142,99 €
Mehr erfahren.
- Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
- Kategorie: Fachliteratur
- Serie: ISTE Invoiced
- Sprache: Englisch
Water issues are inextricably linked to sustainable development since water must meet the needs of present and future generations.
The reuse of wastewater is a socioeconomic challenge for the development of drinking water and wastewater services. It has the following advantages: it increases usable water resources, preserves natural resources and alleviates water shortages caused by climate change.
Wastewater Reuse 1 provides a comprehensive and educational overview of the many ways wastewater can be reused, the variety of treatments, their performance, their conditions of use and how to combine them to give wastewater a new lease on life. Droughts are already a concern in many parts of the world; however, we now have new technologies to rely on.
Sie lesen das E-Book in den Legimi-Apps auf:
Seitenzahl: 446
Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2025
Ähnliche
Table of Contents
Cover
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
1 Treated Wastewater Reuse: A New Resource
1.1. Observations on the current situation
1.2. Climate change
1.3. Solutions to reduce water stress
1.4. The various purposes of reuse
1.5. Adapting to the local context
1.6. Policies and institutions to support reuse
1.7. Glossary
1.8. References
2 Characterization of Treated Wastewater
2.1. Main parameters defining the quality of treated wastewater
2.2. Microbiological aspects
2.3. References
3 Applications and Uses of Reused Water
3.1. The different uses
3.2. References
4 Regulations
4.1. Regulations, state of the art and future challenges of municipal wastewater treatment and water reuse
4.2. Regulations for treated wastewater reuse in France
4.3. European Directive
4.4. World Health Organization
4.5. Regulation on treated wastewater reuse in the United States
4.6. Regulation on water reuse in China
4.7. Australia
4.8. Mediterranean countries and the Middle East
4.9. Conclusion
4.10. References
5 Treated Wastewater Reuse Planning
5.1. Project objectives and limitations
5.2. References
6 Treatment Technologies
6.1. Use of raw wastewater
6.2. Bases of the treatment process concept
6.3. References
7 Tertiary Filtration
7.1. Gravity filtration without reagents
7.2. Gravity filtration with reagents
7.3. Filtration mechanisms
7.4. Implementation parameters
7.5. Size parameters: filtration rate and media height
7.6. Operating parameters
7.7. Filtration technologies
7.8. Mobile material filters
7.9. Rotary drum filters
7.10. References
8 Disinfection
8.1. Microorganisms present in treated wastewater
8.2. General rules of chemical disinfection
8.3. Factors influencing the effectiveness of chemical disinfection
8.4. Qualities of a good disinfectant
8.5. The main techniques of wastewater chemical disinfection
8.6. Disinfection with ozone
8.7. Organic peracids: performic acid and peracetic acid
8.8. UV disinfection
8.9. Criteria for selecting a disinfection technique
8.10. References
Index
End User License Agreement
List of Tables
Chapter 2
Table 2.1. Example of physicochemical parameters of treated wastewater dischar...
Table 2.2. Nitrogen predominant forms in treated wastewater
Table 2.3. Main families and organic compounds
Table 2.4. Concentrations in estrogens at the inlet and outlet of a few wastew...
Table 2.5. Performance of wastewater treatment plants for a few endocrine disr...
Table 2.6. Most common microorganisms found in treated wastewater
Table 2.7. Average bacteriological concentrations at the discharge of wastewat...
Table 2.8. Examples of contamination indicators
Table 2.9. Data from a few plants on the quality of treated wastewater in Fran...
Table 2.10. Predictive analytical assessment for treated wastewater reuse
Chapter 3
Table 3.1. Different applications and uses of treated wastewater for its reuse
Table 3.2. Compromise between the advantages and risks of using wastewater in ...
Table 3.3. Influence of salinity on irrigation water quality
Table 3.4. Parameters used to define water quality for agriculture
Table 3.5. Maximum permissible concentrations for crop irrigation (Ayers and W...
Chapter 4
Table 4.1. Sanitary quality levels of treated wastewater (Article 15 of the or...
Table 4.2. Water quality level for each agricultural use (order of August 2, 2...
Table 4.3. Reused treated wastewater quality classes according to uses and agr...
Table 4.4. Minimum quality requirements applicable to reused water intended fo...
Table 4.5. Validation monitoring of reclaimed water intended for agricultural ...
Table 4.6. Wastewater treatment monitoring/verification (number of E. coli for...
Table 4.7. Wastewater treatment monitoring/verification (number of E. coli for...
Table 4.8. Reduction of helminth eggs according to applications and required t...
Table 4.9. Recommendations for various reused water uses of the US EPA (U.S. E...
Table 4.10. Criteria selected by some states for fecal coliforms (UFC.100 mL-1...
Table 4.11. Quality criteria of treated wastewater used for municipal irrigati...
Table 4.12. Recommendations for the microbiological quality of reused wastewat...
Table 4.13. Reused treated wastewater quality in agriculture in various countr...
Chapter 5
Table 5.1. Percentage of people opposed to reuse of treated wastewater in the ...
Chapter 6
Table 6.1. Summary of the main parameters used to characterize reused treated ...
Table 6.2. Pathogen elimination efficiency at the treatment plant
Chapter 7
Table 7.1. Maximum acceptable turbidity for different types of filters
Table 7.2. Characteristics of the various filtration materials
Table 7.3. Examples of H/d10 ratios for different types of filters
Table 7.4. Filtration rates and media heights for different filters
Table 7.5. Pressure drop calculation parameters
Table 7.6. Calculation examples of the interstice diameter ratio/d10 of the ma...
Table 7.7. Calculation of retention capacity of sand filters
Table 7.8. Equations to calculate the minimum fluidization velocity and backwa...
Table 7.9. Backwashing conditions for single-media and dual-media filters
Table 7.10. Main parameters involved in filter size
Table 7.11. Tertiary filtration design on single-media filter
Table 7.12. Washing conditions of a single-media filter
Table 7.13. Filter washing equipment
Table 7.14. Guarantees of treated wastewater quality for irrigation applicatio...
Table 7.15. Tertiary two-layer filtration design
Table 7.16. Synthesis of design values of the tertiary dual-media filtration
Table 7.17. Log of microorganism reduction during filtration under filtered wa...
Table 7.18. Design of the Hydrotech-type mechanic filters
Chapter 8
Table 8.1. Redox potential of various oxidants
Table 8.2. Qualities of the main disinfectants
Table 8.3. Different forms of chlorine
Table 8.4. Influence of pH on hypochlorous acid dissociation at 20°C
Table 8.5. Decomposition of hypochlorite depending on temperature
Table 8.6. Chlorine dosage guide depending on the effluent type and objectives
Table 8.7. Ct (mg·L
-1
·min
1
) required values for viruses
Table 8.8. Ct (mg·L
-1
·min
-1
) required values for parasites
Table 8.9. Determination of chlorine concentration for disinfection (N-NH4 < 2...
Table 8.10. Example of calculation of chlorine concentration for disinfection ...
Table 8.11. Chlorine dioxide dosing guide depending on the type of effluent an...
Table 8.12. Ct (mgL
-1
·min
-1
) required values for viruses
Table 8.13. Ct values for the inactivation of Giardia lamblia cysts with chlor...
Table 8.14. Advantages and disadvantages of chloride dioxide
Table 8.15. ClO2 concentration determination for disinfection
Table 8.16. Example of calculations of ClO2 concentration for wastewater disin...
Table 8.17. Oxidation-reduction potential of chloramines compared to other dis...
Table 8.18. Ct (mg·L
-1
·min
-1
) required values for viruses
Table 8.19. Ct (mg·L
-1
·min
-1
) required values for viruses
Table 8.20. Inactivation Ct (mg·L-1·min-1) of Giardia with monochloramine...
Table 8.21. Advantages and disadvantages of chloramination
Table 8.22. Disinfection with chloramines of wastewater
Table 8.23. Example of calculations of disinfection with chloramine in wastewa...
Table 8.24. Ozone dosage guide depending on the type of effluent and objective...
Table 8.25. Ct (mg-L--min-) for the inactivation of Cryptosporidium cysts with...
Table 8.26. UVdoses (mJ·cm-2) required for various microorganisms and log redu...
Table 8.27. UV disinfection advantages and disadvantages
Table 8.28. Comparative criteria between the various disinfectants
Table 8.29. Reduction comparison for different oxidants
Table 8.30. Compared efficiency of PAAs and PFAs with other oxidants for virus...
List of Illustrations
Chapter 1
Figure 1.1. (A) Maximum severity level limiting water use by department in for...
Figure 1.2. Worsening of soil condition (France)
Figure 1.3. Lack of foods drives Spanish cattle farmers to massively kill catt...
Figure 1.4. Drought in Europe and North Africa (2022)
Figure 1.5. Desalination and/or treated wastewater reuse
Figure 1.6. Global water cycle after treated wastewater reuse
Figure 1.7. Applications of treated wastewater reuse
Chapter 2
Figure 2.1. Physicochemical and microbiological characteristics of wastewater
Figure 2.2. Classification of organic matter in treated wastewater
Figure 2.3. The fate of a few substances in wastewater treatment plants
Figure 2.4. A few microorganisms found in wastewater at the outlet of wastewat...
Figure 2.5. (A) Fecal/enterococci coliform correlation (Rose et al. 1991, 1996...
Chapter 3
Figure 3.1. General pattern of water demand to satisfy water deficits
Figure 3.2. General pattern of reused water uses
Figure 3.3. Examples of sprinkling of an environmental area and a field
Figure 3.4. Diversity of irrigation applications with treated wastewater
Figure 3.5. Excess boron influence on plants
Figure 3.6. Non-drinking application: urban furniture cleaning
Figure 3.7. Wastewater discharge in river
Chapter 4
Figure 4.1. Drip irrigation.
Figure 4.2. Examples of the division of powers between stakeholders that might...
Figure 4.3. Reused water for environmental use (Australia).
Chapter 6
Figure 6.1. Performance distribution depending on specific treatments
Figure 6.2. Additional treatments depending on the uses of the reused treated ...
Chapter 7
Figure 7.1. Filter operating principle.
Figure 7.2. Clogging depth between rapid sand filter and high-rate sand filter...
Figure 7.3. Diagram of the different types of filters: single media and dual m...
Figure 7.4. Single-media filter and dual-media filter in filtration mode and i...
Figure 7.5. Direct filtration with coagulation.
Figure 7.6. Particle attachment and detachment mechanisms.
Figure 7.7. Cumulative distribution curve of sand grain diameters (d10: 0.70 m...
Figure 7.8. Ratio H/d10 for sand filters
Figure 7.9. ∆P/H obtained for different effective sand sizes and different fil...
Figure 7.10. Interstices of sand grains saturated in retained particles.
Figure 7.11. General diagram of filter operation.
Figure 7.12. Expansion percentage versus backwashing rate for anthracite and p...
Figure 7.13. First decompaction phase with air and second (air/water) washing ...
Figure 7.14. Single-media filter in filtration mode and backwashing mode.
Figure 7.15. Conventional filter
Figure 7.16. Filtraflo F washing operating mode
Figure 7.17. Diagram of floc diffusion in a rapid filter and a HR filter
Figure 7.18. Particle attachment mechanisms on HR filters
Figure 7.19. HR filter in operation and washing
Figure 7.20. Description of a dual-media filter
Figure 7.21. Turbidity analysis results and SS at the outlet of tertiary filtr...
Figure 7.22. Example of a Veolia filter under pressure
Figure 7.23. Filters under pressure.
Figure 7.24. DynaSand
TM
(Nordic Water).
Figure 7.25. Hydrotech filter (Veolia): disk filter.
Figure 7.26. SS reduction on secondary effluent using the disk filter (Hydrote...
Figure 7.27. COD reduction on secondary effluent using the disk filter (Hydrot...
Figure 7.28. Trichuris suis
Helminth eggs
.
Chapter 8
Figure 8.1. Wastewater microbiology
Figure 8.2. Various species of bacteria.
Figure 8.3. A few surface-water viruses.
Figure 8.4. Cryptosporidium (a) and Giardia lamblia (b)
Figure 8.5. Dwell time distribution in a disinfection tank
Figure 8.6. Installation of gas chlorine.
Figure 8.7. Distribution of hypochlorous acid HClO and hypochlorite ion ClO– a...
Figure 8.8. Intermediary and final injection points of chlorine
Figure 8.9. Chlorination at break-point
Figure 8.10. Control of residual chlorine
Figure 8.11. Tertiary filtration and chlorination in the Ajman plant (United A...
Figure 8.12. Chlorination system with chlorine gas in bottle
Figure 8.13. Electrochloration plant
Figure 8.14. Example of installation to prepare chlorine dioxide.
Figure 8.15. Ionized and non-ionized forms of ammonia
Figure 8.16. Formation of chloramines depending on pH
Figure 8.17. Diagram of an elementary tube ozonator
Figure 8.18. Implementation of ozonation in reaction tanks
Figure 8.19. Reduction of fecal coliforms with ozone on secondary effluents an...
Figure 8.20. (a) Peracetic acid (PAA); (b) performic acid (PFA); (c) perpropio...
Figure 8.21. Reaction mechanisms of peracids
Figure 8.22. Disinfection of wastewater with performic acid
Figure 8.23. Inactivation of E. coli and enterococci with PFA, PAA and PPA (do...
Figure 8.24. Efficiency of performic acid (DEX-135, Kemira) to reduce coliform...
Figure 8.25. Spectrum of ultraviolet and visible light.
Figure 8.26. Deterioration of cellular material with UV.
Figure 8.27. UV lamp system.
Figure 8.28. Radiation on a spherical particle
Figure 8.29. UV lamps from the Trojan and Wedeco suppliers.
Figure 8.30. Wavelengths of low- and medium-pressure lamps
Figure 8.31. Closed reactor used for drinking water.
Figure 8.32. UV installation in a big wastewater reuse plant.
Figure 8.33. Inactivation of Cryptosporidium parvum
Figure 8.34. Log inactivation of MS2 (on E. coli)
Figure 8.35. Log inactivation of various microorganisms
Figure 8.36. UV disinfection performance to eliminate fecal coliforms for diff...
Guide
Cover Page
Table of Contents
Title Page
Copyright Page
Begin Reading
Index
WILEY END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
Pages
iii
iv
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
Wastewater Reuse 1
Characteristics, Uses, Applications, Filtration and Disinfection of Water
Kader Gaid
First published 2025 in Great Britain and the United States by ISTE Ltd and John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the CLA. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside these terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
ISTE Ltd27-37 St George’s RoadLondon SW19 4EUUK
www.iste.co.uk
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.111 River StreetHoboken, NJ 07030USA
www.wiley.com
© ISTE Ltd 2025The rights of Kader Gaid to be identified as the author of this work have been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s), contributor(s) or editor(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of ISTE Group.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2024948091
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication DataA CIP record for this book is available from the British LibraryISBN 978-1-78630-979-2
1Treated Wastewater Reuse: A New Resource
Throughout the world, the availability of food and water is vital for the survival of humanity and to ensure an adequate standard of living. Increasing population, climate change and ongoing industrialization are putting pressure on existing water resources. Freshwater resources are not sufficient in all regions of the world. It is estimated that 50% of the world’s population will live in water-stressed regions by 2030, underlining the importance of sound management and adequate water treatment. When water resources are limited, irrigation is severely penalized, as agriculture uses 70% of the total amount of water taken.
The water issue is inseparable from sustainable development, in that water must be able to meet the needs of present generations without jeopardizing the ability of future generations to satisfy their own. With the consequences of climate change, pressure on resources will continue to increase under the combined effects of population growth and policies implemented in respect of water-consuming activities. The water deficit will ipso facto lead to serious conflicts between the various users, which will inevitably require difficult arbitrations for public authorities. In many parts of the world, the 21st century is set to see a worsening of water shortages. According to the UNDP (United Nations Development Programme), an increase in global temperature of 3–4°C would cause a drought that would affect hundreds of millions of people. The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) confirms that the scale of impacts on water shortages would be dramatic.
Thus, water scarcity will affect not only irrigation for human food but also animal production (where water is essential both for drinking and feeding).
In order to improve agricultural production and minimize the depletion of natural water resources, a targeted low-cost water quality is needed. Wastewater reuse is a first solution.
1.1. Observations on the current situation1
The current situation is further exacerbated by several constraints: an imbalance between needs and available resources, a considerable increase in the needs for drinking, industrial and agricultural water, a geographical imbalance between needs and resources, pollution of groundwater and surface water and significantly reducing in some countries the volumes of water that can be used. The risk of a break in sustainable development may arise if the actual groundwater withdrawals exceed the limits for renewal of natural resources.
In Spain, April 2023 was one of the hottest and driest months recorded. Between the lack of fodder and soaring food prices, farmers had no choice but to slaughter their cattle.
In 2022, a prolonged drought affected many regions of France, Italy and Spain. The lack of precipitation combined with heat waves has led to dried out soils and a lack of water. The socioecological impacts of this drought were dramatic. The high water and thermal stress have significantly reduced yields of major crops such as corn, soybeans and sunflower, with reductions of about 15% in comparison to the last 5 years’ average.
In Italy, about 50% of the population has been affected by water supply restrictions. High levels of salt intrusion from the Po Delta up to 40 km from the maritime coast have been recorded. The sharp drop in water levels in dams has severely impacted hydroelectric power and cooling systems of power plants.
In the south of France, fires associated with extreme drought conditions doubled compared to 2021 and were more than four times higher than during the 2012–2021 period. Sixty-six French departments were at the highest alert level in August, and 93 departments were affected by all three alert levels. Similar impacts were observed in Spain and Portugal for agriculture, energy production and domestic water use.
The 2022 drought had significant societal impacts and the fear of future droughts is a major concern for populations (Breda and Badeau 2008; Baum et al. 2013; Faranda et al. 2023). According to the World Meteorological Organization, drought is one of the most damaging and deadly climate risks. In the coming years, drought-related rainfall deficits will become very problematic.
Figure 1.1.(A) Maximum severity level limiting water use by department in force during the 2021 summer
Figure 1.1.(B) Maximum severity level limiting water use by department in force (continued) as of August 12, 2022 (source: Ministère de la Transition écologique et de la Cohésion des territoires)
Figure 1.2.Worsening of soil condition (France)
Figure 1.3.Lack of foods drives Spanish cattle farmers to massively kill cattle
Figure 1.4.Drought in Europe and North Africa (2022)
The question of how much water resources will be available in the coming decades will be determined by climate change, even if water quality will depend on other factors such as infrastructure management, perimeter protection and pollution control. The expected and already observed summer drying in many countries has resulted in a number of impacts: tree health, natural resources, agriculture, water resources and hydroelectric power supply. Many regions of the world are concerned with the risk of increased frequency and intensity of heat waves and droughts.
1.2. Climate change
The role of climate change in the prolonged drought that affected Western Europe and the Mediterranean region in 2022 is now well established. Published in the journal Environmental Research Letters, a study conducted by a CNRS (National Centre for Scientific Research) team has established links between climate change and the occurrence of drought episodes, such as those encountered by France during the summer of 2022.
To demonstrate the responsibility of “anthropogenic climate change”, linked to human activity, these scientists used the method of “circulation analogues” to identify the atmospheric patterns of the 1836–2021 period and compare them with those of 2022. The process allows to highlight the responsibility of CO2 emissions in the intensification and extension of high pressure zones behind the drought. “Results showed that the persistent anticyclonic anomaly on Western Europe during the drought was exacerbated by climate change due to humans, with larger and more extensive atmospheric pressure anomalies, as well as higher surface temperatures”, scientists report. It is concluded that these two factors exacerbated the drought, increasing the affected area and promoting soil drying by evapotranspiration (Ribes et al. 2022).
The climate data collected in the Mediterranean regions during the 20th century indicate an increased warming trend over the last 30 years. General circulation models converge to estimate a probable warming of the region in the range of 2–4°C during the 21st century. Climate modification would therefore be unavoidable and will have significant impacts, including increases in temperatures and precipitation, scarcity of water resources and increasing frequency of storms. Other impacts are loss of biodiversity, degradation of ecosystems, serious consequences for the whole range of socioeconomic activities due to the increased risk of famines, population movements and health impacts.
These changes will affect the retention of surface water and the useful capacity of dams, the renewal of groundwater levels. The latter point has already shown that drought combined with overexploitation of groundwater can lead to mineralization of unsaturated areas of deep aquifers. In coastal regions, the drop in hydrostatic pressure levels has already led to sea water entering the freshwater reserves of coastal aquifers. Climate change is having an impact on public health with potential for outbreaks of water-borne diseases. In North Africa, for example, this is due to insufficient water resources combined with the lack of treatment of some water points.
1.3. Solutions to reduce water stress
Some countries, such as the United States, Singapore and Namibia, have been pioneering for decades the implementation of the concept of treated wastewater reuse with alternatives for reusing drinking and non-drinking water. Wastewater treatment technologies currently provide solutions for adequate supply of reclaimed water. Therefore, the opportunities for water reuse exist, but the challenge lies largely in implementation. This is becoming urgent and necessary in regions where water stress is most pressing. Climate change will worsen the situation and drought periods will multiply. Total water demand will increase, especially for irrigation of field crops. As a result, water from natural resources such as groundwater and surface water will often be over-used.
The apprehension of climate change requires the implementation of strategies and controlled planning to satisfy water supplies. Only then will it be possible to meet the challenge of population growth and ensure safe drinking water for all. Alternative water sources must be produced to meet this challenge, as with drought, groundwater and surface water availability is already often insufficient and will be of great concern in many parts of the world, especially since the reduction of rain periods does not allow to fill dams, hill reservoirs and retention ponds.
Several solutions exist to reduce water stress with non-conventional waters:
the desalination of non-conventional waters (sea water, oceans, estuaries, etc.);
the use of fossil (non-renewable) groundwater;
the reuse of wastewater.
Desalination is a good, very interesting, more expensive solution but primarily ensures the supply of coastal cities.
The use of fossil groundwater is another solution sometimes used, which has the major inconvenience of draining these reservoirs that are not renewable. Ground collapses were also observed when implementing this solution.
Figure 1.5.Desalination and/or treated wastewater reuse
Compared to desalination, even if drinking water applications, for example, are more reliable and reassuring, another alternative and sustainable resource is the reuse of treated wastewater. It stands as a new resource that can be directly available without passing through receiving environments. Water reuse is a cost-effective and energy-efficient option to increase water supply and mitigate the impact of climate variability and climate change. For all these reasons, treated wastewater reuse has emerged as the most promising, accessible and easy-to-implement solution. It is a voluntary and planned action, which aims at the production of additional quantities of water for different uses in order to fill water deficits.
1.3.1. Direct and indirect reuse
Direct reuse and indirect reuse have to be distinguished.
Direct reuse of treated wastewater is not to discharge wastewater into a river after treatment, but to immediately reinject it in a network for dedicated use (irrigation, watering green spaces or golf courses, cleaning roads, etc.). Direct reuse in France related to only 1% of wastewater, compared to 8% in Italy and 14% in Spain. This practice is highly developed in Israel, where 90% of wastewater is reused, without passing again in streams, most of them intermittent, meaning that these rivers only flow part of the year (BRGM 2010; Cerema 2020; Onema 2022).
Direct drinking water reuse is the supply of reused water that has undergone advanced complementary treatment and is sent directly to a drinking water treatment plant or distribution system, with or without intermediate storage. The potential barriers or disadvantages of this option are mainly related to public perception and acceptance rather than science or engineering.
Direct reuse is banned in France for drinking water and is not authorized for most food industries for health reasons.
Indirect reuse comes to draw water from a stream or its alluvial aquifer, while at a short distance upstream, a plant has discharged wastewater after treatment. The treated water has been diluted in the receiving medium. Indirect reuse is widespread in summer in all streams in France, where most irrigation is done by pumping rivers or alluvial aquifer. In other words, a significant part of the wastewater discharged in summer is already being reused in France or is used to maintain low water flow rates, except when stations discharge near the seafront or into the sea. Indirect reuse is permitted for all uses (BRGM 2010; Cerema 2020; Onema 2022).
This solution is widely practiced in many parts of the world and implies the availability of an environmental buffer zone (such as a lake, reservoir or aquifer). The water taken from this environment is then sent and injected upstream of the drinking water treatment plant.
Water reuse (also known as water recycling or water recovery) involves recovering water from various sources, and then treating and reusing it for beneficial purposes, such as agriculture and irrigation, drinking water supply, groundwater replenishment, industrial processes and environmental restoration. Water reuse can provide alternatives to existing water supplies and be used to improve water safety, durability and resilience.
Water reuse can be defined as planned or unplanned. Unplanned water reuse refers to situations in which a water source is essentially made up of previously used water. A common example of unplanned water reuse occurs when communities source water from streams, such as the Colorado and Mississippi rivers, which receive treated wastewater discharges from upstream communities.
Planned water reuse refers to water supply systems designed to advantageously reuse a recycled water supply source. Often, communities will seek to optimize their overall water use by reusing water as much as possible within the community, before the water is returned to the environment. Examples of planned reuse include agricultural and landscape irrigation, industrial process water, drinking water supply and groundwater supply management.
All water treatment facilities require a high level of reliability to ensure quality that meets standards and minimize, or even eliminate, any public health risk. This principle is particularly important in the case of RDP, where the risks of contaminants leaking after technical failures must be carefully controlled.
Three main water sources are the subject of these applications: water from domestic wastewater treatment plants, urban rainwater and industrial wastewater.
Direct reuse in coastal areas allows an additional valorization of wastewater whose discharge generates pollution (bathing water, risks for shellfish aquaculture, etc.).
The sprinkling of golf courses in France has sometimes reduced water withdrawals from communities. Similarly, in all contexts, direct reuse in town has potential (cleaning of roads and street furniture, green spaces or industry).
The reuse of treated wastewater is also considered when there is a need to protect a receiving environment, whether marine or underground, or when there is a water stress situation, which makes it necessary to conserve water resources.
The development of a territory, combined with urban, peri-urban or rural development projects, may involve recycling treated wastewater for the purpose of watering recreational areas, of agricultural or industrial use.
In most cases, the treated wastewater is discharged into natural watercourses where it undergoes further self-purification. They are then pumped to make drinking water for various industrial or agricultural uses. The receiving environment is known to promote the reduction of biodegradable pollutants in treated waters and, by dilution, reduces the impact of toxic elements. This last effect is highly limited, even unlikely, when the environment is water deficient.
The advantage of reuse is to create a shortcut for the accumulated mechanisms within the environment and to avail quickly of a water resource. In this case, in connection with the quality of the water obtained and the desired use, the availability of this new resource opens up immediate prospects.
Reuse of wastewater for direct consumption can raise public health and possibly religious concerns among consumers. Reuse as a means of freshwater supply is determined by economic and health factors involving water stress.
In North Africa, the Sahel and the Middle East, strong specificities govern water resources and their use, as these countries have mostly deserts that do not allow for renewable resources. Water stress in these countries creates complicated situations for agriculture and industry. Desalination plants have been installed where possible, but do not solve the problem in its entirety. The deficit remains high in desert areas.
Figure 1.6.Global water cycle after treated wastewater reuse
In all the countries of the world where water stress has emerged, government strategies and policies have been focused on resource management and protection for the last 15 years, and also, in numerous cases on treated wastewater reuse.
Thus, in a world where cities are growing, and climate change threatens to exacerbate water scarcity in many parts of the world, treated wastewater reuse should be an integral part of water resource management, water supply and sanitation strategies.
To make wastewater an asset, an integrated approach that encompasses the entire water cycle – available water resources and supply options, water treatment and reuse – must be adopted.
As such, it is often recommended to:
consider wastewater as a potential resource in the overall water balance;
adopt an integrated framework to manage water supply, rainwater, wastewater, nonpoint sources, pollution and water reuse;
integrate wastewater recovery and reuse into sustainable development and climate change as integrated water resource adaptation and management strategies;
consider different reuse options from the outset in the design of wastewater treatment plants, as well as their operation, and define the corresponding standards;
ensure that guidelines and policies encourage communities to identify cost-effective wastewater treatment solutions based on local capacity and reuse options, rather than imposing solutions or severely limiting them through overly strict regulations;
involve all stakeholders from the outset in water reuse plans and provide multistakeholder platforms to facilitate dialogue, participatory technology development, innovation adoption and social learning;
ensure financial stability and sustainability;
link waste management to other economic sectors for faster cost recovery, risk reduction and sustainable implementation;
develop public/private, public/public mixed solutions for investment, service delivery, operation and maintenance;
take social equity into account when defining cost recovery mechanisms.
Climate change requires us to change our mentality and see wastewater as an alternative resource and an economic and environmental opportunity. Better wastewater management would actually help reduce water deficit, water scarcity and pollution of receiving environments.
1.4. The various purposes of reuse
Reusing a community’s wastewater involves collecting, storing and using the wastewater for various purposes.
The various applications of treated wastewater reuse can be summarized as:
urban environment (watering public parks, green spaces, sports fields, supply of water features and fountains, watering of private gardens, toilet flushing, washing of vehicles, street cleaning, fire circuits, etc.);
industrial environment (cooling water, process water, etc.);
agricultural (irrigation of various crops, market gardening, fruit trees, cereals, fodder, pastures, industrial crops and forests) and underground (groundwater recharge) environment;
production of drinking water (groundwater recharge, direct production of drinking water);
aquaculture;
increase in drinking water;
groundwater recharge;
restoration of water bodies and wetlands;
recreation areas.
Water reuse is already a widespread and accepted practice in many countries. Depending on its applications, the population may have negative opinions of it. Protests have been held in the states of a few countries against the use of recycled water for domestic purposes.
However, some countries have a long history of planned reuse and wastewater treatment plants producing water for various uses, including drinking water. In Namibia, South Africa and the United States, the strategies in place cover wastewater treatment – across a range of conventional and non-conventional systems – and national guidelines and regulations for reuse.
Figure 1.7.Applications of treated wastewater reuse
1.5. Adapting to the local context
In addition to treating wastewater as an asset, it is important that changes be made in a number of key areas for effective management of the global water cycle. For example:
defining the most suitable and viable option for selected applications;
taking into account local capabilities for operation, maintenance and downstream uses. Decentralized systems can better protect watersheds and water resources, and avoid long-distance wastewater transfers;
managing water, wastewater, pollution control and water reuse in an integrated way within a comprehensive program;
preferably, planning for the location of treatment to be within the vicinity of reuse sites;
defining appropriate and cost-effective processing levels to match each reuse option;
ensuring that water production meets water quality requirements for the specified use. Considering reuse from the outset in the design of wastewater treatment plants, as well as their operation, will provide the best results;
changing to an approach where the treatment of raw wastewater and the complementary treatment for water reuse are combined in the same site. This helps to ensure the overall operation of the system, control the water quality and intervene very quickly in case of failure.
1.6. Policies and institutions to support reuse
The issue of treated wastewater reuse involves changes in our daily management of water consumption. For example, reinventing water efficiency, adopting innovative business models and mobilizing the water community.
In order to ensure public acceptance of water reuse, political will must be strengthened through constant information:
The legislation may therefore have to define the access rights of users and the powers of the right holders. To ensure safe reuse, it is important to make access dependent on farmers’ compliance with the reuse guidelines.
Implementing economic incentives: incentives to reuse treated wastewater are useful where water users can choose between different sources of water.
Bridging sectoral and administrative divides: effective wastewater management requires cooperation between agencies and sectors, such as health, municipal wastewater treatment, irrigation water distribution, etc.
To get public understanding and acceptance, regulations on water reuse must include clear texts applying to drinking water, bathing water, irrigation water, drainage, etc.
Public awareness, education and transparency: public awareness and education programs, including school programs, should be promoted.
Transparency, information sharing and the involvement of water users in the decision-making process will also ensure greater acceptance of reuse projects. In the case of water reuse in agriculture, farmers must be educated on safe irrigation and post-irrigation practices, and consumers must be informed of the safety of agricultural products irrigated with well-managed recovered water. Quality data on water must be widely available and freely shared with water customers and the general public.
Stakeholder participation should be encouraged as it is essential to success. Communities must be able to express their needs and suggestions in open multistakeholder platforms.
Long-term strategies for progressive action and new local business models are also needed.
The reuse of wastewater is currently a socioeconomic issue for the development of drinking water and sanitation services. It has the advantage of providing an alternative resource to limit water deficits, better preserve natural resources and mitigate water shortages caused by climate change. Already, some countries, states and major cities (Australia, California, Cyprus, Spain, Florida, Israel, Jordan, Malta, Singapore, etc.) have ambitious targets of meeting 10–30% or even 60% of their water demand through the reuse of treated wastewater (Degrémont 2005).
This book presents wastewater characteristics, health risks, reuse regulations, various uses of reused water and the performance of conventional and membrane sectors: the ability to remove pollutants, the elimination of micro-organisms, the potential of membranes and reuse objectives.
Many examples are given from references in which the author has personally participated at the design and implementation level. The advantages and limitations of the processes are listed.
1.7. Glossary
There are many definitions of treated wastewater reuse in the regulations of many countries.
Direct drinking water reuse
: the reused water supply is further treated and then sent directly to a drinking water treatment plant or distribution system, with or without intermediate storage.
Direct recharge
: the treated wastewater exiting the wastewater treatment plant is directly injected into the groundwater. Direct recharge is usually accomplished via injection wells or equivalent.
Direct reuse
: it consists of not discharging the treated wastewater into a river, but reinjecting it immediately into a network for dedicated use (irrigation, watering of green spaces or golf courses, road cleaning, etc.).
Indirect reuse
: the water is taken from a stream or an alluvial aquifer, while at a short distance upstream a wastewater treatment plant has discharged wastewater after treatment. Treated water has been diluted in the receiving environment.
Planned reuse
: it includes situations in which treated wastewater is used directly or indirectly under quantitative and qualitative control.
Unplanned reuse
: it includes situations where supplies are from environments where wastewater has been discharged, and the quantity and quality of which is not controlled by the user.
Wastewater recycling
: often, this term is synonymous with reused water. However, in some countries, recycled water is more closely linked to internal recycling within an industry. The wastewater is collected, treated and then returned to the same industrial process circuit. In Canada, the term recycled water is defined as the return of treated wastewater to be reused for purposes that generate wastewater, for example, the treatment and recycling of all domestic wastewater for flushing toilets and other non-drinking uses.
1.8. References
Anderson, J. (2003). The environmental benefits of water recycling and reuse.
Water Sci. Technol.
, 3(4), 1–10.
Baum, R., Luh, J., Bartram, J. (2013). Sanitation: A global estimate of sewerage connections without treatment and the resulting impact on MDG progress.
Environmental Science & Technology
, 47, 1994–2000.
Bixio, D., De Heyder, B., Cikurel, H., Muston, M., Miska, V., Joksimovic, D., Schäfer, A.U., Ravazzini, A., Aharoni, A., Savic, D., Thoeye, C. (2005). Municipal wastewater reclamation: Where do we stand? An overview of treatment technology and management practice.
Water Science and Technology
, 5(1), 77–85.
Bréda, N. and Badeau, V. (2008). Forest tree responses to extreme drought and some biotic events: Towards a selection according to hazard tolerance?
Compte rendus géosciences
, 340(9/10), 651–662.
BRGM (2010). La réutilisation des eaux usées : un enjeu majeur de développement durable. Report, BRGM.
Cerema (2020). Réutilisation des eaux usées, le panorama français. Report, Cerema.
Crook, J. (1998). Water reclamation and reuse criteria. In
Wastewater Reclamation, Recycling and Reuse
, Asano, T. (ed.). US EPA, New York.
Degrémont, S.A. (2005).
Mémento technique de l’eau
. Degrémont & Suez, Paris.
Dolnicar, S., Hurlimann, A., Grun, B. (2011). What affects public acceptance of recycled and desalinated water?
Water Research
, 45, 933–943.
Duhamel, A., Habets, F., Déqué, M., Barros, V., Tignor, M. (2009). Impact du changement climatique sur les ressources en eau et les extrêmes hydrologiques dans les bassins de la Seine et la Somme. Final Report on the RExHySS Project, GIEC Program.
Faranda, D., Salvatore, P., Bulut, B. (2023). Persistent anticyclonic conditions and climate change exacerbated the exceptional 2022 European-Mediterranean drought.
Environmental Research Letters
, 18(3), 1–12.
Gaid, K. (2023).
Drinking Water Treatment 1.
ISTE Ltd, London, and John Wiley & Sons, New York.
Garnier, E. (2010). Bassesses extraordinaires et grandes chaleurs. Sécheresses et chaleurs en France.
La Houille blanche
, 96(4), 26–42.
Hughes, G., Chinowsky, P., Strzepek, K. (2010). The costs of adaptation to climate change for water infrastructure in OECD countries.
Utilities Policy
, 18, 142–153.
Hughes, J., Cowper-Heays, K., Olesson, E., Rob Bell, R., Stroombergen, A. (2021). Impacts and implications of climate change on wastewater systems: A New Zealand perspective.
Climate Risk Management
, 31, 1–19.
IPCC (2021). Summary for policymakers. In
Climate Change, The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
, Masson-Delmotte, V. (ed.). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Isobe, M. (2013). Impact of global warming on coastal structures in shallow water.
Ocean Engineering
, 71, 51–57.
Langeveld, J.G., Schilperoort, R.P.S., Weijers, S.R. (2013). Climate change and urban wastewater infrastructure: There is more to explore.
Journal of Hydrology
, 476, 112–119.
Loucks, D.P. (2000). Sustainable water resources management.
Water Inter.
, 25(1), 3–10.
Major, D.C., Omojola, A., Dettinger, M., Hanson, R.T., Sanchez-Rodriguez, R. (2011). Climate change, water, and wastewater in cities. In
Climate Change and Cities: First Assessment Report of the Urban Climate Change Research Network
, Rosenzweig, C., Solecki, W.D., Hammer, S.A., Mehrotra, S. (eds). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Mark, O., Svensson, G., König, A., Linde, J.J. (2008). Analyses and adaptation of climate change impacts on urban drainage systems. In
11th International Conference on Urban Drainage
, Edinburgh.
Moisselin, J.-M. and Dubuisson, B. (2006). Évolution des extrêmes de températures et de précipitation en France au XXe siècle.
La Météorologie
, 54, 33–42.
Moisselin, J.-M., Schneider, M., Canellas, C., Mestre, O. (2002). Les changements climatiques en France au XXe siècle.
La Météorologie
, 38, 45–56.
Onema (2022). La réutilisation des eaux usées. Report, Onema.
Peterson, J.D., Murphy, R.R., Jin, Y., Wang, L., Nessl, M.B., Ikehata, K. (2011). Health effects associated with wastewater treatment, reuse, and disposal.
Water Environment Research
, 83, 1853–1875.
PNUD (2009). Problématique du secteur de l’eau et impacts liés au climat en Algérie. Report, Programme des Nations Unies pour le développement (PNUD), Alger.
Ribes, A., Boé, J., Qasmi, S., Dubuisson, B., Douville, H., Terray, L. (2022). An updated assessment of past and future warming over France based on a regional observational constraint.
Earth System Dynamics
, 13(4), 1397–1415.
Russell, S. and Hampton, G. (2006). Challenges in understanding public responses and providing effective public consultation on water reuse.
Desalination
, 187, 215–227.
Shakeri, H., Motiee, H., Mc Bean, E. (2021). Forecasting impacts of climate change on changes of municipal wastewater production in wastewater reuse projects.
Journal of Cleaner Production
, 329, 121–132.
Shilklomanov, I.A. (2000). Appraisal and assessment of world water resources.
Water Inter.
, 25(1), 11–32.
Tolkou, A. and Zouboulis, A. (2015). Effect of climate change in wastewater treatment plants: Reviewing the problems and solutions. In
Managing Water Resources Under Climate Uncertainty
, Shrestha, S., Anal, A.K., Salam, P.A., van der Valk, M. (eds). Springer, Berlin.
Trinh, L.T., Duong, C.C., Van Der Steen, P., Lens, N.L. (2013). Exploring the potential for wastewater reuse in agriculture as a climate change adaptation measure for Can Tho City, Vietnam.
Agricultural Water Management
, 128, 143–154.
Note
1
A few technical and scientific descriptions presented in this book were partly taken from the book
Drinking Water Treatment
(Gaid 2022), as the processes used in both applications were very similar.
