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DISASTER RESPONSE AND RECOVERY
The new edition of the standard textbook in the field, updated with new studies and practical guidelines for reacting to the complexities of today’s disasters
Disaster Response and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for Resilience provides a thorough overview of the challenges and functions of the emergency management profession, covering the various types of disasters, theoretical frameworks, the different individuals and agencies involved, technological tools, practical response measures, and more. Written by a recognized leader in the field, this comprehensive textbook offers clear guidance on developing disaster resilience through preparedness, planning, improvisation, leadership, and professionalism.
Revised and updated throughout, the third edition addresses key response and recovery operations of the COVID-19 pandemic, including human attitudes, political issues, communication challenges, medical surges, and volunteer management. New examples and case studies also highlight lessons learned from Hurricane Irma, the California wildfires, brush fires in Australia, the Midwest derecho windstorm, the Beirut explosion, the Las Vegas shooting, riots and civil unrest in the United States, and other recent disasters. In addition, the book:
- Describes tools and techniques required to protect lives, reduce property damage, and minimize disruption
- Features new coverage of climate change, social media, drones and artificial intelligence, racial and social justice, recent legislation and regulations, and emergency management policies and procedures
- Discusses theoretical approaches to the management of disasters, strategies to revitalize affected communities, and mitigation methods to reduce future vulnerability
- Contains learning objectives, key term definitions, case studies, real-world examples, summary and review questions, and evaluation tools
- Includes access to a companion website with an instructor’s manual, a sample syllabus, chapter tests, PowerPoint slides, exam questions, and additional teaching resources
Integrating the theory and practice of emergency management, public administration, policy, and sociology, Disaster Response and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for Resilience, Third Edition is an invaluable resource for advanced students in emergency management programs as??well as emergency planners, emergency management coordinators, risk managers, and other practitioners in the field.
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Table of Contents
Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
About the Author
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Companion Website
1 Knowing What to Expect
INTRODUCTION
1.1 The Occurrence of Disasters
1.2 Types of Hazards
1.3 Technological Hazards
1.4 Civil/Conflict Hazards
1.5 The Complexity of Disasters
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Summary Questions
Review Questions
Applying This Chapter
YOU TRY IT
References
2 Understanding the Actors
INTRODUCTION
2.1 The Public Sector
2.2 The Private Sector
2.3 The Nonprofit Sector
2.4 Emergent Groups
2.5 Working with All Partners and the Whole Community
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Summary Questions
Review Questions
Applying This Chapter
YOU TRY IT
References
3 Anticipating Attitudes and Behavior in Disasters
INTRODUCTION
3.1 General Disaster Attitudes and the Case of Covid‐19
3.2 The Impact of Hollywood and The Media
3.3 Research on Myths
3.4 Evidence of Exaggeration
3.5 Realities about Response and Recovery
3.6 The Importance of Understanding Behavior Correctly
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Summary Questions
Review Questions
Applying This Chapter
YOU TRY IT
References
4 Applying Alternative Management Approaches
INTRODUCTION
4.1 The Traditional Model
4.2 The Professional Model
4.3 Comparison of The Models
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Review Questions
Applying This Chapter
YOU TRY IT
References
5 Implementing Initial Response Measures
INTRODUCTION
5.1 Hazard Detection
5.2 Issuing Warnings
5.3 Evacuation
5.4 Sheltering
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Summary Questions
Review Questions
Applying This Chapter
YOU TRY IT
References
6 Caring for the Injured, Dead, and Distraught
INTRODUCTION
6.1 Search and Rescue Operations
6.2 Emergency Medical Care, Triage and DMATs
6.3 Mass Fatality Management
6.4 Stress Management
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Summary Questions
Review Questions
Applying This Chapter
YOU TRY IT
References
7 Managing Public Information, Donations, and Volunteers
INTRODUCTION
7.1 The Media and Social Media in Disasters
7.2 Dealing with Donations
7.3 Volunteer Management
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Summary Questions
Review Questions
Applying This Chapter
YOU TRY IT
References
8 Moving Beyond Immediate Needs
INTRODUCTION
8.1 Assessing Damages
8.2 Challenges in Damage Assessment
8.3 Damage Assessment Procedures
8.4 Disaster Declarations
8.5 Debris Produced by Disasters
8.6 Dealing with Debris Effectively
8.7 Regulations and Other Considerations
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Summary Questions
Review Questions
Applying This Chapter
YOU TRY IT
References
9 Promoting Recovery and Mitigation
INTRODUCTION
9.1 Disaster Impacts and Disaster Assistance
9.2 Types of IA
9.3 Facilitating IA
9.4 Categories of PA
9.5 Accessing PA
9.6 Important Issues for Recovery
9.7 The Potential for Disagreement
9.8 Pressing for Change
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESSING YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Summary Questions
Review Questions
Applying This Chapter
YOU TRY IT
References
10 Overcoming Typical Challenges
INTRODUCTION
10.1 Communication and Coordination
10.2 Decision Making and Disasters
10.3 Transportation Issues and Logistics
10.4 Vulnerable/Special Populations
10.5 Politics and Disasters
10.6 Legal Concerns
10.7 Record Keeping and Disasters
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Summary Questions
Review Questions
Applying This Chapter
YOU TRY IT
References
11 Harnessing Technology and Organization
INTRODUCTION
11.1 The Importance of Technology
11.2 Communication Equipment and Interoperability
11.3 Decision Support Systems (DSSs)
11.4 Geographic Information System
11.5 Managing Disasters at the Local Level
11.6 Managing Disasters at the State Level
11.7 Managing Disasters on a Federal Level
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESSING YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Summary Questions
Review Questions
Applying This Chapter
YOU TRY IT
References
12 Foreseeing the Future
INTRODUCTION
12.1 Disasters on the Rise
12.2 Understanding Natural Disasters
12.3 Understanding Technological Disasters
12.4 Understanding Acts of Violence
12.5 Understanding Terrorism
12.6 Unfolding and Unrecognized Hazards
12.7 Increased Vulnerability
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Summary Questions
Review Questions
Applying This Chapter
YOU TRY IT
References
13 Enhancing Disaster Resilience
INTRODUCTION
13.1 Reducing Vulnerability and Preparing Your Community
13.2 Acquiring Resources
13.3 Designing and Establishing an EOC
13.4 Hazard and Vulnerability Assessment
13.5 Writing an EOP
13.6 First Responder and Organizational Training
13.7 Disaster Exercises
13.8 Public Education
13.9 Improvisation, Creativity, Flexibility and Spontaneous Planning
13.10 Leadership and Professionalism
SUMMARY
KEY TERMS
ASSESS YOUR UNDERSTANDING
Summary Questions
Review Questions
Applying This Chapter
YOU TRY IT
References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 1
Table 1‐1 Comparison of Event Magnitude.
Table 1‐2 Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale.
Table 1‐3 Enhanced Fujita Scale for Tornado Damage.
Chapter 2
Table 2‐1 Federal Departments and Their Role in a Disaster
Chapter 3
Table 3‐1 Respondents’ Beliefs about Disaster Response.
Table 3‐2 Respondents’ Beliefs about Effective Personal Aid to Disaster Vic...
Table 3‐3 Disaster Myths, Reality, and New Orleans.
Table 3‐4 Emergency Managers’ views about Disaster Behavior.
Chapter 4
Table 4‐1 Assumptions and Conclusions of the Traditional Model.
Table 4‐2 Strengths and weaknesses of the Traditional Model.
Table 4‐3 Assumptions and Conclusions of the Professional Model.
Table 4‐4 Strengths and weaknesses of Professional Model.
Table 4‐5 Principles of emergency Management.
Table 4‐6 Assumptions of the Traditional and Professional.
Chapter 8
Table 8‐1 Volume of debris generated by various disasters (Taken from EPA, ...
Table 8‐2 Type of debris generated by various disasters (Taken from EPA, 19...
Chapter 12
Table 12‐1 Primary, Associated and Secondary Hazards
Table 12‐2 Industrial Disasters
Table 12‐3 Roles and Responsibilities of Emergency Response Organizations
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1‐1 Emergency management personnel often attend meetings to prepare f...
Figure 1‐2 Hurricane Sandy struck the northeast and destroyed this roller co...
Figure 1‐3
The 2021 Valentine Storm resulted in snow and ice on a beach near
...
Figure 1‐4 This 45-footdeep sinkhole formed in Monticello, FL, after Tropi...
Figure 1‐5 This picture of Mt. St. Helens on May 18, 1980, illustrates the ...
Figure 1‐6 The April 20, 2013, West Texas fertilizer plant explosion produce...
Figure 1‐7 The aftermath of the I‐35W bridge collapse is seen in this pictur...
Figure 1‐8 This picture of boats impacting infrastructure illustrates why Hu...
Figure 1‐9 The damage of electricity infrastructure (an agent‐generated dema...
Chapter 2
Figure 2‐1 Elective officials such as Freeport, NY Mayor, Andrew Hardwick, o...
Figure 2‐2 State firefighting resources such as this helicopter will be util...
Figure 2‐3 Many entities will work together to respond to disasters. In this...
Figure 2‐4 FEMA has 10 regional offices around the United States.
Figure 2‐5 FEMA Corps members arriving in Jamestown, CO, on October 2, 2013....
Figure 2‐6 Insurance companies will send numerous employees to disaster‐affe...
Figure 2‐7 The Red Cross is present at almost any emergency or disaster, and...
Figure 2‐8 Community Emergency Response Teams (CERTs) add flexibility to res...
Figure 2‐9 Disaster organizational typology
Chapter 3
Figure 3‐1 In spite of confusing, the government increasingly recommended th...
Figure 3‐2 Sometimes, media reports about disasters are inaccurate. FEMA has...
Figure 3‐3 This picture may cause others to mistakenly think looting is occu...
Figure 3‐4 While some first responders may abandon their post in disasters, ...
Figure 3‐5 Many people did not or could not evacuate before Hurricane Katrin...
Figure 3‐6 While certain types of aid may be insufficient immediately after ...
Chapter 4
Figure 4‐1 Atomic cloud over Nagasaki, 1945 (NARA). Office for Emergency Man...
Figure 4‐2 Because of their hierarchical organization structures, military, ...
Figure 4‐3 The federal government has vast resources to assist in time of di...
Figure 4‐4 The traditional model may miss the broad array of participants th...
Chapter 5
Figure 5‐1 Dispatchers like these individuals in Los Angeles County receive ...
Figure 5‐2 EOCs, like this one in Pulaski County, MO, will be activated when...
Figure 5‐3 Tornado sirens, such as this one in Greensburg, KS, warn resident...
Figure 5‐4 Busses may be used to transport large numbers of people in case e...
Figure 5‐5 Traffic and reentry delays may discourage some people from evacua...
Figure 5‐6 Evacuations require significant planning and preparation, includi...
Figure 5‐7 The Houston Astrodome was used to shelter thousands of individual...
Figure 5‐8 The Red Cross plays a very important role in establishing and run...
Chapter 6
Figure 6‐1 There are different types of search and rescue operations, includ...
Figure 6‐2 Professional search and rescue teams play a vital role in disaste...
Figure 6‐3 Search and rescue personnel are seen here marking a home that was...
Figure 6‐4 Both citizens and official responders will provide emergency medi...
Figure 6‐5 Field hospitals like this one may need to be set up after disaste...
Figure 6‐6 Members of the FEMA disaster medical assistance team, Oklahoma On...
Figure 6‐7 The earthquake in Haiti killed hundreds of thousands of people, a...
Figure 6‐8 A disaster mortuary operational response team is set up in Gulfpo...
Figure 6‐9 The impact of disasters can cause posttraumatic stress in victims...
Figure 6‐10 A Red Cross psychologist talks to a victim of the Moore, OK, tor...
Figure 6‐11 A mental health professional talks to a woman whose home was dam...
c07
Figure 7‐1 The media will arrive at the scene of disaster and reporters will...
Figure 7‐2 The media will converge at the scene of disaster and will request...
Figure 7‐3 Donations of all types will be sent to help those in need as can ...
Figure 7‐4 In‐kind donations may require a great deal of logistical support ...
Figure 7‐5 Volunteers, including these individuals helping to prevent floodi...
Figure 7‐6 Giving clear instructions to volunteers is a great way to ensure ...
Figure 7‐7 A leader is seen here sharing important knowledge with volunteers...
Chapter 8
Figure 8‐1 Federal, state, and local emergency management officials will ins...
Figure 8‐2 Walkthrough assessments, similar to this one after Northridge ear...
Figure 8‐3 After severe storms impacted Findlay, OH, federal and state offic...
Figure 8‐4 Some buildings, such as this home that was affected by a tornado ...
Figure 8‐5 If warranted, the president may declare a federal disaster and be...
Figure 8‐6 A resident of Bastrop, TX, looks at what is left of his motorcycl...
Figure 8‐7 A variety of debris may be collected in front yards waiting for r...
Figure 8‐8 Heavy equipment may be needed to remove certain types of debris. ...
Chapter 9
Figure 9‐1 Infrastructure, such as these roads and power systems in Tennesse...
Figure 9‐2 A disaster recovery center is publicized in Pearcy, AR, after tor...
Figure 9‐3 Innovative strategies to publicize the availability of disaster a...
Figure 9‐4 A private contractor is seen here making repairs to a home in Aus...
Figure 9‐5 A FEMA project specialist meets with North Central District Healt...
Figure 9‐6 Historic buildings, such as Fort Johnson that was affected by flo...
Figure 9‐7 It is vital to do all you can to educate people about mitigation ...
Chapter 10
Figure 10‐1 Holding frequent meetings to discuss policy options is one way t...
Figure 10‐2 Decision making can be improved when organizational representati...
Figure 10‐3 Working in a disaster can be physically and emotionally draining...
Figure 10‐4 Storing and moving supplies effectively and efficiently are the ...
Figure 10‐5 For a variety of reasons, some individuals and groups are more v...
Figure 10‐6 Whether it is about personnel, supplies, individual and public a...
Chapter 11
Figure 11‐1 Modern communication equipment, including this mobile incident c...
Figure 11‐2 The Incident Command System includes the incident commander(s), ...
Figure 11‐3 The incident commander has responsibility to oversee an emergenc...
Figure 11‐4 A variety of officials will meet with the incident commander to ...
Figure 11‐5 This Regional Response Coordination Center in Atlanta, Georgia, ...
Figure 11‐6 EMAC members from Minnesota and Washington State meet in New Yor...
Figure 11‐7 The National Response Framework was introduced at a press confer...
Figure 11‐8 A deputy associate administrator addresses 300 attendees in Salt...
Chapter 12
Figure 12‐1 Events like Hurricane Sandy indicate the power of nature and the...
Figure 12‐2 Natural disasters, like the Northridge earthquake, damage buildi...
Figure 12‐3 Because hazardous materials pose serious risks, special training...
Figure 12‐4 The FBI has knowledgeable and trained agents who can deal with a...
Figure 12‐5 Hot, warm and cold zones for a decontamination operation.
Figure 12‐6 Law enforcement officials and the military will play a larger ro...
Figure 12‐7 Global temperature changes from 1880 to present. Accessed at htt...
Figure 12‐8 The greenhouse effect. Accessed at http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/g...
Figure 12‐9 Types of terrestrial impact structures.
Source:
Based on Jet Pro...
Figure 12‐10 The Barringer Meteor Crater illustrates how damaging even a sma...
Chapter 13
Figure 13‐1 It is advisable to create a preparedness council and meet with t...
Figure 13‐2 It is advisable to create an EOC before a disaster strikes, beca...
Figure 13‐3 Healthcare workers participate in a disaster exercise in Annisto...
Figure 13‐4 The Director of FEMA Region IX holds a press conference to remin...
Figure 13‐5 After losing its EOC due to the collapse of WTC #7 and the subse...
Figure 13‐6 Leadership and professionalism are vital attributes for today’s ...
Guide
Cover Page
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication Page
About the Author
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgments
About the Companion Website
Table of Contents
Begin Reading
Index
Wiley End User License Agreement
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Disaster Response and Recovery
Strategies and Tactics for Resilience
Third Edition
David A. McEntire, PhD
Professor
Department of Emergency Services
Associate Director
Center for National Security Studies
Utah Valley University
This edition first published 2022© 2022 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Edition HistoryJohn Wiley & Sons, Inc. (2e, 2015)John Wiley & Sons, Inc. (1e, 2006)
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For emergency management students and professionals everywhere
About the Author
David A. McEntire
Dr. David A. McEntire is a professor teaching Emergency Management, Homeland Security and National Security courses in the Emergency Services and Criminal Justice Departments at Utah Valley University. He is an Associate Director for the Center for National Security Studies.
Dr. McEntire attended the Graduate School of International Studies at the University of Denver. While pursuing his degree, he worked for the International and Emergency Services Departments at the American Red Cross in Colorado. His dissertation explored disasters in developing countries and made recommendations for disaster policy in the mid‐1990s.
Prior to his arrival at UVU, Dr. McEntire was a professor at the nation’s first degree program in Emergency Management ‐ the Emergency Administration and Planning Program (EADP) at the University of North Texas (UNT). During his tenure at UNT he served as the Coordinator for the undergraduate and PhD programs, as the Associate Dean in the College of Public Affairs and Community Service, and as the Director of Summer Session for the university. He has also taught as an adjunct for Florida Atlantic University, Jacksonville State University, and California State University Long Beach.
Dr. McEntire’s academic interests include emergency management theory, international disasters, community preparedness, response coordination and vulnerability reduction. He has received several grants—funded by the Natural Hazards Center, the National Science Foundation, and other sources—that allowed him to conduct research in Australia, California, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic, Haiti, New York, New Zealand, Peru, Texas and Utah.
Dr. McEntire is the author or editor of several books including Introduction to Homeland Security (Wiley), Disciplines, Disasters and Emergency Management (Charles C. Thomas), and Comparative Emergency Management (FEMA). He has published more than 120 articles and his research has appeared in multiple encyclopedias, Public Administration Review, the Australian Journal of Emergency Management, Disasters, the International Journal of Mass Emergencies and Disasters, Journal of Emergency Management, Journal of the Environment and Sustainable Development, Sustainable Communities Review, International Journal of Emergency Management, Journal of Homeland Security and Emergency Management, Towson Journal of International Affairs, Journal of the American Society of Professional Emergency Planners, and the Journal of International and Public Affairs. His articles in Disaster Prevention and Management received Highly Commended and Outstanding Paper awards.
Dr. McEntire completed an instructor guide on disaster response operations for the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). He has also published chapters in the Handbook of Disaster Research (Springer), the Handbook of Disaster Management (CRC Press), Emergency Management: Principles and Practices for Local Government (ICMA), Critical Issues in Homeland Security (Westview Press), Handbook of Emergency Response (CRC Press), Preparedness and Response for Catastrophic Events (CRC Press), and Critical Issues in Disaster Science and Management (FEMA).
Dr. McEntire received funding to conduct terrorism‐response training for FEMA in Arkansas and Oklahoma. He was a contributing author for a study of Texas Homeland Security Preparedness for the Century Foundation as well as three IQ reports for the International City/County Management Association. McEntire has presented papers internationally (in Hungary, Mexico, and Norway), at the National Science Foundation, at the National Academy of Sciences, at the Disaster Research Center, at the Natural Hazards Center, and at the Higher Education Conference at FEMA’s Emergency Management Institute in Emmitsburg, Maryland.
McEntire is a prior member of Congressman Burgess’ Homeland Security Advisory Board, FEMA Region VI Advisory Board, ICMA’s Advisory Board, and the Fire Protection Publications Advisory Board. He has reviewed books for several publishers and is on the editorial staff for the Journal of Emergency Management.
Dr. McEntire is also the former Dean of the College of Health and Public Service at Utah Valley University in Orem, Utah. He was responsible for the oversight of numerous undergraduate and graduate courses/programs in the areas of dental hygiene, nursing, public and community health and respiratory therapy. He also worked with other important programs including aviation (professional pilot and aviation management), criminal justice, forensic science/investigation, emergency services, homeland security, national security and public service. During his tenure, the college increased fund raising, renovated facilities, added new programs, improved curriculum, and boosted enrollment.
In 2010, Dr. McEntire was recognized as the Dr. B. Wayne Blanchard Award Recipient for Academic Excellence in Emergency Management Higher Education. He was given the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning Award (provided by School of Public Administration at the University of Central Florida) at the 2018 FEMA Higher Education Conference. In 2021, he was recognized with the Dean’s Award of Excellence for Extended Service. He is recognized as a Senior Fellow for the Higher Education Academy – an international, non‐profit organization that promotes teaching excellence.
Contact Information:
David A. McEntire, Ph.D., SFHEA
Department of Emergency Services
Utah Valley University
Foreword
The year 2020 broke many historical precedents and hearts. We saw a record breaking 22 billion dollar natural and weather disasters, a global pandemic and civil unrest in the U.S. and around the world. These disasters took a toll on lives and communities, while unveiling the impact of politics and the role of science in a disaster. This situation heightens the need to educate and prepare the current and future generation of emergency managers by learning response and recovery functions for all hazards and the whole community. The increase in the frequency and severity of disasters has challenged many communities and those individuals assigned to lead during them. As we work to respond and recover from these cascading disasters, we pull lessons learned from the past. Therefore, McEntire’s third edition of Disaster Response and Recovery remains an essential text for students in the emergency management discipline.
Bridging theory with practice remains an educational challenge in this discipline. Coming from the perspective of a pracademic, McEntire’s book has one foot in the academic realm and the other in the practice of emergency management. This connection is evident in the book as he integrates emergency management, public administration, policy, and sociology theories with practice by including real‐world examples and lessons learned. This edition not only relies upon prior disasters that led to substantial policy and institutional changes at all levels of government and every sector of society, such as Hurricane Katrina in 2005, but it also includes recent examples from national and international disasters.
Most notably, is the COVID‐19 pandemic, in which McEntire includes human attitudes, political issues, communication challenges, medical surges, mass fatality management, volunteer management, and the initial lessons learned. In this regard, 2020 was the first time in recent history that every emergency manager was working on the same crisis – the pandemic – and nearly every emergency operations center was activated either in‐person or virtually. At the time of this writing, the COVID‐19 pandemic alone has taken 2.7 million lives globally. Although many local, state and federal governments had a pandemic annex in their larger comprehensive emergency management plans – primary based on H1N1 pandemic in 2009 – COVID‐19 tested these plans and nearly all will be rewritten.
Communication – within and across organizations – became critical during the pandemic as information and recommendations from officials at all levels of government changed on a daily, if not hourly, basis. Video conferencing replaced in‐person meetings. Moreover, the increased use of social media by individuals, media, businesses, nonprofits, and governments dramatically changed how emergency managers communicate, manage rumors and misinformation, and obtain situational awareness information. Some local jurisdictions do not have the staffing capacity to use social media outside of pushing information or resharing posts from state or federal agencies. For this reason, McEntire expands previous social media information with recent research, examples, remaining challenges and lessons learned.
In addition to a record‐breaking year of disasters, 2020 unveiled centuries old systemic issues in the U.S. civil protests throughout the nation collided with multiple weather‐related disasters and a pandemic. For example, in southern Louisiana, local leaders faced three simultaneous crises – civil unrest and protests due to an officer involved shooting, the COVID‐19 pandemic, and five hurricanes – which resulted in receiving communities not opening shelters. This decision required individuals evacuating to drive farther to find shelter, which was not always a viable option for portions of the populations. The Federal Emergency Management Agency’s (FEMA) goal of a whole community approach remains elusive as disasters continue to uncover social injustices in our communities. An underlying theme throughout many chapters in this edition is ethical leadership. McEntire highlights the pressing needs of socially vulnerable populations by focusing on the essential role of nonprofit and faith‐based organizations to fill the gaps in resources and services, recovery and mitigation considerations, and the role of the emergency manager as an advocate.
As the discipline moves closer to accreditation, there remains a need to implement FEMA’s Next Generation Emergency Core Competencies within individual courses and throughout an academic program. This edition expands on previous efforts by providing substantial information to achieve many of the outlined competencies, including the emergency management framework, principles, and body of knowledge; ethical leadership; critical thinking; sociocultural and systems literacy; and governance and civics.
As an emergency management student, I used the first version of McEntire’s book in my studies. I was like many other emergency management students ‐ a practitioner returning to the university for a graduate degree. This book allowed me the opportunity to apply my practical knowledge to the theories that were foreign to me. As a faculty member, I selected McEntire’s second edition of Disaster Response and Recovery for many of the same reasons. However, as a current teacher, I value the additional resources provided in the revised chapters and online through the publisher’s website. Each chapter includes learning outcomes, goals, and objectives; self‐check, summary, and review questions; and scenario‐based questions which allow students to step into a management role and critically think through the concepts from that chapter.
I have known Dave for nearly a decade as we served in the American Society for Public Administration’s Section on Emergency and Crisis Management and FEMA’s Higher Education Program. Prior to becoming Dean at Utah Valley University, he was a professor in the Emergency Administration and Planning Program and Associate Dean in the College of Public Affairs and Community Service at the University of North Texas. Most importantly, he was recognized by his peers twice. First in 2010 with the Dr. B. Wayne Blanchard Award for Academic Excellence in Emergency Management Higher Education. Then at the 2018 FEMA Higher Education Symposium with the inaugural Scholarship of Teaching and Learning Award.
In the dynamic and complex emergency and crisis management profession, education is key. As detailed in the Next Generation Emergency Core Competencies, students must achieve multiple knowledge, skills, and abilities, which this book addresses. As the discipline continues to grow, there remains a need to learn from previous disasters and integrate theory with practice into the curriculum. With a record breaking 2020, McEntire’s third edition of Disaster Response and Recovery is a timely answer to this call.
Claire Connolly Knox, Ph.D.
School of Public Administration
University of Central Florida
Preface
There is a growing sense among scholars and practitioners that greater emphasis needs to be placed on risk reduction and mitigation activities in the increasingly important profession of emergency management. Recurring hazards, new threats, rising losses, and further vulnerability all lead to the inescapable conclusion that a more proactive approach to disasters is undeniably warranted. The author agrees with this assessment.
It is also necessary to recognize that response and recovery operations will always be required—to some degree or another—after earthquakes, hazardous materials spills or terrorist attacks. Furthermore, as the reaction to 9/11, Hurricane Katrina and Covid‐19 illustrate, there is ample room for improvement in how we react disasters. At least some of the mistakes made in these cases could have been avoided if the extensive disaster literature had been heeded by politicians, public servants, corporations, nonprofit agencies and citizens alike. In addition, there is no doubt that post‐disaster functions also have an immediate or long‐term impact on the protection of life, property and the environment as well as the minimization of human suffering and social disruption.
For these reasons, Disaster Response and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for Resilience has been written. Its goal is to integrate the lessons provided by both researchers and professionals, updating the field with current studies and practical guidelines. Rather than address these reactive phases as if they were the only responsibilities of today’s emergency managers, this book attempts to illustrate that successful warning, evacuation and other disaster functions require advanced preparedness measures and careful implementation. Recovery likewise provides a prime opportunity to implement change, thereby reducing the probability and consequences of future disasters.
Of course, no book can provide sufficient or fail‐proof ideas on how to react successfully to the complexities of today’s disasters, and the reader should not consider the information in this text to be the best or only way to respond to or recover from deadly, destructive and disruptive events. In spite of this fact, it is hoped that this volume will be of benefit to students, emergency managers, and others interested or involved in disaster management.
In order to meet these goals, the book provides a thorough review of the challenges confronting emergency managers and others after disasters and discusses recommendations for their resolution.
Chapter 1
shares background information about disasters, emergency management, and types of hazards and their interaction. Chapter 1 likewise discusses the consequences of disasters so you may know what to expect in their aftermath.
Chapter 2
helps you recognize the large number of individuals and agencies that participate in response and recovery operations. This includes public servants, government departments, private and nonprofit organizations, and citizen volunteers.
Chapter 3
covers human behavior in time of collective stress. It challenges widely held views and offers a more accurate view of disaster behavior.
Chapter 4
identifies two theoretical approaches to the management of disasters. The advantages and disadvantages of the traditional and professional models are also explored.
Chapter 5
mentions how the initial steps of hazard detection, warning, evacuation, and sheltering may protect people’s lives.
Chapter 6
discusses several disaster functions including search and rescue, emergency medical care, mass fatality management and stress counseling. It describes how best to care for those who have been affected by disasters.
Chapter 7
explains what can be done to successfully deal with the media/social media, donations and volunteers after a disaster. It will help you know how to manage public relations and community resources.
At this point, the book transitions from response to recovery. Damage assessment, disaster declarations, and debris management are the topics covered in
Chapter 8
.
In
Chapter 9
, the process of recovery is investigated along with its relation to mitigation. The types of disaster assistance programs are uncovered along with ways to reduce vulnerability.
Typical problems during response and recovery operations are exposed in
Chapter 10
. The difficulties associated with communication, coordination, decision making, transportation, politics, special populations, legal issues and record keeping are explained to help you fulfill your obligations as an emergency manager.
Chapter 11
points out that technological tools and organization structure will improve disaster management and coordination among pertinent actors.
Chapter 12
helps you understand the challenges of the future by looking at the lessons of prior disasters and the nature of emerging threats.
The final chapter of the book focuses on how to develop disaster resilience.
Chapter 13
specifically underscores the value of preparedness, improvisation, spontaneous planning, leadership, and professionalism for you as an emergency manager.
Learning and Teaching Aids
While reading each of the chapters, you will find helpful aids whether you are a student or an instructor.
Starting Point/Pretest: This assessment tool is an online test delivered through the book’s companion web site. It enables you to focus reading comprehension on the areas where you are weakest.
“What You’ll Learn…” and “After Studying This Chapter…”: These bulleted lists describe the topics to be covered in each chapter.
Goals and Outcomes: This bulleted list makes explicit the learning objectives for each chapter.
For Example boxes: Shorter real‐world situations that illustrate the central points of each section of the chapter.
Case Study boxes: Longer real‐world situations that illustrate key issues in the chapters.
Self‐Check Questions: These inquiries help the student review the material presented in each section of the chapter before continuing on with the remainder of the text.
Key Terms: A list of major concepts, including definitions, provided at the end of each chapter.
Summary Questions: True/false and multiple‐choice questions that capture the main points of each chapter to test student mastery of key issues and content.
Review Questions: Short‐answer questions that remind the student of the central recommendations covered in each section of the chapter.
Applying This Chapter Questions: Short‐answer questions that invite the student to consider new situations and how they would deal with alternative scenarios.
You Try It!: Open‐ended questions that allow the students to go beyond the information presented in the test and examine how they would react in real‐world contexts.
Access Your Understanding/Post‐Test: This final test for the chapter is online in the text’s website. It repeats the initial test questions in order to illustrate learning and comprehension while reading the chapter.
Acknowledgments
Appreciation is expressed to several organizations and individuals that have helped significantly in the development of Disaster Response and Recovery. Although I alone am responsible for the content of this book, I am indebted first and foremost to the Federal Emergency Management Agency for a grant that made much of the initial research for this text possible. Gratitude is also conveyed to Wayne Blanchard, the former FEMA Higher Education Program Manager, for his ideas and insight regarding the theoretical and practical nature of post‐disaster emergency management operations.
Special recognition is also warranted for the contributions of Siddik Ekici, Sarah Mathis and Kristina Cramb, three graduate students in the Department of Public Administration at the University of North Texas. These dedicated research assistants eagerly assembled additional information and materials for the first literature search. They also provided helpful case studies and worked on the extensive bibliography for this book.
I am also thankful for the knowledge and expertise of several scholars and practitioners that provided useful recommendations on earlier drafts of the book. These reviewers included Danny Peterson (Arizona State University), Phil Politano (Onondaga Community College), James Richardson (San Antonio Community College), William L. Waugh Jr. (Georgia State University), Cherlyn Wilhelmsen (University of Idaho), and Stacy Lynn Willet (University of Akron), Jane Kushma (Jacksonville State University), and DeeDee Bennett (University at Albany). The constructive advice of Gregg Dawson, Steve Reddish, Leland Baker, and other professional emergency managers is likewise noted.
I also wish to recognize my wonderful daughters ‐ Ashley Layton, Kailey Birchall and Madison McEntire ‐ for their assistance in developing the supplementary materials for the text. Their contributions have definitely made an overwhelming task more manageable.
Finally, Wiley’s staff, including Summers Scholl, Daniela Bez, Viniprammia Premkumar, Karyn Drews, Laura Town, Jorkill Almanza and Sandeep Kumar, deserve credit for their time‐consuming preparation of this manuscript for publication.
David A. McEntire, Ph.d., SFHEA
About the Companion Website
This book is accompanied by a companion website:
www.wiley.com/go/mcentire/disasterresponse
The book companion site is split into as follows:
The student companion site includes
Pre‐Test documents: contain multiple choice questions and solution.
Post‐Test documents: contain questions and answers.
Manual documents: contain the solutions to questions in the book.
Midterm document: test template without answers.
“Cumulative Final” document: test template without answers.
The instructor companion site includes
Midterm document: test template with answers included
Cumulative Final document: test template with answers included.
PowerPoint Slides: contain presentation slides for lectures
1Knowing What to Expect: Hazards, Vulnerability, and Disasters
STARTING POINT
Pretest to assess your knowledge on hazards, vulnerability and disasters.
Determine where you need to concentrate your effort.
What You’ll Learn in This Chapter
The possibility and probability of disasters.
General emergency management responsibilities.
Types of natural, technological and anthropogenic hazards.
The interaction of hazards and vulnerability.
Anticipated changes and demands after disasters.
The need for response and recovery operations.
After Studying This Chapter, You’ll Be Able To
Understand the impact and scope of various disaster levels.
Differentiate among the diverse hazard categories.
Comprehend the relation among hazards, vulnerability and disasters.
Examine the relationship between response and recovery functions.
Identify needs to be addressed during and after disaster.
Goals and Outcomes
Compare and contrast different disaster magnitudes.
Define and use basic disaster and emergency management terminology.
Evaluate distinct types of hazards as well as common disaster characteristics.
Predict changes resulting from disasters and resulting implications.
Advocate for the importance of response and recovery operations.
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the intriguing disaster discipline and the indispensable emergency management profession! As a current/future emergency manager or related specialist, it is vital that you are aware of the important concepts and principles relating to your duties and responsibilities that must be performed when disasters occur. It is especially imperative that you are able to distinguish among differing hazard types as well as the factors that lead to and exacerbate these devastating events. For instance, it is vital that you understand natural, technological, and civil/conflict triggering agents as well as how they interact with the vulnerabilities people and organizations create in society. Comprehending the causes and consequences of disasters and the changes that become visible when they unfold is likewise necessary if you are to be able to react to them effectively. Being cognizant of the goals pertaining to response and recovery operations will also help you become a successful emergency manager. These are a few of the topics addressed in this introductory chapter of Disaster Response and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for Resilience.
1.1 The Occurrence of Disasters
Everyday people around the world are impacted by events that produce injuries, cause death, damage buildings/infrastructure, destroy personal belongings and interrupt daily activities. These disturbing experiences are categorized as accidents, crises, emergencies, disasters, calamities or catastrophes. Such incidents adversely affect individuals, groups, communities and even nations. Each of these events is similar in that they require action from government officials, businesses, nonprofit organizations, citizens/bystanders, and the victims and survivors themselves. However, these occurrences vary dramatically in terms of magnitude, extent of duration and scope. For example, a routine traffic accident can typically be handled within minutes or hours by a few police officers who file reports and a tow truck that removes wreckage. A structural conflagration may require one or two fire departments, but it can displace the resident or family for weeks or months. When a mass shooting occurs, resources are needed to neutralize the threat, investigate the incident, and address the longer‐term psychological toll that may possibly result from these intentional acts of violence. Alternatively, an airplane crash may necessitate the participation of firefighters and emergency medical service (EMS) personnel as well as airline officials and government employees such as a coroner or public information officer. If the plane crash does not take the lives of all of the passengers and crew, the victims and survivors of the ordeal may be injured or permanently disabled and require long‐term medical care. Finally, when a major earthquake or hurricane affects an urban area, many organizations will become involved. Besides first responders, additional personnel will be needed to remove debris, repair utilities, provide relief assistance and coordinate rebuilding endeavors that could take years. Thus, the impact of a minor accident is both quantitatively and qualitatively different than a major disaster or catastrophe (see Table 1‐1) (Quarantelli, 2006). While this book does discuss common emergencies and less frequent catastrophes, it focuses most of its attention on larger disasters and how to deal with them in a more effective manner.
1.1.1 Important Concepts
Disasters are defined as deadly, destructive, and disruptive events that occur when a hazard interacts with human vulnerability. Disasters are significant societal events that injure and kill people, damage structures/infrastructure and personal belongings, and complicate the routine activities people undertake on a daily basis (e.g., sleeping, bathing, cooking, traveling, going to school, working, etc.).
Table 1‐1 Comparison of Event Magnitude.
Accidents
Crises
Emergencies/ disasters
Calamities/catastrophes
Injuries
Few
Many
Scores/hundreds
Thousands/more
Deaths
Few
Many
Scores/hundreds
Thousands/more
Damage
Minor
Moderate
Major
Severe
Disruption
Minor
Moderate
Major
Severe
Geographic impact
Immediate area
Local community
Regional
National/international
Availability of resources
Abundant
Sufficient
Limited
Scarce
Number of responders
Few
Many
Scores/hundreds
Thousands/more
Time to recover
Minutes/hours/days
Days/weeks
Months/years
Years/decades
In the simplest of terms, there are two categories of variables that interact to produce a disaster. A hazard is the risk, trigger or threat that initiates a disaster. Hazards include natural, technological or anthropogenic (human‐induced) agents like earthquakes, industrial explosions, or even terrorist attacks that negatively affect people or critical infrastructure. Vulnerability, on the other hand, refers to the proneness of people to disasters based on factors such as their geographic location, exposure of property, level of preparedness, income and/or other social variables. The ability of individuals, organizations, and communities to deal with disaster also determines the degree of vulnerability. Vulnerability is therefore the human element of disasters, while hazard agents may or may not always have a direct social cause.
Although disasters result from the interaction of both hazards and vulnerability, the two concepts have distinct implications for practical application. Because it is not always possible to prevent or control hazards, people and organizations should give extra attention to efforts that reduce their vulnerability to disasters (McEntire 2005). For this reason, the knowledge and expertise of individuals that are employed in emergency management and related professions are required to deal effectively with mass emergencies, disasters, calamities and catastrophes (Figure 1‐1).
From an academic standpoint, emergency management “is the study of how humans and their institutions deal with hazards, vulnerabilities and the events that result from their interaction” (Jensen, 2013). The emergency management discipline accordingly seeks to create and disseminate knowledge about what people and organizations can do to diminish the frequency and impact of disasters. From a practical perspective, emergency management “is the managerial function charged with creating the framework within which communities reduce vulnerability to hazards and cope with disasters” (Blanchard et al., 2007, p. 4). This suggests the need for highly educated and trained individuals who are given the responsibility to advance the goals of reducing disasters and reacting to them in an effective manner. These professionals are known as emergency managers; they have a keen “interest in disasters and a strong desire to alleviate the suffering of those impacted” by these adverse events (Phillips, Neal and Webb 2017, p. 106).
Figure 1‐1 Emergency management personnel often attend meetings to prepare for future disasters.Michael Rieger/FEMA.
http://www.spc.noaa.gov/faq/tornado/ef‐scale.html
Put differently, emergency managers are public servants that help jurisdictions reduce the liabilities that lead to disasters. These employees (governmental and even non‐governmental) also work closely with many concerned stakeholders and endeavor to build capabilities to deal more effectively with hazards and disasters. Such activities are commonly described as the disaster life cycle or the four phases of emergency management. These proactive and reactive efforts include mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery:
Mitigation
refers to several priorities and actions, including risk reduction, loss minimization, and/or the alleviation of potential negative impacts associated with disasters. Careful land‐use planning, improvements in building design and construction, and a reliance on insurance to cover the costs associated with disasters are examples of mitigation activities.
Preparedness
implies efforts to increase readiness for a disaster. Examples of preparedness initiatives include the creation of laws/ordinances, the acquisition of grants or other resource s, and various measures such as planning, training, exercises and community education.
These two phases ‐ mitigation and preparedness ‐ should be given the highest priority in the emergency management profession today. For this reason, emergency managers must not be seen solely as an extension of first responders— our wonderful police, fire, and emergency medical personnel who serve so valiantly when emergencies occur. The goals of emergency managers are more proactive and encompassing than emergency response, even if they do overlap with the objectives and operations of these heroic public servants at times.
However, because it is impossible to eliminate all disasters, emergency managers must also be involved in disaster response and recovery operations. Disaster response includes actions “taken immediately before, during, or directly after an emergency occurs, to save lives [and] minimize damage to property” (Godschalk, 1991, p. 136). Examples of disaster response functions include
Warning people of severe weather
Evacuating those who are assumed to be at risk
Sheltering the affected population
During response operations, it may also be necessary to provide emergency medical care, relay information to the public, and manage the arrival of donations and volunteers.
Disaster recovery, in contrast, consists of actions “to return vital life support systems to minimum operating standards and long‐term activity designed to return life to normal or improved levels” (Godschalk, 1991, p. 136). This incorporates efforts to repair homes damaged by disaster and rebuild community infrastructure such as power lines, roads, and courthouses.
Each of the phases described in this section is closely related to the others (Neal, 1997). For instance, it is difficult to separate mitigation from preparedness as both are proactive measures to reduce the impact of disaster. Preparedness also has a significant influence upon the success of post‐disaster management since it enables a community to anticipate response and recovery needs. In addition, it is difficult to determine when response ends and when recovery begins. For instance, are damage assessment and debris removal response functions or part of disaster recovery operations? Also, during recovery, it is vitally important that steps be taken to prevent future disasters or minimize their potential impact. Instead of simply rebuilding homes that have been damaged by a flood or a tornado, it may be necessary to relocate these structures to safer areas or implement more stringent construction requirements (e.g., improved anchors, hurricane straps, safe rooms, etc.). For these reasons, the word “phases” may be somewhat misleading. With this in mind, it may be advisable to substitute “phases” with the term “functional areas” or “functional activities.” Also, these “phases” or functional areas or activities of emergency management do not appear or proceed in a neat, linear fashion. They occur and unfold with a degree of complexity, so it is sometimes difficult to separate them conceptually.
It is also imperative that emergency managers are aware of other important terminology related to their profession. Due to the rising threat of terrorism and the advent of homeland security, new lexicon was introduced in emergency management. After the 9/11 terrorist attacks, Homeland security was defined as “a concerted national effort to prevent terrorist attacks within the United States, reduce America’s vulnerability to terrorism, and recover from and minimize the damage of attacks that do occur” (Office of Homeland Security, 2002, p. 2). It is easy to see that this concept is related to emergency management. But, this concept is slightly different in that it also encompasses other distinct terms such as prevention and protection. Prevention refers to efforts to stop the commission of terrorist attacks. It includes the gathering of intelligence, counterterrorism operations, and border control functions among others. Protection, on the other hand, is more concerned about actions that discourage attacks through increased security measures or efforts to minimize damage if such attacks cannot be always prevented in the first place. The reliance on guards, fences, video surveillance, and access control to sensitive locations falls into this category. As can be seen, it is likely that emergency managers and others in homeland security will work together to deal with all types of emergencies, disasters and terrorist attacks.
1.1.2 Preview of Disaster Response and Recovery
As indicated by the title, this book describes strategies and tactics to improve the management of disaster response and recovery operations. This decision is not meant to deny the value of functions relating to mitigation, preparedness, prevention and protection. It is instead based on the assumption that there is a need for a comprehensive textbook about post‐disaster activities. Although there are great works on this subject already, it is necessary to have more current information and not just approach the material from a pure academic or practical standpoint only. For instance, it is important to note that response and recovery operations have changed significantly over the past few decades and even substantially in recent years. The informative research generated by disaster scholars over the past several decades likewise must also be integrated with the lessons gained from the extensive experience of professional emergency managers. Furthermore, there is a dire need to further educate government leaders and public servants in order to avert the repetition of mistakes made after many disasters. Nevertheless, this book may also be of use to corporate leaders or humanitarian workers who are also involved in response and recovery operations.
In order to meet these goals, Disaster Response and Recovery: Strategies and Tactics for Resilience will provide a comprehensive discussion about post‐disaster management issues and recommendations for their improvement. Chapter 2 will help you as an emergency manager identify the actors involved in response and recovery operations. This includes government officials and agencies as well as corporations, nonprofit organizations, and even everyday people and the victims themselves. Chapter 3 discusses human behavior in time of disaster. It dispels widely held myths and illustrates typical social reactions to collective stress. Chapter 4 compares alternative theoretical stances regarding the management of disasters. It acknowledges the strengths and weaknesses of traditional and professional approaches. Chapter 5 covers initial response measures, and it provides ideas on how to protect people through hazard detection, warning, evacuation, and sheltering. Chapter 6 lists steps that can be taken to care for those who have been adversely affected by a disaster. This chapter shares information about search and rescue, emergency medical care, fatality management and psychological stress. Chapter 7 shares recommendations on how to manage public relations and community resources. In particular, it discusses how you can effectively manage the media, donations and volunteers after a disaster. The transition from response to recovery is the subject of Chapter 8. It reviews functions such as damage assessment, disaster declarations and debris removal. In Chapter 9, disaster assistance programs are discussed along with ways to reduce vulnerability. This chapter provides information on recovery and how this post‐disaster activity must be linked to mitigation. The challenges of response and recovery are exposed in Chapter 10. This section will help you understand difficulties associated with communications, decision making, transportation, politics, special populations, legal issues and record keeping. Chapter 11 points out tools that can be utilized and employed during response and recovery operations. These include technological equipment as well as organizational arrangements (e.g., incident command, emergency operation centers) that will improve coordination. Chapter 12 covers lessons from prior disasters along with new threats and reasons for rising vulnerability. It attempts to help you think critically about how to deal with the disasters that will confront you and likewise consider the changes that must take place to improve the future of emergency management. Chapter 13
