Drinking Water Treatment, Volume 5, Calco-carbonic Equilibrium and Disinfection E-Book

Kader Gaid

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 430

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2023

Beschreibung

Today, hundreds of millions of people drink contaminated water without knowing it. Yet water treatment technologies can effectively eliminate contamination and can supply urban and rural populations with safe drinking water in a secure way. For almost two centuries, the huge number of treatments available to guarantee water quality has grown alongside technological progress, the strengthening of industry norms and the reinforcement of consumer expectations. New treatment methods have been developed according to the advancement of knowledge and new sanitary regulations. This five-volume book sets out to clearly present the variety of treatments available along with their performance, limitations and conditions of use as well as ways to combine them to produce safe drinking water, which is a basic need essential to everyday life. The author shares his expertise acquired at Veolia, a company that is a world leader in water services and sanitation, desalination of sea water and the recycling of wastewater. Founded in France in 1853 to bring safe water to populations and to protect them from waterborne epidemics which ravaged cities, its history is intertwined with that of water treatment.

Leseprobe

Contents

Cover

Title Page

Copyright Page

20 Calco-carbonic Equilibrium, Correction of Aggressivity and Remineralization

20.1. Characteristics of water leading to calco-carbonic equilibrium

20.2. The equilibrium reactions of water’s constituents

20.3. Hallopeau–Dubin diagram

20.4. Indicative criteria to determine the aggressivity or corrosivity of water

20.5. The calco-carbonic equilibrium of water

20.6. Remineralization treatments

20.7. Characteristics of the various reagents used

20.8. References

21 Disinfection

21.1. Microorganisms present in the water

21.2. Quality of potable water

21.3. General rules of chemical disinfection

21.4. Factors affecting the efficiency of chemical disinfection

21.5. Qualities of a good disinfectant

21.6. Chlorine disinfection

21.7. Calcium hypochlorite

21.8. Chlorine dioxide disinfection

21.9. Chloramination

21.10. Proportion of chlorine in chlorine disinfectants

21.11. Disinfection with ozone

21.12. Criteria for choosing a chemical disinfection technique

21.13. Another chemical disinfectant used: bromine (Br

2

)

21.14. Disinfection by ultraviolet radiation

21.15. Comparative criteria between the various chemical disinfectants

21.16. References

22 Disinfection By-products

22.1. General aspects

22.2. Reaction by-products

22.3. Formation and evolution of chlorination by-products

22.4. Kinetics and formation mechanisms

22.5. Regulations

22.6. Predictive models of CBPs

22.7. Removal of THMs and HAAs

22.8. The case of nitrosamines and NDMA

22.9. Oxidation by-products related to chlorine dioxide

22.10. Ozonation by-products

22.11. Recommendations

22.12. References

23 Sludge Treatment

23.1. Choosing a treatment chain

23.2. Characteristics of drinking water sludge

23.3. Handling and storage: shovelable and stackable nature

23.4. Different classes of sludge

23.5. Sludge composition depending on the characteristics of raw water

23.6. Thickening of drinking water sludge

23.7. Drinking water sludge dewatering

23.8. Advantages and drawbacks of the different sludge dewatering treatments

23.9. References

24 The Treatment Chain: Conception and Design

24.1. The treatment chain

24.2. The definition of a treatment chain

24.3. The stages of a treatment chain

24.4. The renovation of water treatment plants

24.5. References

25 The Future of Water

25.1. The major elements of the future of water

25.2. Will there be enough water?

Index

Summaries of other volumes

List of Illustrations

Chapter 20

Figure 20.1

Evolution of the different species in function of pH

Figure 20.2

The various forms of CO

2

in water

Figure 20.3

Calco-carbonic equilibrium reactions

Figure 20.4

Dissociation and form of carbonates as a function of pH.

Figure 20.5

CaCO

3

equilibrium curve (at 25°C)

Figure 20.6

Hallopeau–Dubin graph.

Figure 20.7

Relationship between the Alk/TH ratio and the Larson index.

Figure 20.8

Bringing water to equilibrium.

Figure 20.9

CO

2

removal by aeration.

Figure 20.10

Countercurrent (a) and co-current (b) degassing towers.

Figure 20.11

Cascade (a) and Coplator (b).

Figure 20.12

CO

2

neutralization by lime addition.

Figure 20.13

Neutralization with lime milk or micronized lime.

Figure 20.14

Neutralization with caustic soda or sodium carbonate.

Figure 20.15

Cylindrical-conical lime saturator.

Figure 20.16

Lime water quality with a cylindrical-conical saturator.

Figure 20.17

Diagram of the lamella conical saturator.

Figure 20.18

Diagram of the lamella saturator (Multiflo type).

Figure 20.19

The lamella saturator (Multiflo type).

Figure 20.20

Lime solubility as a function of temperature

Figure 20.21

Lime water at the outlet of a cylindrical-conical saturator (without polymer addition).

Figure 20.22

Lime milk density depending on its concentration

Figure 20.23

Graphic method illustrating remineralization with CO

2

injection and neutralization with a base

Figure 20.24

Solutions with CO

2

and lime injection

Figure 20.25

CO

2

storage and lime silo.

Figure 20.26

Multiple stage remineralization.

Figure 20.27

Remineralization with strong base salts and carbonates.

Figure 20.28

Remineralization principle using a limestone filter

Figure 20.29

3D view of a CO

2

facility

Figure 20.30

OTV pressure filters (Veolia DWT plant).

Figure 20.31

Simplified diagram of Filtraflo

®

gravity filters.

Figure 20.32

CO

2

-limestone filter remineralization diagram with bypass of part of the water to be remineralized

Figure 20.33

Without a bypass

Figure 20.34

With a bypass

Figure 20.35

Gravity limestone filter (Filtraflo

®

F-type).

Figure 20.36

Setting up limestone filters under pressure.

Figure 20.37

pH adjustment with caustic soda on an acid-downflow filter solution, with a bypass.

Figure 20.38

pH adjustment with caustic soda on an acid-upflow filter solution, without a bypass.

Figure 20.39

Veolia process with limestone filtration in series.

Chapter 21

Figure 21.1

Various bacteria species.

Figure 21.2

Some surface water viruses.

Figure 21.3

(a) Cryptosporidium and (b) Giardia

Figure 21.4

Distribution of retention times in a disinfection tank

Figure 21.5

Structural formula of chlorine

Figure 21.6

Chlorine dissociation in function of pH.

Figure 21.7

Gaseous chlorine facility.

Figure 21.8

Structural formula of sodium hypochlorite

Figure 21.9

Distribution of hypochlorous acid HClO and hypochlorite ion ClO

–

depending on pH and temperature

Figure 21.10

Intermediate and final chlorine injection points.

Figure 21.11

Types of configuration of disinfection tanks enabling an optimum contact time

Figure 21.12

Distribution of chlorine fractions depending on water composition

Figure 21.13

Break-point chlorination.

Figure 21.14

Gas chlorination systems.

Figure 21.15

Electrochlorination facility.

Figure 21.16

Implementation of dechlorination with a reducing agent.

Figure 21.17

Structural formula of calcium hypochlorite

Figure 21.18

Calcium hypochlorite

Figure 21.19

Structural formula of chlorine dioxide

Figure 21.20

Example of a chlorine dioxide preparation facility.

Figure 21.21

Ionized and non-ionized forms of ammonia.

Figure 21.22

Structural formula of monochloramine

Figure 21.23

Formation of chloramines as a function of pH

Figure 21.24

Structural formula of ozone

Figure 21.25

Diagram of an elementary tubular ozonizer.

Figure 21.26

Different O

3

injection points.

Figure 21.27

Implementation of ozonation in reaction tanks.

Figure 21.28

Ozone diffusion in water using a porous diffuser.

Figure 21.29

In-line ozone injection modes

Figure 21.30

(a) Static mixer and (b) reaction chamber (Veolia site).

Figure 21.31

Schematic diagram of an in-line injection of O

3

with a venturi.

Figure 21.32

Ozone facilities.

Figure 21.33

Ultraviolet and visible light spectrum.

Figure 21.34

Deterioration of cellular material using UV.

Figure 21.35

Radiation on a spherical particle

Figure 21.36

Collimator

Figure 21.37

UV lamps from Trojan and Wedeco suppliers.

Figure 21.38

(a) Low- and (b) medium-pressure lamp wavelengths.

Figure 21.39

UV lamp system

Figure 21.40

Closed reactor used for drinking water facilities

Figure 21.41

Influence of iron concentration on UV transmittance

Figure 21.42

Inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum

Figure 21.43

MS2 log inactivation (on E. coli)

Figure 21.44

Log inactivation of various microorganisms

Chapter 22

Figure 22.1

Trihalomethanes (THMs).

Figure 22.2

Haloacetic acids (HAA5).

Figure 22.3

DBP formation at a water treatment station.

Figure 22.4

THM formation at the treatment station and in the distribution network.

Figure 22.5

THM leaving stations versus TOC in treated water.

Figure 22.6

THM formation as a function of the chlorine dose

Figure 22.7

Chlorination of carbohydrates

Figure 22.8

Chlorination of humic substances and formation of DBPs

Figure 22.9

Formation of chloroform as a function of chlorine at nine sites.

Figure 22.10

Influence of the bromide/chlorine ratio on the formation of HAAs

Figure 22.11

TOC versus TTHM (Ouessant), bromides 650 µg•L

–1

Figure 22.12

Chloroform removal depending on the air/water ratio

Figure 22.13

Adsorption of chloroform onto powdered activated carbon

Figure 22.14

CHCl

3

/g GAC load removed in function of the applied load

Figure 22.15.

NDMA chemical structure

Figure 22.16

Bromate ion (molecular and radical) formation mechanisms

Figure 22.17

Formation of brominated by-products

Chapter 23

Figure 23.1

Main drinking water sludge treatment processes (hydroxide sludge from surface water).

Figure 23.2

Drinking water sludge handling limits

Figure 23.3

Pre-designing a buffering capacity

Figure 23.4

Block diagram of a WWRT (Veolia reference)

Figure 23.5

Kynch curves for different types of sludge.

Figure 23.6

Sludge from a flooded river in Asia (Veolia site).

Figure 23.7

Floor loads (kg · m

–2

h

–

) as a function of the hydraulic loading rate (m•h

–1

)

and inlet sludge concentration (%), applicable to static thickeners for hydroxide sludge

Figure 23.8

Influence of the product (OF × HF) on the thickened sludge concentration

Figure 23.9

OTV-type conventional thickener.

Figure 23.10

(A) Settler-thickener for softening sludge. (B) Settler-thickener for softening sludge.

Figure 23.11

Diagram of a lamellar thickener.

Figure 23.12

Diagram of the Actidyn process.

Figure 23.13

Actidyn settler-thickener.

Figure 23.14

Classification of zones during sludge flotation

Figure 23.15

Sludge concentration estimate in the compression zone

Figure 23.16

Plate filter (small drinking water station).

Figure 23.17

Influence of sludge quality on liming efficiency

Figure 23.18

Operation diagram of a centrifuge.

Figure 23.19

Relationship between thickened sludge concentration and dryness

Figure 23.20

Example of filter bags.

Figure 23.21

Thickening and drying (Veolia site).

Figure 23.22

Thickening and drying in covered sites (Veolia site).

Figure 23.23

Cross-section of a drying bed.

Figure 23.24

Filling a drying bed.

Chapter 24

Figure 24.1

Example of a surface water treatment chain.

Chapter 25

Figure 25.1

The future of water.

Figure 25.2

Periodic table of elements

List of Tables

Chapter 20

Table 20.1.

Estimation of water’s ionic strength

Table 20.2.

Equilibrium constants for calcium carbonate

Table 20.3.

Estimation of the Langelier index at 25°C

Table 20.4.

Consequences on water quality after pipeline corrosion

Table 20.5.

Water corrosivity tendencies based on Larson’s index

Table 20.6.

Ryznar indices and tendencies of water to be corrosive

Table 20.7.

Degassing tower design example

Table 20.8.

Lime milk concentration at 15°C

Table 20.9.

Dosages required to neutralize carbon dioxide

Table 20.10.

Consumption of reagents with CaCl

2

and CaSO

4

Table 20.11.

Operating characteristics of the three types of Veolia saturators

Table 20.12.

Neutralization treatment depending on the CO

2

concentration

Table 20.13.

Example of results obtained with progressive remineralization at a treatment station

Table 20.14.

Conditions for choosing between CO

2

, sulfuric or hydrochloric acid

Table 20.15.

Characteristics of some calcareous materials

Table 20.16.

Other materials used in neutralizing filters

Table 20.17.

Implementation of limestone materials (supplier data)

Table 20.18.

General characteristics of commercial limes

Table 20.19.

Viscosity of soda solutions

Table 20.20.

Commercial forms of sodium carbonate

Table 20.21.

Chemical formula and molecular mass of calcium sulfate

Table 20.22.

Solubility of calcium sulfate

Table 20.23.

Physical characteristics of hydrochloric acid

Chapter 21

Table 21.1.

Shapes and dimensions of various microorganisms analyzed in raw water

Table 21.2.

Potable water quality limits: bacteriological parameters (French regulations)

Table 21.3.

Main indicators of contamination and the quality of affected water: + low indicator; ++ medium indicator; +++ high indicator; ++++ very high indicator

Table 21.4.

Oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) of various disinfectants

Table 21.5.

Required Ct values (mg•L

–1

•min

–1

) for a 3 log inactivation at 20°C

Table 21.6.

Virulicidal and bactericidal Ct values for different disinfectants (10°C, pH 6.5–7.5 and >3 log reduction)

Table 21.7.

Activation energy for chlorine at different pH values

Table 21.8.

Qualities of the main disinfectants

Table 21.9.

Different forms of chlorine

Table 21.10.

Influence of pH on the dissociation of hypochlorous acid at 20°C

Table 21.11.

Cl

2

/element stoichiometric ratios

Table 21.12.

Decomposition of hypochlorite as a function of temperature (°C)

Table 21.13.

Dechlorination stoichiometric quantities using reducing agents

Table 21.14.

Required Ct values (mg•L

–1

•min

–1

) for bacteria

Table 21.15.

Required Ct values (mg•L

–1

•min

–1

) for viruses

Table 21.16.

Required Ct values (mg•L

–1

•min

–1

) and a chlorine residual of 0.5 mg•L

–1

Table 21.17.

Most commonly applied chlorine reactions

Table 21.18.

Required Ct values (mg•L

–1

•min

–1

) for bacteria

Table 21.19.

Required Ct values (mg•L

–1

•min

–1

) for viruses

Table 21.20.

Ct values (mg•L

–1

•min

–1

) for the inactivation of Giardia cysts using chlorine dioxide at pH between 6 and 9

Table 21.21.

Reagent quantity for chlorine dioxide dechlorination

Table 21.22.

Advantages and drawbacks of using chlorine dioxide

Table 21.23.

The oxidation–reduction potential of chloramines compared to other disinfectants

Table 21.24.

Required Ct values (mg•L

–1

•min

–1

) for bacteria

Table 21.25.

Required Ct values (mg•L

–1

•min

–1

) for viruses

Table 21.26.

Ct (mg•L

–1

•min

–1

) for the inactivation of

Giardia

with monochloramine

Table 21.27.

Advantages and drawbacks of chloramination

Table 21.28.

Proportion of chlorine in chlorine disinfectants

Table 21.29.

O

3

demand depending on the different injection points

Table 21.30.

A few (Veolia) references for the in-line injection of O

3

in the UK

Table 21.31.

Required Ct values (mg•L

–1

•min

–1

) at 20°C

Table 21.32.

Required Ct values (mg•L

–1

•min

–1

) at 20°C

Table 21.33.

Ozone doses for the inactivation of some viruses

Table 21.34.

Influence of temperature on Ct value

Table 21.35.

Ct (mg•L

–1

•min

–1

) for the inactivation of

Cryptosporidium

cysts by ozone

Table 21.36.

Reagent quantities for de-ozonation

Table 21.37.

Comparative biocidal efficiency and persistence of various chemical disinfectants

Table 21.38.

Actions on various compounds present in water

Table 21.39.

Roles and application conditions of various chemical oxidants

Table 21.40.

Characteristics of UV lamps

Table 21.41.

UV dose (mJ•cm

–2

) required for various microorganisms by log removal

Table 21.42.

Advantages and drawbacks of UV disinfection

Table 21.43.

Comparative criteria between the various chemical disinfectants

Table 21.44.

Disinfection mechanisms for chlorine, ozone and UV

Chapter 22

Table 22.1.

Characteristics of trihalomethanes

Table 22.2.

Characteristics of the five main HAAs

Table 22.3.

Main by-products identified during disinfection

Table 22.4.

Parameters influencing the formation of THMs and HAAs by chlorine disinfection

Table 22.5.

Impact of the chemical constituents of water on the formation of halogenated THMs, HAAs and nitromethane

Table 22.6.

Henry’s constants for various compounds and gases at 20°C

Table 22.7.

Doses of PAC required for the removal of 90% of each of the THM compounds

Table 22.8.

Removal of THMs with mesoporous powdered activated carbon

Table 22.9.

Freundlich constants for various chlorination by-products

Table 22.10.

Performances of nanofiltration in relation to THMs

Table 22.11.

The evolution of residual dioxide and its oxidation by-products

Table 22.12.

Main organic by-products formed during ozonation

Chapter 23

Table 23.1.

Value of k depending on the type of reagent used

Table 23.2.

Quantities of sludge produced (DM: dry matter)

Table 23.3.

Extracted sludge concentration per processing stage

Table 23.4.

Sludge classification depending on their CaCO

3

content

Table 23.5.

Simplified composition of sludge types

Table 23.6.

Example of surface water sludge composition

Table 23.7.

Composition of borehole water sludge

Table 23.8.

Performance of conventional (C) and lamellar (L) thickeners

Table 23.9.

Technical characteristics of the Actidyn process

Table 23.10.

Some operating characteristics

Table 23.11.

Polymer conditioning

Table 23.12.

Performances observed depending on the reagents added

Table 23.13.

Centrifugation performances depending on sludge origin

Table 23.14.

Centrifugation performances on borehole water sludge

Table 23.15.

Centrifugation performances on iron removal sludge

Table 23.16.

Performance of belt filters on sludge of different origins

Table 23.17.

Dryness and treatment capacities per filter bag for different types of sludge

Table 23.18.

Loads applied in function of the geographical areas

Table 23.19.

Dryness obtained in function of geographical area

Table 23.20.

Advantages and drawbacks of the different sludge dewatering treatments

Chapter 24

Table 24.1.

Methods for reducing or removing various contaminants present in water

Table 24.2.

Causes of structural malfunctions

Table 24.3.

Adequate processes for the removal of various compounds

Guide

Cover

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright Page

Begin Reading

Index

End User License Agreement

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Drinking Water Treatment 5

Calco-carbonic Equilibrium and Disinfection

Kader Gaid

First published 2023 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:

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© ISTE Ltd 2023

The rights of Kader Gaid to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s), contributor(s) or editor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ISTE Group.

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Library of Congress Control Number: 2022947894

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-78630-787-3