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- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: Food Science and Technology
- Sprache: Englisch
Dried fruits serve as important healthful snack items around the world. They provide a concentrated form of fresh fruits, prepared by different drying techniques. With their unique combination of taste/aroma, essential nutrients, fibre, and phytochemicals or bioactive compounds, dried fruits are convenient for healthy eating and can bridge the gap between recommended intake of fruits and actual consumption. Dried fruits are nutritionally equivalent to fresh fruits, in smaller serving sizes, in the current dietary recommendations of various countries. Scientific evidence suggests that individuals who regularly consume generous amounts of dried fruits have lower rates of cardiovascular disease, obesity, various types of cancer, type-2 diabetes, and other chronic diseases. Dried fruits also have the advantage of being easy to store and distribute, available around the year, readily incorporated into other foods and recipes, and present a healthy alternative to salty or sugary snacks.
Dried Fruits: Phytochemicals and Health Effects is divided into three sections preceded by introductory chapters that provide an overview of dried fruits (their composition, phytochemicals and health applications) as well as the cancer chemopreventive effects of selected dried fruits (amla fruits or Indian gooseberries, avocados, berries, mangoes, mangosteens, persimmons, prunes, raisins, kiwi fruits, and other dried fruits). The first section covers the most popular dried berries (blackberries, blackcurrants, blueberries, cranberries, goji berries, mulberries, raspberries, and strawberries); the second section discusses non-tropical dried fruits (apples, apricots, cherries, citrus fruits, figs, nectarines, peaches, pears, prunes, and raisins); and the final section addresses tropical dried fruits (açai fruits, bananas, dates, guavas, papayas, mangoes, passion fruits, and pineapples).
Contributors to this volume are internationally renowned researchers who have provided a comprehensive account of the global perspectives of the issues relating to phytochemicals and health effects of dried fruits. The book will serve as a resource for those interested in the potential application of new developments in dried fruits’ nutraceuticals and functional foods. Biochemists, chemists, food scientists/technologists, nutritionists, and health professionals, from academia, government laboratories, and industry will benefit from this publication. Although this book is intended primarily as a reference book, it also summarises the current state of knowledge in key research areas and contains ideas for future work. In addition, it provides easy to read text suitable for teaching senior undergraduate and post-graduate students.
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Seitenzahl: 1038
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2012
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Contents
Cover
Series
Title Page
Copyright
List of Contributors
Preface
Chapter 1: Composition, phytochemicals, and beneficial health effects of dried fruits: an overview
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Compositional and nutritional characteristics of dried fruits
1.3 Phytochemicals in dried fruits
1.4 Beneficial health effects of dried fruits
1.5 Commercial products and industrial applications of dried fruits
1.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 2: Cancer chemopreventive effects of selected dried fruits
2.1 Chemoprevention: an overview
2.2 The promise of dried fruits in cancer prevention
2.3 Dried fruits as a potential source of chemopreventive phytochemicals
2.4 Biochemical basis of chemoprevention with dried fruits
2.5 Chemopreventive properties of bioactive substances derived from selected dried fruits
2.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Part 1: Dried Berries
Chapter 3: Phytochemicals and health benefits of blackberries and black currants
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Compositional and nutritional characteristics of blackberries and black currants
3.3 Phytochemicals in blackberries and black currants
3.4 Health benefits of blackberries and black currants
3.5 Commercial products and industrial applications of blackberries and black currants
3.6 Drying effects on antioxidant capacities and phenolics of blackberries and black currants
3.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 4: Dried blueberries: the effects of processing on health-promoting compounds
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Varieties and composition
4.3 Compositional and nutritional characteristics of blueberries
4.4 Phytochemicals
4.5 Health effects related to blueberries
4.6 Effects of processing on blueberry components
4.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 5: Functional characteristics of dried cranberries
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Composition and nutritional characteristics of dried cranberry powder
5.3 Natural antioxidants in dried cranberry powder
5.4 Health effects of dried cranberry powders
5.5 Food applications of dried cranberry powders
5.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 6: Phytochemicals and health benefits of goji berries
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Functional components in goji berries
6.3 Health benefits of goji berries
6.4 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: Dried mulberries: phytochemicals and health effects
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Drying of mulberries
7.3 Compositional and nutritional characteristics of mulberries
7.4 Phytochemicals in mulberries and their by-products
7.5 Natural antioxidants in mulberries
7.6 Health effects of mulberries
7.7 Food application of mulberries and their by-products
7.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8: Dried raspberries: phytochemicals and health effects
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Dehydration of raspberries
8.3 Phytochemicals in dried raspberries
8.4 Antioxidants in dried raspberries
8.5 Health benefits of dried raspberries
8.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 9: Phytochemical antioxidants and health benefits of dried strawberries
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Phytochemicals
9.3 Factors affecting phytochemicals
9.4 Health benefits of strawberries
9.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 10: Beneficial effects of dried berry fruits in human health and disease prevention
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Antioxidant protection
10.3 Cardiovascular health and metabolic syndrome
10.4 Neuroprotection
10.5 Anticancer activity
10.6 Helicobacter pylori and inflammatory response
10.7 Diabetes and vision
10.8 Conclusions
References
Part 2: Nontropical Dried Fruits
Chapter 11: Phytochemicals and health benefits of dried apple snacks
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Food applications of dried apple snacks
11.3 Effects of drying methods and vacuum impregnation (VI) on apple phytochemicals
11.4 Antioxidant capacity of dried apple snacks
11.5 Compositional and nutritional characteristics of dried apple snacks
11.6 Health benefits of fresh and dried apples
11.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 12: Phytochemicals and health benefits of dried apricots
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Production
12.3 Compositional and nutritional characteristics of dried apricots
12.4 Phytochemicals in dried apricots
12.5 Antioxidant activity of dried apricots
12.6 Chemical changes during drying of apricots
12.7 Effects of sulfur treatment on phytochemical content of apricots
12.8 Health benefits of dried apricots
12.9 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13: Dried cherries: phytochemicals and health perspectives
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Production
13.3 Methods of drying
13.4 Nutritional characteristics
13.5 Antioxidant phytochemicals
13.6 Health benefits
13.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 14: Dried citrus fruits: phytochemicals and health beneficial effects
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Compositional and nutritional characteristics of citrus
14.3 Phytochemicals in citrus
14.4 Health effects of dried citrus peels
14.5 Food application of citrus and their by-products
14.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 15: Functional characteristics of dried figs
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Compositional and nutritional characteristics of fresh and dried figs
15.3 Phytochemicals in dried figs
15.4 Health benefits of dried figs
15.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 16: Drying nectarines: functional compounds and antioxidant potential
16.1 Introduction
16.2 How to dry nectarines
16.3 Compositional and nutritional characteristics of dried nectarines
16.4 Phytochemicals in dried nectarines
16.5 Health benefits of dried nectarines
16.6 Commercial products and industrial applications of dried nectarines
16.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 17: Phytochemical composition and health aspects of peach products
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Compositional and nutritional changes of peaches during dehydration
17.3 Phytochemicals in fresh and processed peaches
17.4 Health effects of peaches
17.5 Dry peaches and their by-products
17.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 18: Dried pears: phytochemicals and potential health effects
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Phytochemicals in pears
18.3 Changes in phytochemical compounds during drying of pears
18.4 Bioavailability and potential health effects
18.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 19: Prunes: are they functional foods?
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Compositional and nutritional characteristics of prunes
19.3 Phytochemicals in prunes and their by-products
19.4 Natural antioxidant in prunes
19.5 Health effects of prunes
19.6 Food application of prunes and their by-products
19.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 20: Raisins: processing, phytochemicals, and health benefits
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Types of raisins
20.3 Processing of raisins
20.4 Composition of raisins
20.5 Phytochemicals in raisins
20.6 Bioactivities and health benefits of raisins
20.7 Conclusions
References
Part 3: Tropical Dried Fruits
Chapter 21: Açai fruits: potent antioxidant and anti-inflammatory superfruits with potential health benefits
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Compositional and nutrition characteristics of açai fruits
21.3 Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities of açai fruits
21.4 Phytochemicals in açai fruits
21.5 Processing of açai fruits for value-added products
21.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 22: Bananas, dried bananas, and banana chips: nutritional characteristics, phytochemicals, and health effects
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Production and consumption
22.3 Dried bananas or banana figs
22.4 Dried and fried banana chips (crisps)
22.5 Nutritional content of bananas, dried bananas, and banana chips
22.6 Phytochemicals in bananas and dried fruit products
22.7 Potential health benefits of dried bananas
22.8 Conclusions
References
Chapter 23: Nutritional composition, phytochemicals, and health benefits of dates
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Compositional and nutritional characteristics of fresh and dried dates
23.3 Phytochemicals in fresh and dried dates
23.4 Health benefits of dates
23.5 Food application of dates, syrups, and their byproducts
23.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 24: Neutraceutical properties of dried tropical fruits: guavas and papayas
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Guavas
24.3 Papayas
24.4 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Chapter 25: Dried mangoes: phytochemicals, antioxidant properties, and health benefits
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Compositional and nutritional characteristics of dried mangoes
25.3 Phytochemicals and antioxidant activity of dried mangoes
25.4 Health benefits of dried mangoes
25.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 26: Phytochemicals and health applications of dried passion and pineapple fruits
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Compositional and nutritional characteristics of dried passion and pineapple fruits
26.3 Phytochemicals in dried passion and pineapple fruits
26.4 Health benefits of dried passion and pineapple fruits
26.5 Commercial products and industrial applications of dried passion and pineapple fruits
26.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Index
Functional Food Science and Technology series
Functional foods resemble traditional foods but are designed to confer physiological benefits beyond their nutritional function. Sources, ingredients, product development, processing and international regulatory issues are among the topics addressed in Wiley-Blackwell's new Functional Food Science and Technology book series. Coverage extends to the improvement of traditional foods by cultivation, biotechnological and other means, including novel physical fortification techniques and delivery systems such as nanotechnology. Extraction, isolation, identification and application of bioactives from food and food processing by-products are among other subjects considered for inclusion in the series.
Series Editor: Professor Fereidoon Shahidi, PhD, Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St John's, Newfoundland, Canada.
Titles in the series
Nutrigenomics and Proteomics in Health and Disease: Food Factors and Gene Interactions Editors: Yoshinori Mine, Kazuo Miyashita and Fereidoon Shahidi ISBN 978-0-8138-0033-2
Functional Food Product Development Editors: Jim Smith and Edward Charter ISBN 978-1-4051-7876-1
Cereals and Pulses: Nutraceutical Properties and Health Benefits Editors: Liangli (Lucy) Yu, Rong Tsao and Fereidoon Shahidi ISBN 978-0-8138-1839-9
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Dried fruits : phytochemicals and health effects / edited by Cesarettin Alasalvar and Fereidoon Shahidi. p. cm. – (Functional food science & technology) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8138-1173-4 (hardback : alk. paper) 1. Dried fruit–Health aspects.
2. Phytochemicals–Health aspects. I. Alasalvar, Cesarettin. II. Title: Phytochemicals
and health effects. TX397.D75 2013 615.3′21–dc23 2012023960
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Cover design by His and Hers Design
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List of Contributors
Cesarettin AlasalvarFood Institute TÜBİTAK Marmara Research Centre Gebze-Kocaeli Turkey
Sadeq Hasan Al-SherajiDepartment of Nutrition and Dietetics University Putra Malaysia Selangor Malaysia
Department of Food Science Ibb University Ibb Yemen
Emilio Alvarez-ParrillaDepartamento de Ciencias Químico Biológicas Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez Ciudad Juárez-Chihuahua Mexico
Jesús F. Ayala-ZavalaCentro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A. C. Dirección de Tecnología de Alimentos de Origen Vegetal Hermosillo-Sonora Mexico
Azrina AzlanDepartment of Nutrition and Dietetics University Putra Malaysia Selangor Malaysia
Halal Products Research Institute University Putra Malaysia Selangor Malaysia
Debasis BagchiDepartment of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences University of Houston College of Pharmacy Houston, TX USA
Manashi BagchiNutriToday LLC Boston, MA USA
Alessandra Del CaroDipartimento di Agraria Università degli Studi Sassari Italy
Arianna CarughiSun-Maid Growers of California Kingsburg, CA USA
Carter D. ClaryDepartment of Horticulture Washington State University Pullman, WA USA
Manuel A. CoimbraQOPNA Department of Chemistry University of Aveiro Aveiro Portugal
Neal M. DaviesFaculty of Pharmacy University of Manitoba Winnipeg, MB Canada
Huertas María Díaz-MulaDepartment of Applied Biology, EPSO University Miguel Hernández Orihuela-Alicante Spain
Vural GökmenDepartment of Food Engineering Hacettepe University Beytepe-Ankara Turkey
Neslihan GöncüoluDepartment of Food Engineering Hacettepe University Beytepe-Ankara Turkey
Gustavo A. González-AguilarCentro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, A. C. Dirección de Tecnología de Alimentos de Origen Vegetal Hermosillo-Sonora Mexico
Fouad Abdulrahman HassanDepartment of Nutrition and Dietetics University Putra Malaysia Selangor Malaysia
Department of Food Science Ibb University Ibb Yemen
Chi-Tang HoDepartment of Food Science Rutgers University New Brunswick, NJ USA
Tzou-Chi HuangDepartment of Food Science National Pingtung University of Science and Technology Pingtung Taiwan
Amin IsmailDepartment of Nutrition and Dietetics University Putra Malaysia Selangor Malaysia
Halal Products Research Institutes University Putra Malaysia Selangor Malaysia
Ajit P.K. JoshiDepartment of Environmental Sciences Dalhousie University Truro, NS Canada
William L. KerrDepartment of Food Science and Technology University of Georgia Athens, GA USA
Joydeb Kumar KunduCollege of Pharmacy Keimyung University Daegu South Korea
Changbao LiInstitute of Agro-Food Science & Technology Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences Nanning China
Hongyan LiState Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology Nanchang University Nanchang-Jiangxi China
Guelph Food Research Centre Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Guelph, ON Canada
Li LiInstitute of Agro-Food Science & Technology Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences Nanning China
Zhichun LiInstitute of Agro-Food Science & Technology Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences Nanning China
Fen LiaoInstitute of Agro-Food Science & Technology Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences Nanning China
Letitia McCuneBotanyDoc Inc. Tucson, AZ USA
Esteban I. Mejia-MezaPepsiCo Global R&D Valhalla, NY USA
Burçe Ataç MogolDepartment of Food Engineering Hacettepe University Beytepe-Ankara Turkey
Marian NaczkDepartment of Human Nutrition St. Francis Xavier University Antigonish, NS Canada
Beraat OzcelikDepartment of Food Engineering Istanbul Technical University Maslak-Istanbul Turkey
Mine Gultekin OzguvenDepartment of Food Engineering Istanbul Technical University Maslak-Istanbul Turkey
Antonio PigaDipartimento di Agraria Università degli Studi di Sassari Sassari Italy
K. Nagendra PrasadChemical Engineering Discipline School of Engineering Monash University Selangor Malaysia
Laura A. de la RosaDepartamento de Ciencias Químico Biológicas Universidad Autónoma de Ciudad Juárez Ciudad Juárez-Chihuahua Mexico
H.P. Vasantha RupasingheDepartment of Environmental Sciences Dalhousie University Truro, NS Canada
K.M. SchaichDepartment of Food Science Rutgers University New Brunswick, NJ USA
Alexander G. SchaussNatural and Medicinal Products Research AIBMR Life Sciences Puyallup, WA USA
María SerranoDepartment of Applied Biology, EPSO University Miguel Hernández Orihuela-Alicante Spain
Fereidoon ShahidiDepartment of Biochemistry Memorial University of Newfoundland St. John's, NL Canada
Haiming ShiInstitute of Food and Nutraceutical Science School of Agriculture & Biology Shanghai Jiao Tong University Shanghai China
Lisete SilvaQOPNA Department of Chemistry University of Aveiro Aveiro Portugal
Jian SunInstitute of Agro-Food Science & Technology Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences Nanning China
Guangxi Crop Genetic Improvement Laboratory Nanning China
Young-Joon SurhTumor Microenvironment Global Core Research Center College of Pharmacy Seoul National University Seoul South Korea
Zhuliang TanDepartment of Biochemistry Memorial University of Newfoundland St. John's, NL Canada
Rong TsaoGuelph Food Research Centre Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Guelph, ON Canada
Daniel ValeroDepartment of Food Technology, EPSO University Miguel Hernández Orihuela-Alicante Spain
Jaime A. YáñezDrug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics Alcon Research Ltd., a Novartis Company Fort Worth, TX USA
Xiangrong YouInstitute of Agro-Food Science & Technology Guangxi Academy of Agricultural Sciences Nanning China
Liangli (Lucy) YuDepartment of Nutrition and Food Science University of Maryland College Park, MD USA
Barakatun Nisak Mohd YusofDepartment of Nutrition and Dietetics University Putra Malaysia Selangor Malaysia
Shirley Zafra-StoneProducts Solution Research Inc. Davis, CA USA
Ying ZhongDepartment of Biochemistry Memorial University of Newfoundland St. John's, NL Canada
Preface
Dried fruits serve as important healthful snacks worldwide. They provide a concentrated form of fresh fruits, prepared by different drying techniques. Dried fruits, with their unique combination of taste/aroma, essential nutrients, fiber, and phytochemicals or bioactive compounds, are convenient for healthy eating and bridge the gap between recommended intake of fruits and actual consumption. Dried fruits are nutritionally equivalent to fresh fruits in smaller serving sizes, ranging from 30 to 43 g depending on the fruit, in current dietary recommendations in different countries. Numerous scientific evidences suggest that individuals who regularly consume generous amounts of dried fruits have lower rates of cardiovascular diseases, obesity, various types of cancer, type 2 diabetes, and other chronic diseases. Therefore, daily consumption of dried fruits is recommended in order to get full benefit of nutrients, health-promoting phytochemicals, and antioxidants that they contain, together with their desirable taste and aroma. Dried fruits also have the advantage of being easy to store and distribute, available around the year, readily incorporated into other foods and recipes, and present a healthy alternative to salty or sugary snacks.
This book examines most popular dried berries (blackberries, blackcurrants, blueberries, cranberries, goji berries, mulberries, raspberries, and strawberries), nontropical dried fruits (apples, apricots, cherries, citrus fruits, figs, nectarines, peaches, pears, prunes, and raisins), and tropical dried fruits (açai fruits, bananas, dates, guavas, papayas, mangoes, passion fruits, and pineapples). It is divided into three sections preceded by an introductory chapter (Chapter 1) providing an overview of dried fruits: composition, phytochemicals and health effects as well as cancer chemopreventive effects of selected dried fruits (amla fruits or Indian gooseberries, avocados, berries, mangoes, mangosteens, persimmons, prunes, raisins, kiwi fruits, and other dried fruits) (Chapter 2). The first section (Chapters 3–10) covers dried berries; the second section (Chapters 11–20) discusses nontropical dried fruits; and the final section (Chapters 21–26) includes tropical dried fruits.
Contributors to this volume are internationally renowned researchers who have provided a comprehensive account of the global perspectives of the issues of concern to phytochemicals and health effects of dried fruits. The book will serve as a resource for those interested in the potential application of new developments in dried fruits' nutraceuticals and functional foods. Biochemists, chemists, food scientists/technologists, nutritionists, and health professionals, from academia, government laboratories, and industry will benefit from this publication. Although this book is intended primarily as a reference book, it also summarizes the current state of knowledge in key research areas and contains ideas for future work. In addition, it provides easy-to-read text suitable for teaching senior undergraduate and post-graduate students.
We are indebted to the participating authors for their state-of-the-art contributions and dedication in providing authoritative views resulting from their latest investigations on nutritional significance, phytochemical composition, and potential health benefits of dried fruit consumption.
Cesarettin Alasalvar and Fereidoon Shahidi
1
Composition, phytochemicals, and beneficial health effects of dried fruits: an overview
Cesarettin Alasalvar and Fereidoon Shahidi
1.1 Introduction
Dried fruits serve as a concentrated form of fresh fruits prepared by different drying techniques. In other words, dried fruits possess much lower moisture content as a large proportion of their original water has been removed, either naturally through sun drying or through the use of specialized dryers or dehydrators. Considering the 2011 global production of commercially important dried fruits (Table 1.1), dates rank first on a global basis with a production of 6,598,000 metric tonnes (MT), followed by raisins (1,170,999 MT), prunes (236,500 MT), apricots (198,917 MT), and figs (105,453 MT) [1]. To the best of our knowledge, little information is available about the production of other dried fruits (açai berries, apples, bananas, black currants, blackberries, cherries, citrus fruits, cranberries, gingers, goji berries, guavas, kiwis, mangoes, mulberries, nectarines, papayas, passion fruits, peaches, pears, pineapples, raspberries, star apples, and strawberries, among others).
Table 1.1 World dried fruits production (metric tonnes)
Dates, figs, prunes, raisins, apricots, peaches, apples, and pears are referred to as “conventional” or “traditional” dried fruits. On the other hand, some fruits such as blueberries, cranberries, cherries, strawberries, and mangoes are infused with sugar solutions (e.g., sucrose syrup) or fruit juice concentrates prior to drying. Some products sold as dried fruit, such as papayas and pineapples, are actually candied fruit [2].
Epidemiologic studies have found an association between dried fruit consumption and diet quality. Raisins may be among the most researched of all dried fruits showing a health benefit [3], followed by dates, prunes, figs, apricots, peaches, apples, pears, and other fruits, which together constitute nearly half of all dried fruits produced in the world each year [2].
This overview chapter summarizes the nutritional significance, phytochemical composition, and potential health benefits of dried fruit consumption and discusses their great potential as medicinal or healthy foods for a number of diseases inflicting human beings.
1.2 Compositional and nutritional characteristics of dried fruits
Dried fruits come in almost as many varieties as fresh fruits. Although raisins, figs, dates, prunes, and apricots are the most common dried fruits in the marketplace, health food stores and local markets offer many more choices such as dried apples, pineapples, berries, mangoes, papayas, and even the exotic dragon fruit. They are rich sources of essential nutrients and health-promoting bioactive compounds. Table 1.2 summarizes the nutritional composition of some dried fruits (apples, apricots, dates, figs, peaches, pears, prunes, and raisins) [4]. Dried fruits are rich in carbohydrates (61.33–79.18 g/100 g) and devoid of fat (0.32–0.93 g/100 g). The most calorie-rich of these fruits are raisins (299 kcal/100 g), followed by dates (282 kcal/100 g). Dried fruits are excellent sources of sugar ranging from 38.13 g/100 g in prunes to 63.35 g/100 g in dates. Fructose and glucose are the main sugars found in all dried fruits, followed by sucrose. Trace amounts of maltose and galactose are found in some dried fruits. Levels of sugar may differ according to drying methods and regional and varietal factors.
Table 1.2 Compositional and nutritional characteristics of some dried fruits (values in per 100 g edible portion)
It is important to note that the high content of dietary fiber (3.7–9.8 g/100 g) found in dried fruits is an important source that helps meet our dietary recommendations (14 g of fiber for every 1000 calories of food consumed each day).This becomes 25–38 g of fiber per day depending on age and gender [5]. On a per serving basis (40 g), dried fruits deliver more than 9% of the daily value of fiber, depending on the fruit [4]. It has been reported that dried fruits (40 g/serving) compare favorably in their fiber content with common fresh fruit (one cup or one fruit serving) options [4, 6].
With respect to nutritional aspects, percentage of recommended dietary allowances (RDA) or adequate intake (AI) of minerals for adult males and females (aged 15–50 years) are also given in Table 1.3. Dried fruits, in general, serve as a reasonable source of copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorus, and potassium. Among the eight dried fruits listed in Table 1.3, peaches possess the highest mineral content, whereas apples contain the lowest. Consuming 40 g (on a per serving basis) of dried fruits (Table 1.3) supplies 0.6–6.5% of calcium, 8.4–16.4% of copper, 2.1–20.3% of iron, 1.6–8.6% of magnesium, 1.6–11.3% of manganese, 2.2–6.8% of phosphorus, and 3.8–9.9% of potassium for RDA or AI for adults [4, 7–9]. Based on RDA and AI values, dried figs are high in calcium, magnesium, and manganese, whereas dried peaches are good sources of iron and phosphorus. Moreover, apricots are an important source of potassium among the eight dried fruits listed in Table 1.3. On a per serving basis (40 g or about one-fourth cup), dried fruits rank among the top potassium sources in diets around the world [6]. Moreover, on a per serving basis, different dried fruits such as apricots, currants, dates, figs, peaches, prunes, and raisins (40 g serving) compare positively in their potassium content with the 10 most common fresh fruit options such as apples, bananas, grapes, mangos, oranges, peaches, pears, pineapples, strawberries, and watermelons (one cup or one fruit serving) [4, 6].
Table 1.3 Percentage of RDA values for adults (aged 19–50) in 40 g of dried fruits (per serving basis)
Dried fruits contain both water-soluble (betaine, choline, folate, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, riboflavin, thiamine, and vitamin C) and fat-soluble vitamins (A, E, and K) (Table 1.2). Among the eight dried fruits listed, prunes are the richest source of vitamin K (59.5 μg/100 g), whereas apricots are the richest source of vitamin A (180 μg/100 g) and vitamin E (4.33 mg/100 g) [4]. Dried fruits, in general, contain a small amount of vitamin C. With regard to RDA of vitamins, 40 g dried fruits provide up to 1.6–12.5% of niacin, 0.8–4.7% of pantothenic acid, 2.2–6.5% of pyridoxine, 2.2–7.6% of riboflavin, and 0.9–26.4% of vitamin K for RDA or AI for adults [4, 8, 10,11]. Prunes are particularly high in vitamin K. Among these eight dried fruits, prunes, apricot, and peaches contain higher amounts of vitamins than other dried fruits (Tables 1.2 and 1.4).
Table 1.4 Percentage of RDA values for adults (aged 19–50 years) in 40 g of dried fruits (per serving basis)
Despite the fact that dried fruits contain all indispensable amino acids (except tryptophan in pears), in general, they are not good sources of amino acids due to their low protein content (Table 1.2).
In summary, the following are some nutritional facts about dried fruits [12]:
Dried fruits are low in their fat and sodium content and, as expected, devoid of trans-fats and cholesterol [4].Dried fruits are good sources of dietary fiber and potassium. Among all fruits, they are among the top five contributors of fiber and potassium [5].Dried fruits provide essential nutrients that are otherwise low in today's diet, such as vitamin A (apricots and peaches), calcium (figs), vitamin K (prunes), boron (raisins and prunes), iron, and copper [4, 13].Traditional dried fruits have no added sugars. Most traditional dried fruits contain low amounts of sucrose; their sugar content is in the form of fructose and glucose [4].1.3 Phytochemicals in dried fruits
Phytochemicals are defined as nonnutritive, naturally occurring, biologically active, and chemically derived compounds found in the plant kingdom. More than several thousands of individual phytochemicals have been identified in plant-derived foods and their by-products, but a large percentage of phytochemicals still remain unknown and need to be identified before we can fully understand the health benefits of phytochemicals in whole foods. Dried fruits are highly nutritious and provide a range of phytochemicals such as phenolic acids, flavonoids (anthocyanidins, flavan-3-ols, flavones, flavonols, and isoflavones), phytoestrogens, and carotenoids, among others [3,4, 14–28]. They, in general, contain traces or undetectable amounts of proanthocyanidins [29]. Proanthocyanidins detected in plums and grapes are absent in prunes and raisins, which suggests that these compounds are degraded during the drying process [30].
Dried fruits are excellent sources of phenolic compounds in the diet [31–35]. These make up the largest group of plant phytochemicals in the diet and they appear to be, at least in part, responsible for the health benefits associated with diets abundant in fruits and vegetables. Phenolic compounds contribute most to the antioxidant activity of fruits and vegetables [36] and have a multitude of functional capacities, which may have a beneficial effect on health [6].
Values of the total phenolic content and oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) for a selection of dried fruit are given in Table 1.5. Prunes have the highest total phenolic content (1195 mg of gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g), whereas raisins (golden seedless) have the highest ORAC value (10,450 μmol trolox equivalents (TE)/100 g). Significant differences in the total phenolic content and the ORAC value exist among raisin varieties, being lowest in white raisins and highest in golden seedless raisins [14, 17, 19, 21]. Values are much higher for dried fruits than the corresponding values for their fresh counterparts because antioxidants become concentrated after the drying or dehydration process. While there is a loss or modification of some specific phytochemicals during drying, antioxidant activity and the total phenolic content remain relatively unchanged during the process, implying that many of the phenolic compounds are yet unidentified [37]. This could include oligomeric or polymeric products that are difficult to characterize. Pellergrini et al. [38] measured the total antioxidant capacity (using three different in vitro assays) of food including four dried fruits (apricots, figs, prunes, and raisins). Among these fruits, prunes exhibited the highest value followed by apricots. Little information is available on the phenolic profiles and antioxidant components of the other dried fruits.
Table 1.5 Comparison of total phenolics and ORAC values of some dried fruits (values in per 100 g edible portion)
The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical-scavenging activity and polyphenol content of 22 dried fruits (apples, apricots, bananas, blueberries, cherries, cranberries, figs, raisins, hawthorns, jujube, kiwis, kumquats, mangoes, melons, muscats, papayas, peaches, pears, pineapples, prunes, rakankas, and strawberries) have been evaluated and compared with fresh fruits by Ishiwata et al. [39]. Among the dried fruits examined, hawthorns, apricots, and blueberries exhibited the highest DPPH radical-scavenging activity. The polyphenol content of dried fruits and DPPH radical-scavenging activity were highly correlated. On a fresh weight basis, dried fruits, in general, contain higher radical-scavenging activity than fresh fruits. In contrast, the radical-scavenging activity of dried fruits is lower than that of the corresponding fresh fruits on a fresh weight basis [39]. A similar pattern was also reported by Vinson et al. [40].
Vinson et al. [40] reported the total phenolic content of fresh and dried fruits (apricots, cranberries, dates, figs, grapes/raisins, and plums/prunes) (Figure 1.1a). Dates had the highest concentration of total phenolics in both fresh and dried versions (2546 and 1959 mg catechin equivalents (CE)/100 g on a fresh weight basis, respectively). The total phenolic content averaged 731 mg of CE/100 g for fresh fruits and 815 mg of CE/100 g for dried fruits [40]. A comparison of the quantity of total phenolics in fresh and dried fruit pairs on a dry weight basis is illustrated in Figure 1.1b. The average is 3730 mg of CE/100 g for fresh fruits and only 910 mg of CE/100 g for dried varieties [40]. The process of producing dried fruit significantly decreases the total phenol content of the fruits on a dry weight basis. Dried fruits are significantly higher (P < 0.005) in total phenols than 20 fresh fruits, 815 versus 173 mg/100 g, respectively [41].
Figure 1.1 Comparison of quantity of total phenol in fresh and the corresponding dried fruit on a fresh weight basis (a) and dry weight basis (b). (Adapted with permission from Vinson et al. [40]).
Flavonoids are another group of phenolic compounds that can be classified into seven groups: flavanones, flavones, isoflavones, anthocyanidins, flavonols, flavononols, and flavanols or flavan-3-ols [42]. Flavonoids, which are the most common and widely distributed group of plant phenolics, are increasingly appreciated as an important component of the human diet. Humans consume approximately 1 g of flavonoids per day [43]. Different classes (anthocyanidins, flavan-3-ols, flavones, and flavonols) and amounts of flavonoids have been reported for different dried fruits [15, 18, 23,24]. Despite the fact that raisins contain the above-mentioned classes of flavonoids, the total content of flavonoids among the four dried fruits listed in Table 1.6 varies between 0.85 mg/100 g in raisins and 7.66 mg/100 g in cranberries. Dried fruits contain traces or undetectable amounts of anthocyanins, which are likely degraded to phenolic acids. Dates contain one anthocyanidin (such as cyanidin) and one flavonol (such as quercetin). Flavan-3-ols are only present in raisins.
Table 1.6 Comparison of flavonoids (mg/100 g edible portion) of some dried fruits
The available data show that dried fruits have a unique spectrum of phenols, polyphenols, and tannins. For example, in raisins, the most abundant phenolic compounds are the flavonoids quercetin (Table 1.6) and phenolic acids caftaric and coutaric acids [3]. The predominant phenolic compounds in Greek currants (raisins) are vanillic, caffeic, gallic, syringic, p-coumaric, and protocatechuic acids and the flavonoid quercetin [44]. Hydroxycinnamic acids, especially chlorogenic acid isomers, are the major phenolics in prunes, representing more than 94% of the total [45]. Rutin is the predominant flavonol in prunes and prune juice [26]. Prunes also contain quinic acid that is metabolized to hippuric acid, which, as some research suggests, helps prevent urinary tract infections [35, 46]. Four free phenolic acids (protocatechuic, vanillic, syringic, and ferulic) and nine bound phenolic acids (gallic, protocatechuic, p-hydroxybenzoic, vanillic, caffeic, syringic, p-coumaric, ferulic, and o-coumaric) have been reported in fresh and sun-dried Omani dates of three native varieties [47]. Nutritional and functional properties as well as phytochemical characteristics (carotenoids, phytosterols, polyphenols, phenolic acids, flavonoids, anthocyanins, and phytoestrogens) of dates have been extensively reviewed [28, 48].
Phytoestrogens comprise three major classes: isoflavones, lignans, and coumestan. Some dried fruits (such as apricots, currants, dates, prunes, and raisins) have been reported to contain phytoestrogens [such as isoflavones (formononetin, daidzein, genistein, and glycitein), lignans (matairesinol, lariciresinol, pinoresinol, and secoisolariciresinol), and coumestan (coumestrol)]. Apricots contain the highest concentration of total phytoestrogens (444.5 μg/100 g) among the five dried fruits listed in Table 1.7, followed by dates (329.5 μg/100 g), prunes (183.5 μg/100 g), currants (34.1 μg/100 g), and raisins (30.2 μg/100 g) [25]. Coumestan, measured as coumestrol, is generally present in low concentrations within dried fruit groups. Dried fruits have higher concentration of lignans (ranging from 20.9 to 400.5 μg/100 g) than isoflavones (ranging from 4.2 to 39.8 μg/100 g) [25].
Table 1.7 Comparison of phytoestrogen content of some dried fruits (μg/100 g edible portion)
Five carotenoids (namely, α-carotene, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, lutein, and zeaxanthin) are present in some dried fruits. Of these, β-carotene, which acts as provitamin A, is the most abundant in dried apricots (2163 μg/100 g), peaches (1074 μg/100 g), and prunes (394 μg/100 g), followed by lutein + zeaxanthin in peaches (559 μg/100 g), and β-cryptoxanthin in peaches (444 μg/100 g) [4]. No carotenoids are present in raisins and small and/or trace amounts of carotenoids are found in apples, dates, figs, and pears (Figure 1.2).
Figure 1.2 Carotenoid content of selected dried fruits on a fresh weight basis. (Adapted from USDA [4]).
In summary, the following are some of the health protective components in dried fruits [12]:
Dried fruits are good sources of phytochemicals [3,4, 14–28].By virtue of their high phytochemical content, dried fruits are an important source of antioxidants in the diet [21, 28, 40]. Dried apricots and peaches are good sources of carotenoids [4].Dried fruits, such as prunes, provide pectin, a soluble fiber that may lower blood cholesterol [49].Dried fruits, such as raisins, are a source of prebiotic compounds in the diet. They contain fructooligosaccharides such as inulin that contributes to colon health [50,51].Dried fruits contain organic acids such as tartaric acid (raisins) and sugar alcohol such as sorbitol (prunes). These compounds and fiber appear to work synergistically to maintain a healthy digestive system. They may also help increase the bioavailability of minerals in the diet, such as calcium and iron [52].1.4 Beneficial health effects of dried fruits
As shown by multiple epidemiological studies, fruit and vegetable consumption reduces the risk of many chronic diseases such as cancer [53–55], heart disease [56,57], stroke [58], obesity [59], and type 2 diabetes [59,60], among others [28]. Additionally, there is an inverse relationship between fruit and vegetable intake and blood pressure [61]. The US National Cancer Institute (NCI) and National Research Council (NRC) recommend at least five servings of fruits and vegetables daily. Similarly, the World Health Organization (WHO) recommends 400 g of fruits and vegetables per day or the equivalent of five servings of 80 g each [62].
Numerous health benefits of dried fruits have been reported [6, 28, 40, 51, 55, 63, 64] and reviewed individually throughout this book. The health benefits of dried fruits mainly originate from their essential nutrients and phytochemicals (such as anthocyanidins, carotenoids, phytoestrogen, flavan-3-ols, flavones, flavonols, and phenolic acids, among others) as well as their antioxidant activities. The intake of flavonoids (major part of phytochemicals) has been associated with a lower incidence of various diseases such as cancer, stroke, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and other chronic disorders [65–67]. The positive health effects of flavonoids are probably related to their strong antioxidant properties, among other mechanisms and effects [68,69]. There is considerable research supporting the role of dried fruits, particularly, in promoting digestive health [51, 70, 71]. Dried fruits, particularly prunes, play a role in supporting bone health [63,64, 72]. Finally, dried fruits, such as raisins, may promote healthy teeth and gums [73–75].
Dried fruits are important sources of potassium and dietary fiber. Increasing dietary potassium intake can lower blood pressure [76]. Higher fiber diets are recommended to reduce the risk of developing various conditions including constipation, type 2 diabetes, obesity, diverticulitis, colorectal cancer, and CVD [6]. Dried fruits may contribute to healthy body weights. According to the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (1999–2004), data showed that intake of dried fruit was associated with a lower body mass index (BMI), reduced waist circumference, abdominal obesity, and improved diet quality [77]. Emerging data suggest that dried fruit promotes satiety by affecting the levels of hormones such as leptin and regulates appetite [78].
Because of the sweetness of dried fruits, it is expected to exert a high glycemic index (70 and above) and insulin response. Recent studies have shown that dried fruits have a low (55 and under) to moderate (56–69) glycemic and insulin index (Table 1.8) and glycemic and insulin response comparable to those in fresh fruits [80–83]. This could be due to the presence of fiber, polyphenols, and tannins that can modify the response [84–87]. Foods with a low glycemic index may help decrease the risk of diabetes and are useful in the management of the established condition [6].
Table 1.8 Glycemic index (GI) of some dried fruits
Dried fruitsGIaReferenceApples29[79]Apricots30[79]Dates39[80]Figs61[79]Peaches35[79]Prunes29[79]Raisins52[81]aHigh GI (70 and above), moderate GI (56–69), and low GI (55 and under).As part of a diet study involving 13,292 participants, dried fruit consumers were defined as those who consume at least one-eighth cup-equivalent of fruit per day [88]. Dried fruit consumption is associated with a lower body weight, improved adiposity measures, higher overall diet quality, and higher nutrient intake of vitamins A, E, and K, phosphorus, magnesium, and potassium. These benefits are attributed to a higher fiber content, reduced intake of solid fats, alcohol, and added sugars. However, only 7% of the subjects in the study consumed significant amounts of dried fruits in their diet, which questions the effectiveness of ongoing public health campaigns around the world that encourage an increase in fruit consumption.
Given many of the benefits of dried fruits in terms of health maintenance, what might dried fruits contribute to an increase in fresh and dried fruit consumption while also offering meaningful health benefits beyond their nutritive value? The answer may lie in focusing on foods that offer significant antioxidant and anti-inflammatory benefits.
1.5 Commercial products and industrial applications of dried fruits
Dried fruits are widely used as ingredients in packaged snacks, confectionary products, baked goods, cereals, energy and nutritional bars, ready-to-eat salads, and sweet industries, among many other specialty foods [89].
Fruits can be dried whole (e.g., grapes, apricots, and plums), in halves, as slices, or diced (e.g., mangoes, papayas, and kiwis). Alternatively, they can be chopped after drying (e.g., dates), made into pastes or concentrated juices. Fruits can also be dried in puree form, as leathers, or as a powder, by spray drying. Some fruits can be freeze-dried (e.g., strawberries, raspberries, cherries, apples, and mangoes, among others). The freeze-dried fruits become very light and crispy and retain much of their original flavor (taste and aroma) and phytochemicals [12].
1.6 Conclusions
Dried fruits, with their unique combination of taste and aroma, essential nutrients, fiber, and phytochemicals or bioactive compounds, are a convenient step toward healthier eating and a means to bridge the gap between recommended intake of fruits and actual consumption. They should be included together with fresh fruit recommendations around the world since they help meet dietary guidelines for daily fruit serving (recommended five servings per day) and address barriers to fruit intake. Dried fruits in smaller serving sizes, ranging from 30 to 43 g depending on the fruit, are considered nutritionally equivalent to fresh fruits in current dietary recommendations in different countries [6, 90, 91]. Numerous scientific evidences suggest that individuals who regularly consume generous amounts of dried fruits have a lower rate of CVD, obesity, various types of cancer, type 2 diabetes, and other chronic diseases. Therefore, dried fruits should be consumed daily in order to get full benefit of nutrients, health-promoting phytochemicals, and antioxidants they contain, together with their unique and desirable taste and aroma.
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2
Cancer chemopreventive effects of selected dried fruits
Joydeb Kumar Kundu and Young-Joon Surh
2.1 Chemoprevention: an overview
Cancer still imposes a huge health and economic burden throughout the world. The number of new cancer cases, which was recorded as about 3 million in the year 2000, is expected to increase to 7.1 million by the year 2020 [1,2]. Global cancer mortality is also projected to be doubled in the next 50 years [3]. Such alarming statistics have revitalized our ever-lost war against cancer. Even though the research done over the last few decades failed to generate a magical cure for this dreaded disease, we have learned a lesson that cancer is largely a preventable disease. Since the majority (90–95%) of all cancers are linked to infections, exposure to environmental pollutants, and different lifestyle factors, such as smoking, diet, alcohol consumption, physical inactivity, obesity, and solar exposure, there are ample opportunities for preventing cancer [4].
The cancer prevention research conceptualized by Lee Wattenberg in the 1960s [5] is currently at the forefront in the fight against cancer. “Chemoprevention,” the term coined by Michael B. Sporn in 1976, refers to the use of nontoxic compounds from natural or synthetic sources to inhibit, retard, or reverse carcinogenesis [6]. This definition of chemoprevention has recently been revised to assimilate the clinical status of cancer patients. Thus, chemoprevention now encompasses primary, secondary, or tertiary prevention of cancer. The strategy for primary chemoprevention is to prevent carcinogenesis in healthy individuals, who belong to a low-risk group, while secondary chemoprevention is aimed at intervening in the progression of premalignant lesions into malignancy. Tertiary prevention of cancer refers to the blockade of the recurrence of primary tumors [3, 7, 8].
2.2 The promise of dried fruits in cancer prevention
Convincing results from a wide spectrum of preclinical and epidemiological studies suggest chemoprevention as one of the most practical approaches for reducing the global burden of cancer [9–11]. A report from the World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) [12] indicates that about 30–40% of cancers are preventable by proper intake of food and appropriate nutrition and physical activity and by avoiding obesity. An inverse association exists between the regular consumption of fruits and the risk of various organ-specific cancers [13,14]. For instance, a meta-analysis based on 14 prospective studies and 5838 cases found a significant reduction in the incidence of distal colon cancer that was attributable to frequent consumption of fruits [15]. Pooled analysis of eight cohort studies revealed that the intake of fruits protects against lung cancer as well [16]. The European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) study has also shown that adequate consumption of fruits is associated with the reduced risk of colon cancer [17] and lung cancer [18]. The chemopreventive potential of fruits and fruit ingredients has also been documented in a wide range of preclinical studies [19–23].
Common fruits with cancer chemopreventive activity include, but are not limited to, apples, avocados, berries, citrus fruits, kiwi fruits, litchis, mangoes, mangosteens, and persimmons, among others. Many of these fruits are produced on a seasonal basis and are not available in fresh conditions throughout the year. Fresh fruits are, therefore, processed by various techniques to prolong their shelf life. A conventional way of fruit preservation adopted since ancient times is the drying of fruits to reduce moisture content. Fruits can be dried by natural sun drying or by using mechanical devices, such as dryers and a microwave. Freeze drying is another technique to preserve fruits for long-term use. Osmo-convective dewatering of fresh fruits before drying may prevent substantial loss of nutritional ingredients in dried fruits [24]. Appropriate drying methods and temperature are selected depending on the type of fruit. Details of the drying process and its impact on the chemical composition of dried fruits are beyond the scope of this chapter.
