and spatial relationships are pioneered in digital space. Combining techniques to create non-standard representation forms has emerging potential as well. This is clearly evident in today’s contemporary art world where artists are creating new art which incorporates a vast array of new media in innovative ways to challenge our way of seeing and understanding the world. Today, my office uses an array of representation techniques ranging from drawing to physical model building to digital modeling, and all sorts of combinations of digital imaging and animations, all at a range of differing scales. Ultimately, the best design still results from thinking, designing and representing with multiple scales, views and methods.

This book will become a standard manual for students entering the profession and learning their craft, as well a valuable reference for those already in practice who need to keep current with emerging trends. Just as it was impossible to practice twenty-five years ago without knowledge of ozalid printing, letraset, zipatone and rapidiograph use, today it is unimaginable to practice in a world without Photoshop, Illustrator, 3DStudioMax, Rhino, SketchUp and CAD.

—Ken Smith

1. Originally published in the first edition.

Preface

Digital Drawing for Landscape Architecture: Contemporary Techniques and Tools for Digital Representation in Site Design is the product of many years of professional practice and teaching at the Louisiana State University Robert Reich School of Landscape Architecture. As designers, we attempted to create a book that focused on getting the job done. In this sense, each section tackles the basics of the subject matter and each chapter introduces a short background with an explanation of how to accomplish a phase of the representation process with current digital tools. Our inspiration comes from the books that introduced us to landscape architectural graphics, such as Grant Reid’s Landscape Graphics and Chip Sullivan’s Drawing the Landscape. Both books present the reader with techniques that are applicable to a specific topic with just enough background to explain how it fits within the larger profession. Our hope is that Digital Drawing for Landscape Architecture will serve as a contemporary, digital version of these books for landscape architecture professionals and students.

We come from a group of academics and professionals who did not take any formal digital media courses. Instead, we were taught analog mechanical drafting and drawing and then applied those skills to our interest in digital media. All of our skills come from exploration through trial and error. We learned that doing it the second or third time was always the most productive. Typically, we would jump into a project and begin to experiment. If we didn’t understand a tool, we opened the Help file or just started using it to see what happened. This book outlines techniques, but we encourage you to experiment. There are an infinite number of ways to get to the same solution, and it is important that you find a way that works for you.

Digital Drawing for Landscape Architecture is a book about the moment, bridging analog and digital techniques. Digital landscape representation relies heavily on the past, and we attempt to tie past and present together. We are consistently amazed at the work our colleagues and students produce, and our hope is that by putting out defined techniques, individuals will question and evolve these practices. In the long run, landscape representation will eventually begin to leave the conventions of the mechanically drafted orthographic drawing in favor of parametric modeling and geographic information systems. While these systems exist, they currently do not address the needs of site designers as creative design tools.

It is always a risk to base any book on specific software, but when techniques are introduced it is almost impossible to be completely software agnostic. It is possible to create amazing work with any software, but we focused on the tools we use every day: Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Illustrator, 3ds Max, SketchUp, and Vectorworks or AutoCAD. These are not the only tools, but they are the ones we have evolved with over time and, therefore, feel the most comfortable using. While software does change, it has essentially been very consistent for the past 10 years. Features are added and refined, but the process has not been considerably altered through time. It is very easy to constantly chase the newest tools, but it is typically more productive to evolve our own processes with or in spite of the tools. You will find that most of the techniques discussed in this book will work in software versions that date back 5 to 10 years.

Digital Drawing for Landscape Architecture presents examples and techniques for each of the traditional design drawings: diagram, plan, section/elevation, and perspective. These drawings are the basis for all of our representation endeavors; and while we encourage experimentation in how these drawings evolve, it is important to recognize the need for measured drawings when working in digital media. The techniques also focus on speed and efficiency, which translates to getting a job done quickly, with the fewest mouse clicks, and being able to edit the drawing when necessary. You will find that almost every technique allows representation to be an iterative process, creating elements that we assume will be changed or modified. There is very little certainty within the design process and, therefore, it is essential that drawings remain flexible.

This book assumes that readers are versed in basic representation concepts and computing principles. The book spends a small amount of time discussing how computing affects the representation process and the basics of each piece of software, but it is not intended as an introduction to any particular piece of software. There are many great books that catalogue and explain each feature of the software. The software’s Help file is a great resource to help you understand every tool and its effect. If you don’t understand a concept in the Help file, use a search engine and find out more information on the Web. We are no longer working alone, and someone else may have already figured out or encountered many of the issues you will run into with the software.

This book is intended to highlight examples, explain techniques, and provide context for how we use digital media as designers. Feel free to start at the beginning or jump around to areas of interest; either method is suitable to take advantage of the information. We hope you will take away something new and contribute back to others with new and interesting techniques.

Acknowledgments

We were pleasantly surprised at the strong reception the first edition of the book received from both the professional and academic landscape architecture communities. Our aim was to write a book that was useful to students as they enter the profession, and working professionals looking for new ways to work with digital media. The majority of the work for this book comes directly out of the courses we have taught at the Robert Reich School of Landscape Architecture at Louisiana State University over the past 10 years, so the first set of acknowledgments should go to the long list of students we have worked with at LSU. With all the new student work collected for the second edition, the students are too numerous to name individually here. I think it is safe to say they have taught us as much as we have taught them over the years.

In particular, we would like to thank Keely Rizzato and Peter Summerlin, recent graduates from our program at LSU, for their help putting together this new edition of the book. Both Keely and Peter helped us in almost every aspect of the second edition, but they also played a large role in writing new material for the book. Keely helped with Chapters 3 and 13, while Peter worked on Chapter 9 and all of the chapters in Part 4. Thanks for all of your hard work.

We would like to thank our colleagues for all of their feedback from the first edition and encouragement to continue the work. Thank you for contributing your work to the book and all of the suggestions you had for how to improve the second edition. Finally, we would like to thank our families for all of their support.

Part 1Concepts

Chapter 1Introduction/Overview

Digital Drawing for Landscape Architecture: Contemporary Techniques and Tools for Digital Representation in Site Design provides professionals and students with a clear guide to understanding the digital representation process for a variety of design drawings. Each chapter highlights a specific technique by examining its role in the digital media and landscape representation process through methods available in current software. This provides the reader with tangible tools to explore digital media in the creation of design drawings.

The professions of landscape architecture and urban planning have a strong tradition of representation that has evolved with the professions. During the last hundred years, this has been dominated by analog representation—primarily pencil (graphite), pen (ink), markers (pigment), and watercolor (pigment). The aforementioned analog representation techniques have focused on creating a variety of design drawings such as functional and operational diagrams, orthographic plans, section/elevations, isometrics, and perspective renderings.

The content in this book intends to bridge a fundamental gap between the analog and digital tools used to represent landscape architecture and urban planning projects. The gap has formed in representation methods with the introduction of digital tools that have been adopted despite a generation of designers who are versed in analog methods. Digital Drawing for Landscape Architecture aims to fill this gap by pulling from the methods of analog representation and applying these concepts to digital media. Examining individual working methods and applying the content of this book to enhance the current design and representation processes are essential to this goal.

A misnomer that many designers intend to embrace when moving to digital representation methods is that the past can be left behind; nothing could be further from the truth. Knowledge of analog representation plays a vital role in understanding the application of digital tools and techniques. Tools such as Adobe Illustrator and Photoshop are born directly from analog processes and tools defined by their physical counterparts. The Paint Bucket tool is used to pour paint into areas, and the PaintBrush tool applies paint to a virtual canvas. This language is intentional and builds on our current knowledge of illustration, avoiding the creation of a new digital tool that has no context in the physical world. It would be confusing and the learning curve would be that much steeper if the Photoshop Paint Brush tool was called the Pixel Application tool and the canvas was called the pixel grid.

Figure 1.1. Delta scale lobe building visualization.

LSU Coastal Sustainability Studio, Ian Miller, MLA 2014, Louisiana State University Robert Reich School of Landscape Architecture

The connections between analog and digital modes go beyond naming conventions into techniques and processes. Current digital rendering processes vary greatly between individuals and firms, as well as across a range of software. It is commonly said that there are an infinite variety of ways to accomplish the same task in image- or vector-editing software. The versatility of most software packages comes from the variety of tools and the options for combining those tools to complete a specific task. This versatility allows the software to be used across a variety of professions from photography to technical illustration. Because of the depth and versatility of the software, the learning curve is typically steep for new users. Similar to using a pencil and pen, there is no way to automatically generate a section, plan, or elevation. Instead, a combination of tools and methods come together through a proven process to generate the desired results. Digital media provides efficiencies in some areas but does not provide a shortcut to learning the fundamentals of drawing and illustration.

Figure 1.2. Master plan for San Juan Island.

Joshua Brooks, BLA 2012, Louisiana State University Robert Reich School of Landscape Architecture

Understanding the fundamentals of drawing is essential, but it is not exclusive to either medium. The contemporary design world fully embraces both mediums as valid methods to represent projects and explore design ideas. It is possible to understand the fundamentals of composition, lineweight, texture, color, and/or atmosphere with a pencil or with Photoshop. The physical processes may be different, but conceptually the rules and ideas are similar.

Conceptually, each designer must embrace digital media as a tool with analytic, performative, and representational possibilities. Many designers view the computer as a rival that must be conquered in order to accomplish each task. It is important to reverse that role. In order to do this, the designer should have a general understanding of how a computer and operating system function. This environment of hardware and software is where most processes occur; therefore, taking the time to become familiar with your surroundings is very useful. Typically, this is a low priority for designers; we are not computer engineers and, therefore, we often overlook or even overcomplicate basic hardware and software functions.

Figure 1.3. Atchafalaya Basin section perspective.

Joshua Brooks, Kim Nguyen, Devon Boutte, Martin Moser, Responsive Systems Studio, Fall 2011, Louisiana State University Robert Reich School of Landscape Architecture

Software

Software typically describes code or computer programs that perform a specific task within a computer system. Although there are many types of software, designers are typically concerned with specific types of applications for pixel/raster editing, vector editing, three-dimensional modeling, and video/motion graphics editing. Each type of application plays a different role in the representation process but also interacts with and utilizes the hardware in different ways. Beyond applications, it is also important to understand the role of the operating system because it is at the core of any hardware/software relationship.

Operating System

The operating system handles the intricacies of the interaction between the user and the hardware. Generally, nearly all of the computing devices we use from desktop computers to video game consoles use some type of operating system that we interact with using a graphical user interface (GUI). The two prominent operating systems for design professionals are Microsoft Windows and Apple OS X. For architects and landscape architects, Windows has traditionally been the dominant operating system because Autodesk AutoCAD runs exclusively in Windows. This is slowly changing as compatibility increases. Many offices work in either operating system and exchange information between them seamlessly.

OS X and Windows are different types of operating systems created by the companies Apple and Microsoft, respectively. OS X will only run on Apple hardware (laptops and workstations), but Windows will run on any compatible hardware including Apple hardware. This makes it possible to use Apple hardware to boot into either OS X or Windows when necessary. This method is accomplished by creating two separate partitions on the computer’s hard drive and then choosing which system to boot into when restarting the computer. Either OS X or Windows must be chosen while booting up the computer; it is not possible to work in both systems simultaneously.

Another method for running an operating system is virtualization, which creates “virtual” hardware on which the operating system then runs. This allows an operating system such as OS X to host or virtualize an operating system such as Windows, which means both can run simultaneously and have access to similar resources. This is an ideal working situation, but it falls short on performance—specifically when using resource-intensive applications such as Photoshop or AutoCAD. Virtualization works best when using applications for word processing or project management, or when accessing the Windows partition in order to do quick edits in CAD.

Applications

Applications represent a broad range of software created to accomplish specific tasks such as word processing, image editing, or financial management. When considering the representation of design drawings, typically we will use a range of applications to edit photos, create CAD linework, and build virtual models. Excluding applications for programming and word processing, the main types of applications designers will use are image editors (Photoshop, GIMP), vector editors (CAD, Illustrator), three-dimensional modelers (3ds Max, Maya, Blender), and video/motion graphics editors (Final Cut, Premiere, After Effects). Using each application, it is possible to find crossover or even repetition between the functions of one piece of software and another. For example, Photoshop and Illustrator share many of the same vector-editing tools to control pen paths. This crossover makes it easy to attempt to use one piece of software to accomplish everything, but it is important to understand the strengths and weaknesses of each application in order to efficiently use both pieces of software.

Image Editing

Image-editing software refers to a broad range of applications that are used to manipulate pixels for tasks such as adjusting photographs, editing illustrations, and/or altering image sizes. Pixel-based imagery is also referred to as raster images. Image-editing applications typically use three paradigms that are specifically useful for design representation: layers, selections, and brushes. Methods that combine these three types of tools can typically perform all of the tasks necessary to manipulate pixels. Layers are used to organize pixels in order to edit specific pixels separately from other pixels, overlay pixels on top of one another, or apply effects or adjustments to specific layers.

Figure 1.4. Master plan illustrated to scale.

Spackman Mossop+Michaels

Selections are used to select pixels on layers or multiple layers and can range from simple shapes, such as a square or circle, to complex shapes with multiple selection percentages per pixel. Selections can be made based on shape, the color or value of pixels, vector paths, and/or existing pixels on layers. A selection typically works as a range represented by a range of grays from unselected (0, black) to fully selected (255, white). This creates a selection using 256 values, so that edits or effects can be applied as a ramp or gradient. If an area is selected, it is possible to then edit those pixels. This creates an area in which to apply the edits based on the values in the selection. For example, if an image had a rectangular selection that was fully selected, then filling it with red would create a red rectangle. If the selection were rectangular but went from fully selected on the left to unselected on the right, then filling that rectangle would create a red box that slowly faded away from left to right.

Brushes are the third component that is typical in most image-editing applications, and they are used to apply or erase pixels. Brushes consist of a brush-tip shape and controls for the dynamics of how the tip creates a stroke. This allows brushes to carefully mimic real-world brushes or create all new brushes for specific needs. Brushes can apply a single color, a range of colors, or a pattern; they even transfer pixels from one side of an image to another. All of these tasks, either applying or erasing pixels, are accomplished with a selected brush, giving the artist many options to adjust the desired effect.

Figure 1.5. Conceptual image board.

Joshua Brooks, BLA 2012, Louisiana State University Robert Reich School of Landscape Architecture

Vector Editing

Vector-editing software refers to the use of points, lines, and shapes in order to represent imagery. To accomplish this, mathematical equations are used to represent the location of points, the direction of lines, and the fill-in to create shapes. There are two main types of vector-editing software for designers: illustration software such as Adobe Illustrator and drafting software such as Autodesk AutoCAD. The main difference between these types of software is that CAD applications focus on precision, and illustration applications focus on effects and appearance. In both types of vector-editing application, the tools and results are slowly becoming more congruent, as AutoCAD provides more tools to adjust style and appearance and Illustrator has third-party applications that increase the range of drafting tools.

The tools for vector editing focus on selection, transformation, and stroke/fill manipulation. Selections are typically accomplished in three scales in vector-editing applications: multiple objects, single objects, or subobjects. A single object is typically defined as a series of points, lines, and fills that create an object such as a rectangle (four points, four strokes, and a fill). It is possible then to select a group of rectangles, the rectangle itself, or a single point or line. Once an object or subobject has been selected, it is then possible to transform the element with typical transformations such as move, rotate, or scale. Depending on the application, it may be possible to perform many other types of transformations with a variety of tools. Transformations can typically be applied interactively or by entering values for more precision.

Figure 1.6. Lake Pontchartrain Basin hydrological systems.

Matthew Seibert, MLA 2013, Louisiana State University Robert Reich School of Landscape Architecture

Three-Dimensional Modeling

Similar to vector-editing applications, three-dimensional modeling applications create wireframe representations of objects using points (vertices), edges, curves, and triangles. The most common type of three-dimensional modeling is polygon modeling, which creates representations of a model through a shell or surface. Other types of modeling include solid modeling, which creates accurate representations of an object’s volume and is typically used in medical or engineering simulations. NURBS modeling, or nonuniform rational B-spline, creates surfaces from curves, creating precise freeform models. A fourth type of modeling is called subdivision modeling, which is similar to polygon modeling but uses a series of refinements on the initial mesh in order to create a smooth object. In most applications, each modeling type can be converted from more complex models, NURBS, and subdivisions to simpler polygon models.

Three-dimensional models are viewed in two ways: real time (allowing a user to move around the world interactively) and rendered