Echinoderm Aquaculture E-Book

Nicholas Brown

• Herausgeber: John Wiley & Sons
• Kategorie: Fachliteratur
• Sprache: Englisch

Seitenzahl: 867

Veröffentlichungsjahr: 2015

Beschreibung

Sea urchins and sea cucumbers are highly sought after delicacies growing in popularity globally. The demand for these species is rapidly outpacing natural stocks, and researchers and seafood industry personnel are now looking towards aquaculture as a means of providing a sustainable supply of these organism.  Echinoderm Aquaculture is a practical reference on the basic biology and current culture practices for a wide range of geographically diverse echinoderm species.

 Echinoderm Aquaculture begins by examining the basic ecology and biology of sea urchins and sea cucumbers as well as the breadth of uses of these organisms as a source of food and bioactive compound. Subsequent chapters delineate the specific species of interest invarious geographic regions from around the world. Together, chapters provide a comprehensive coverage of culture practices.

Echinoderm Aquaculture is a practical reference for researchers and industry personnel, and will serve as an invaluable resource to this rapidly growing segment of the aquaculture industry.

Leseprobe

Table of Contents

Title Page

Copyright

List of Contributors

Part I: Biology and Exploitation of Echinoderms

Chapter 1: Sea Urchin Ecology and Biology

Introduction

Natural History and Ecology

Biology and Physiology

Summary

References

Chapter 2: Use and Exploitation of Sea Urchins

Urchin Consumption around the World

Global Supply and Demand of Sea Urchins

Global Trade

North American Market: the United States and Canada

US Domestic and International Marketing Channels for Gulf of Maine Sea Urchins

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 3: Sea Cucumber Biology and Ecology

Holothuroidea

Aspidochirote Biology

References

Chapter 4: Use and Exploitation of Sea Cucumbers

Introduction

Sea Cucumbers as Food

Sea Cucumbers as Medicine

Sea Cucumber Processing and Marketing

Trade and Grading

References

Part II: Sea Urchin Aquaculture

Chapter 5: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in Japan

Introduction: Sea Urchin Fisheries in Japan

Current Status of Sea Urchin Fisheries

Hatchery Technology (Production of Seed)

Reseeding of Sea Urchins in Japan

Land-based and Captive Sea-based Grow Out (Cultivation of Seed to Market Size)

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 6: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in China

Introduction

Species Choices

History and Trends

Markets and Uses

Broodstock Management and Gamete Collection

Hatchery Technology

Land-Based Nursery Stage

Growout

References

Chapter 7: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in Norway

General Introduction

Sea Urchin Hatchery Technology

Manufactured Feed Development in Norway

Sea Urchin Grow-Out

Land-Based Sea Urchin Grow-Out and Roe Enhancement

Sea-Based Sea Urchin Grow-Out and Roe Enhancement

Sea Urchin Health Issues

Economics

Industry constraints and expectations

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 8: Aquaculture of the Green Sea Urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis in North America

Ecology and Fisheries

Hatchery Technology

Settlement and Nursery

Growout to Market

Health Issues

Future Prospects for Green Sea Urchin Aquaculture in the Gulf of Maine

Acknowledgements

References

Chapter 9: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in Scotland

Introduction

Broodstock Management and Gamete Collection

Hatchery Production

Nursery Culture

Grow out Systems: Integrated Aquaculture

Artificial Diets

Harvesting and Handling

Disease

Economics and Future Prospects

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 10: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in Australia

Introduction

Species Choices

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 11: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in New Zealand

Introduction

Broodstock Management and Gamete Collection

Hatchery Technology

Growout

Ranching

Sea urchin Health Issues

Economics

Industry Constraints and Expectations

References

Chapter 12: Enhancing the Commercial Quality of Edible Sea Urchin Gonads – Technologies Emphasizing Nutritive Phagocytes

Introduction

Sea Urchin Gonads as Edible Animal Products

Some Characteristics of High Quality, Commercial Grade Edible Sea Urchin Gonads (i.e., Roe or Uni) from Wild Populations

Gonad Enhancement (Bulking)

Novel Technologies for Gonad Enhancement Beyond Optimal Aquaculture

Acknowledgments

References

Part III: Sea Cucumber Aquaculture

Chapter 13: Sea Cucumber Farming in Japan

Species of Interest

Hatchery Techniques

Sea Cucumber Products

Sea Cucumber Market Trends in Japan

Economic and Technical Aspects

Concluding Remarks

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 14: Sea Cucumber Aquaculture in China

Introduction

Hatchery Technology

Growout

References

Chapter 15: Sea Cucumber Farming in Southeast Asia (Malaysia, Philippines, Indonesia, Vietnam)

Introduction

Hatchery Techniques

Growout Techniques

Processing

Uses

Sea Cucumber Trade

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 16: Sea Cucumber Aquaculture in New Zealand

Introduction

Hatchery Techniques

Farming/Sea Ranching Techniques

Economics

Acknowledgments

References

Index

End User License Agreement

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Guide

Table of Contents

Part I: Biology and Exploitation of Echinoderms

Begin Reading

List of Illustrations

Chapter 2: Use and Exploitation of Sea Urchins

Figure 2.1 Global sea urchin production (weight whole animals).

Figure 2.2 (a) Total production of the four major sea urchin product forms, converted to whole animal weight assuming a 10% yield factor. (b) Global production value by product form. (c) Prices in Japan by product form.

Figure 2.3 (a) Total supply of sea urchins (whole weight) in Japan by country of origin. (b) Global value of sea urchins in Japan by country of origin.

Figure 2.4 (a) Total value of Japanese imports of live sea urchins, by country of origin. (b) Total value of Japanese imports of fresh or chilled sea urchin roe, by country of origin. (c) Total value of Japanese imports of frozen sea urchin roe by, country of origin. (d) Total value of Japanese imports of dried/salted/brined sea urchin roe, by country of origin.

Figure 2.5 (a) Price paid in Japan for live sea urchins, by country of origin. (b) Price paid in Japan for imported fresh chilled urchin roe, by country of origin. (c) Price paid in Japan for imported frozen urchin roe, by country of origin. (d) Price paid in Japan for imported dried/salted/brined urchin roe, by country of origin.

Figure 2.6 Imports of sea urchin roe into the United States by country of origin.

Figure 2.7 (a) Total sea urchin landings, imports, and exports (whole weight) in the United States. (b) Prices paid for sea urchins in the United States.

Figure 2.8 (a) Urchin landings and exports (product weight) in Canada. (b) Canadian sea urchin export values by destination country. Total value in 2013 of Canadian sea urchin exports was US$23 million.

Figure 2.9 Live sea urchin imports to the United States by volume (a), total value (b), and price (c). Source: NOAA Office of Science and Technology.

Figure 2.10 Marketing flowchart for sea urchins in Japan.

Figure 2.11 Sea urchin roe (

uni

) in the Japanese marketplace.

Figure 2.12 Marketing channel and value-added margin of sea urchin markets among the United States, Canada, and Japan in 2012.

Chapter 3: Sea Cucumber Biology and Ecology

Figure 3.1 General aspidochirote anatomy. t, tentacle; cr, calcareous ring; m, madreporite; sc, stone canal; ta, tentacular ampulla; wr, circular water ring; g, gonad; Pv, Polian vesicle; s, Stomach; dv, dorsal intestinal haemal vessel; lt, left respiratory tree; li, large intestine; vv, ventral intestinal haemal vessel; rhp, respiratory-haemalplexus; si, Small intestine; cv, cross-ventral intestinal haemal vessel; rt, right respiratory tree; rw, radial water canal; lmb, long muscular band; cm, circular muscle; ct, common respiratory tree trunk; cl, cloaca; cs, Cloacal suspensors; a, anus; p, papilla.

Figure 3.2 Ossicles of sea cucumber. 1. Button, 2. button with nodules; 3. bar; 4. C-formed; 5. S-formed; 6. Table, 7.and 8. bar with branches, 9. branch, and 10 web-formed.

Figure 3.3 (a) symbiotic ciliate,

Boveria labialis

(Ikeda and Ozaki, 1918; scale bars: 20 mm.), (a, courtesy of Hong-an Long); (b) Boveria inside respiratory tree).

Chapter 4: Use and Exploitation of Sea Cucumbers

Figure 4.1 Se'a prepared for retail in Samoa.

Figure 4.2 Spiky freeze-dried sea cucumbers.

Chapter 5: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in Japan

Figure 5.1 Yearly variations in the annual catch of sea urchins in Japan.

Figure 5.2 Major sea urchin species harvested in Japanese fisheries. Test diameters are approximately 5 cm, except

H

.

pulcherrimus

, which is approximately 4 cm.

Figure 5.3 Two types of packaging for mid- to high-quality sea urchin roe. (a) Wooden tray package containing 120 g of

S

.

intermedius

roe. (b) Saltwater package containing 100 g of

S

.

intermedius

roe.

Figure 5.4 Auction of sea urchins at a fish market in Hokkaido. The two people on the platform are auctioneers; the others are brokers. The wooden trays of sea urchin roe are stacked on the platform.

Figure 5.5 Daily variation in the highest price for

Strongylocentrotus intermedius

and

S

.

nudus

packaged in large wooden trays (250–300 g) from an auction at the Tokyo Metropolitan Central Wholesale Market.

Figure 5.6 Variations in annual imports of whole sea urchins in Japan. Drawn from statistical data published by the Ministry of Finance, Japan. As original data are categorized as live urchins, fresh chilled roe, frozen roe, or salted roe, the latter three data categories have been converted to the whole urchins by assuming a yield rate as 15% and added to data for live urchins.

Figure 5.7 Equipment for larval rearing. TRT, temperature-regulating tank; LRT, larval rearing 1 m

3

tank; IFP, seawater in flow pipe; OFC, out flow filter covered with 100 µm mesh screen; OFP, out flow pipe.

Figure 5.8 Development of

S

.

intermedius

larvae. (a) Pyramid larvae, (b) four-armed pluteus, (c) six-armed pluteus, (d) eight-armed pluteus, (e) metamorphosing larva, and (f) metamorphosing larvae and settled juvenile.

Figure 5.9 Density of

C

.

gracilis

fed to larvae.

Figure 5.10 Larval development and growth of body, stomach, and echinus rudiment.

Figure 5.11 Postlarval rearing tank. Corrugated PVC plates coated with

Ulvella lens

are packed into holders and placed in the settlement tanks.

Figure 5.12 Growth of

S. intermedius

juveniles reared on the settlement plates.

Figure 5.13 Most important sea urchin-producing and reseeding prefectures in Japan.

Figure 5.14 Number of sea urchins (a)

Strongylocentrotus intermedius

and

S

.

nudus

and (b)

Pseudocentrotus depressus

,

Hemicentrotus pulcherrimus

,

Tripneustes gratilla

, and

Heliocidaris crassispina

reseeded by year for all prefectures.

Figure 5.15 Total number of sea urchins reseeded and total catch (tons) by year for all sea urchin species and prefectures.

Figure 5.16 Annual catch and reseeding levels for

S

.

intermedius

in Hokkaido from 1985 to 2009.

Figure 5.17 Catch and reseeding numbers for

P

.

depressus

in Nagasaki Prefecture, 1956–2009.

Figure 5.18 Location of sea urchin aquaculture farms in Japan, as described in Table 5.5

Figure 5.19 Changes in the test diameter of

Pseudocentrotus depressus

cultivated in a tank. The urchins, fertilized in October 1991 or October 1992, were reared on

Eisenia bicyclis

at ambient temperature (12–28 °C). Each value represents the mean ± SD (standard deviation) of approximately 50 individuals.

Figure 5.20 Longline system for sea-based aquaculture of shellfish. This system is applied for cultivation of various shellfish culture, including sea urchins.

Figure 5.21 A cage used for sea urchin and abalone aquaculture in Saga. A plastic lid is removed to feed the animals. This cage contains abalone and brown algae.

Figure 5.22 Procedure for cultivation of juvenile

Strongylocentrotus intermedius

to market size in Chirippu, east Hokkaido. Arrows represent the harvest season.

Figure 5.23 Cage design used for sea urchin aquaculture in Chirippu. To save expense, aquaculturists assemble the cages themselves based on this design, using materials sold at home centers.

Figure 5.24 Feeding sea urchins from the boat in Chirippu. (a) A cage is winched up to the sea surface. (b) Each compartment is filled with so much brown algae that sea urchins cannot be seen.

Figure 5.25 Land-based aquaculture facility in Mie. (a) Tanks used for polyculture of sea urchins, abalone and sea cucumbers. These tanks were previously used for flounder aquaculture. (b) To aid management, floating cages are housed in the tanks. Each cage contains sea urchins or abalone with brown algae. Sea cucumbers are directly housed in the tanks without cages to allow them to eat the feces of sea urchins and abalone, and decayed algae falling from the cages.

Figure 5.26 Changes in temperature of deep seawater and ambient seawater at Rausu in 2009.

Figure 5.27 Changes in the frequency of

Strongylocentrotus intermedius

at favorable maturity for food, reared in ambient seawater and deep seawater. Gonads at stage 1 (before gametogenesis), stage 2 (early gametogenesis) and stage 3 (mid-gametogenesis) according to Fuji (1960) were defined as favorable maturity for food products.

Chapter 6: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in China

Figure 6.1 Sea urchin production in China. FAO Fishstat for data 1986–2009, China Fishery Statistics Yearbook 2011, 2012 for data 2010–2011.

Figure 6.2 Plastic wave plates for settlement of urchin larvae, showing plastic frames.

Figure 6.3 Sea urchin raft culture and lantern net.

Figure 6.4 Cultured sea urchins

Strongylocentrotus nudus

, produced in Rongcheng, Shandong Province, 2009.

Chapter 7: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in Norway

Figure 7.1 ROV for harvesting sea urchins.

Figure 7.2 Broodstock chambers.

Figure 7.3 Effects of temperature on feed intake (per animal per day) of different size group of adult

S

.

droebachiensis

(small = 40 g, medium = 65 g, large = 100 g) in relation to different temperature.

Figure 7.4 Tipper tubs.

Figure 7.5 Specially designed boat with lifting apparatus for SeaNest system.

Figure 7.6 Schematic of SeaNest stacks and lifting apparatus.

Chapter 8: Aquaculture of the Green Sea Urchin Strongylocentrotus droebachiensis in North America

Figure 8.1 Historical green sea urchin landings and value for the State of Maine, USA.

Figure 8.2 Vessels used for egg incubation (left) and pluteus culture (right). (Photograph by Steve Eddy.)

Figure 8.3 Bio-barrels with juvenile sea urchins 3–4 months post-settlement. (Photograph by Steve Eddy.)

Figure 8.4 Hydroponic plant baskets used to hold juvenile

S

.

droebachiensis

. (Photograph by Steve Eddy.)

Figure 8.5 Submerged cage filled with shell hash and used as a sea-based nursery cage for juvenile

S

.

droebachiensis

. (Photograph by Larry Harris.)

Figure 8.6 V-trough tank culture system used at the CCAR for on-growing

S

.

droebachiensis

to market size.

Figure 8.7 Growth of green sea urchins of different size categories over an 11 month period when fed either the Nofima urchin diet or the Cargill catfish diet. Initial size: small = 10–18 mm, avg. 1.3 g; medium = 16–24 mm, avg. 3.4 g; large = 22–30 mm, avg. 7.1 g.

Figure 8.8 Specific growth rates (SGR) of

S

.

droebachiensis

of different size categories fed the Nofima diet at frequent (1x/3 days), weekly (1x/7 0days) and biweekly (1x/14 days) intervals. Initial size: small=30–34 mm; 12–15 g, medium = 35–40 mm;18–23 g, large greater than 40 mm; 28–61 g.

Figure 8.9 Feed conversion ratios (FCR) of

S

.

droebachiensis

of different size categories fed the Nofima diet at frequent (1x/3 days), weekly (1x/7 days) and fortnightly (1x/14 days) intervals. Initial size: small = 30–34 mm:12–15 g, medium = 35–40 mm:18–23 g, large = 40–55 mm:28–61 g.

Figure 8.10 Diver using sample quadrat during survey to estimate abundance and size of tagged hatchery origin

S

.

droebachiensis

released at an aquaculture lease.

Figure 8.11 Numbers of tagged hatchery origin

S

.

droebachiensis

recovered during six dive surveys from two release sites in Penobscot Bay, Maine.

Figure 8.12 Average test diameter of tagged hatchery origin

S

.

droebachiensis

recovered during six dive surveys from two release sites in Penobscot Bay, Maine and in tank culture at the CCAR. Error bars = ± 1 standard deviation from the mean.

Figure 8.13 Maximum test diameter of tagged hatchery origin

S

.

droebachiensis

recovered during six dive surveys from two release sites in Penobscot Bay, Maine.

Chapter 10: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in Australia

Figure 10.1 Side view (A) and cross-section (B) of the raceway rearing tanks. Growout tanks for juveniles to subadults (SA) were narrower in width than those for grow-out of subadults to adults (A).

Chapter 11: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in New Zealand

Figure 11.1

E. chloroticus

adult. (Photograph by Mike Barker.)

Figure 11.2 Gonads in 200 ml pottles prepared for sale showing the ungraded product. (Photograph by Mike Barker.)

Figure 11.3 PVC containers used to hold individual

E. chloroticus

in feeding experiments. Each chamber is supplied with a supply of fresh filtered seawater and 11 replicate containers are contained within a larger plastic tank.

Chapter 12: Enhancing the Commercial Quality of Edible Sea Urchin Gonads – Technologies Emphasizing Nutritive Phagocytes

Figure 12.1 Proposed model for nutritional role of MYP in female (A) and male (B) sea urchins (modified from Unuma

et al.

2003). MYP functions as a nutrient source in two different stages; for gametogenesis before spawning and for larval development after fertilization. (M) MYP; (NP) nutritive phagocyte; (circle) protein; hexagon) other molecule. Broken lines with arrows indicate the loss caused by metabolism as an energy source.

Figure 12.2

Results from Lee and Haard

(1982)

for wild collected green sea urchin gonadal amino acid values.

The inset is for the glycine, which is present in significantly higher quantities than any of the others. High-lighted in dark gray are the essential amino acids, in light gray are the semi-essential amino acids, all others are non-essential. Arrows indicate increases or decreases in amino acid concentrations at different times during the year; arrow indicates no change.

Figure 12.3

Free amino acid concentrations (%) of taste essential amino acids in sea urchin gonads

. This Figure combines the results of studies by Lee and Haard (1982), Fuke and Konosu (1991), and Liyana-Pathirana

et al.

(2002). Error bars show the standard error of the means from all three studies combined. * = pre-gametogenesis and best sensory scores (Lee and Haard 1982).

Figure 12.4

Two strategies for extending the season for harvesting high-quality gonads.

If growth of NPs is extended (A) or gametogenesis is suppressed (B), the season during which quality gonads containing fewer GC can be harvested is dramatically prolonged.

Figure 12.5

Combination yield of large sea urchin roe and high sensory scores

. Diets used in this trial (developed by Drs. S.A. Watts and A.L. Lawrence) were compared to the Wenger sea urchin diet (Wenger). Asterisks indicate roe of marketable size and sensory scores.

Figure 12.6

Generation of Triploid Sea Urchin Embryos:

(A) Two haploid green sea urchin ova fusing; (B) triploid prism stage embryo; (C) Karyotype of normal diploid blastula cells showing 42 chromosomes; (D) Karyotype of triploid blastula cells generated by our methods and showing 63 chromosomes.

Figure 12.7 Electron micrographs of autophagic vesicles (with multiple internal membrane bound vesicles) within the NPs of male (A) and female (B and C) green sea urchin gonads. Differentiating spermatozoa can be seen in the upper left corner of (A) and a large primary oocyte is evident in the lower right corner of (B). LC3 staining with a mammalian polyclonal antibody is illustrated in (C), smaller round vesicles staining on their outer membrane (see center of image), but not their inner membrane-bound vesicles.

Chapter 13: Sea Cucumber Farming in Japan

Figure 13.1 History of seed production. (A) Number of seeds production in Japan. (B) Number of

Apostichopus japonicus

hatcheries in Japan. Drawn from the statistical data published by Fisheries Agency, Fisheries Research Agency, and National Association for Promotion of Productive Seas.

Figure 13.2 Trepang of blue type animal landed at Hokkaido.

Figure 13.3 Time course of GSSL-induced egg maturation. An artificial GSSL peptide (P1) promotes the occurrence of GVBD among immature eggs at concentration of 30 µg/ml. FSW indicates filtered seawater as a control.

Figure 13.4 Test sample kits of GSSL-immunochromatography assay kit (GIM-Kit; Katow and Katow, 2014). (A) Five stripes of GIM-Kit (right) and the one encased for field use (left). (B) A GIM-Kit indicates positive signal with two lines (Control line and Positive line).

Figure 13.5 Breeding programs and broodstock selection. (A) A flowchart of seed production. (B) Broodstocks placed in 15 l containers for gamete releasing. (C) Broodstocks releasing eggs (a) and sperms (b). (D) Washing inseminated eggs in 45 µm mesh with filtered seawater.

Figure 13.6 Development of

Apostichopus japonicus

. (a) Unfertilized eggs and embryos in cleavage stage (arrow). (b) Gastrula. (c) Early auricularia. (d) Late auricularia. (e) Doliolaria. (f) Pentactula. (g) Settled juvenile. (h) Juveniles. Scale bar shows 100 µm.

Figure 13.7 Juvenile settlement. (A) PVC plates set in holders (a) and balled up polyethylene screen stuffed into the onion bags (b) as collector of juveniles in rearing tank. (B) Settled juveniles on the corrugated PVC plates. Inset shows high magnification image of settled juveniles indicated by a rectangle in mainframe.

Figure 13.8 Copepods extermination. (A) Development of

Tigriopus japonicus

. (a) Fertilized nauplius larva (arrows) and nauplius larva (encircled). (b) High magnification image of fertilized nauplius larva. (c) Copepodid stage larva. (d) Eggs in the sac. (e) Egg sac holding adult female. Scale bar shows 500 µm. (B) Eliminating

T. japonicus

from settlement plates by paralyzing with salt-enriched seawater. (a) Settlement plates immersed in salt-enriched seawater (about 50‰) in a 0.5 mm opening net-covered container. (b) Shaking off copepods from the plates after paralyzed in salt-enriched seawater. (c) Transfer the plates into new tank filled with filtered seawater. (d) Draw out the rearing seawater and collect juveniles at the drain with net (e). f: Juveniles filtered by 0.5 mm opening net to eliminate predatory copepods were transferred to new tanks. (C) Underwater pump to eliminate copepods in the rearing tank. (D) Rearing water draw into 45 µm opening net (

N

) and filter copepods in the pumped water.

Figure 13.9 Juvenile growth and final stages for releasing to fisheries. (A) Average body length of juveniles fed with LIVIC-BW. (B) Juveniles recovered from the plates. Recovered juveniles are kept in these baskets with enough seawater flow by the time of reseeding onto the fishery and/or intermediate cultures. (C) Juveniles packed in the plastic bags. (D) Intermediate culture in hanging bags. (a) Onion bags stuffed in the scallop culture cages hanged in sea. (b) Juveniles are stuffed in the onion bags that set in scallop culture cages. (E) Juvenile releasing onto reef by diver.

Figure 13.10 Sea cucumber showing a white spot disease focus on the shell.

Figure 13.11 A 1000 l tank used for spawning (Kitanihon Fishery Co. Ltd.).

Figure 13.12 Vinyl chloride pipe with plankton net of 40 µm mesh (Kitanihon Fishery Co. Ltd.). (A) Side view. (B) Bottom view.

Figure 13.13 Corrugated clear boards in holder (Kitanihon Fishery Co. Ltd.).

Figure 13.14 Copepod-removal equipment using a filtering technique (Developed by KM Giken Co. Ltd. and trialed at the Kitanihon Fishery Co. Ltd.).

Figure 13.15 (A) Japanese dried sea cucumber. (B) Export quantity and value of Japanese sea cucumbers.

Figure 13.16 (A) Changes in the catch at major producing centers in Japan. (B) Export shares of Japanese dried sea cucumber by country (2009).

Figure 13.17 Regional changes in the catch and value of sea cucumbers. (A) Hokkaido. (B) Aomori.

Chapter 14: Sea Cucumber Aquaculture in China

Figure 14.1 Dry sea cucumber (Beche-de-mer) imported from Japan (A) and for sale in China's market (B).

Figure 14.2 Life cycle of sea cucumber.

Figure 14.3 Starter culture in flasks (A) and mass culture of microalgae in polyethylene bag (B).

Figure 14.4 Gonad of female (a and c-top) and male (b and c-bottom) animals in mature stage.

Figure 14.5 Sea cucumbers releasing their gametes into seawater simultaneously.

Figure 14.6 Larval rearing tanks specially designed for sea cucumber hatchery.

Figure 14.7 Showing the individual differentiation in size within same batch of sea cucumbers.

Figure 14.8 Nursery tanks for sea cucumber juveniles.

Figure 14.9 Sea cucumber growout ponds with various substrates. (A) Stone, (B) Tile, (C) Concrete pipe ready for installation and (D) dragon cage.

Figure 14.10 Photographs showing cage system for sea cucumber growout. From left to right (a) a farmer is feeding the sea cucumber in a coop (b) close up of coop and (c) net cage.

Chapter 16: Sea Cucumber Aquaculture in New Zealand

Figure 16.1

A. mollis.

(Photo: D. Allen.)

Figure 16.2 Larval rearing tank (A) 1 µm cartridge filter, (B) inflow pipe, (C) open/close valve, (D) lid, (E) tank, (F) banjo sieve, (G) water outlet, (H) outflow pipe, (I) 20 l bucket with holes, (J) 55 µm sieve, (K) tank stand, (L)open/close valve, (M) air hose, and (N) air bubbles.

Figure 16.3 Juvenile

A. mollis

at approximately 1 year post settlement.

List of Tables

Chapter 5: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in Japan

Table 5.1 How sea urchins are consumed in Japan (Kochi 1992; Inui 2008c)

Table 5.2 Japanese imports of sea urchins 2010 (million yen)

Table 5.3 Sea urchin species preferred for the seed production in Japan with its commercial value and biological characteristics

Table 5.4 Hatchery of origin, number of release sites, and production numbers for the five most important species are shown for 2009

Table 5.5 Aquaculture and reseeding of sea urchins in Japan

Chapter 6: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in China

Table 6.1 Sea urchins with commercial interest found in China (Liu

et al

., 2010, Liao, 2001, Liu, 2001)

Table 6.2 Development of fertilized eggs and larvae of

S

.

nudus

(Gao

et al

. 1990),

S

.

intermedius

(Wang and Chang 1997), and

H

.

crassispina

(Feng

et al

. 2006; Sun

et al

. 1989)

Chapter 7: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in Norway

Table 7.1 Proximate composition (%) and energy content (given as MJ/kg) of the Nofima manufactured sea urchin feed

Table 7.2 Recommended water flow requirement (l/min/kg urchins) for three different size groups (40, 60, and 100 g) for adult

S

.

droebachiensis

at six different temperatures (4–14°C)

Chapter 9: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in Scotland

Table 9.1 Example feeding regime for larval sea urchins. Cell numbers describe algal cell density in the larval culture

Chapter 10: Sea Urchin Aquaculture in Australia

Table 10.1 Characteristics of rearing baskets. SA-type baskets are used to grow juveniles to subadults (10–30 mm TD); A-type baskets are used to either grow subadults to adults (30–60 mm TD) or to condition the roe prior to processing and marketing

Chapter 12: Enhancing the Commercial Quality of Edible Sea Urchin Gonads – Technologies Emphasizing Nutritive Phagocytes

Table 12.1 Stages in the gametogenesis for

S. droebachiensis

Chapter 13: Sea Cucumber Farming in Japan

Table 13.1 Spawning seasons of

A. japonicus

in Japan

Table 13.2 Proper amount of LIVIC during the post-larval rearing period

Table 13.3 Prices of Japanese dried sea cumbers in Hong Kong

Chapter 14: Sea Cucumber Aquaculture in China

Table 14.1 Salinity tolerance of

A. japonicus

at different stages (authors' unpublished data)

Table 14.2 Oxygen consumption rate of

A. japonicus

juveniles (body weight: 1.06 g ± 0.02) at different salinities

Table 14.3 Feeding regime for sea cucumber larval stages (Jia and Chen, 2001)

Table 14.4 Oxygen consumption at different body weights and temperatures (mg O

2

/g body weight · h, authors' unpublished data)

Chapter 16: Sea Cucumber Aquaculture in New Zealand

Table 16.1

A. mollis

larval development rate at 18

o

C. (Stenton-Dozey and Heath 2009)

Echinoderm Aquaculture

Edited by

Nicholas P. Brown and Stephen D. Eddy

Copyright © 2015 by Wiley-Blackwell. All rights reserved

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey

Published simultaneously in Canada

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Sea urchin and sea cucumber aquaculture / edited by Nicholas P. Brown and Stephen D. Eddy.

pages cm

Includes index.

ISBN 978-0-470-96038-7 (cloth)

1. Sea urchin culture. 2. Sea cucumbers--Cultures and culture media. 3. Aquaculture. I. Brown,

Nicholas P., (Nicholas Philip), editor. II. Eddy, Stephen D., editor.

SH399.S32S43 2015

639′.7—dc23

2015006612

List of Contributors

Yukio Agatsuma

Tohoku University, Japan

M. F. Barker

Department of Marine Science, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand

S. A. Böttger

Department of Biology, West Chester University, West Chester, PA, USA

Nicholas P. Brown

Center for Cooperative Aquaculture Research, University of Maine, Franklin, ME, USA

Stefano Carboni

Ardtoe Marine Laboratory, Argyll, UK

Ya-qing Chang

Key Laboratory of Mariculture and Stock Enhancement in North China's Sea, Ministry of Agriculture, Dalian Ocean University, Dalian, China

Jiaxin Chen

Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Beijing, Fishery College of Wuxi, Agriculture University of Nanjing, Beijing, China

Fu-Sung Chiang

Institute of Applied Economics, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung, Taiwan

Elizabeth Cook

Scottish Association for Marine Science, Oban, UK

Stephen D. Eddy

Center for Cooperative Aquaculture Research, University of Maine, Franklin, ME, USA

Larry G. Harris

Department of Biological Sciences, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, USA

P. Heath

National Institute for Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd, Wanganui, New Zealand

Adam Hughes

Scottish Association for Marine Science, Oban, UK

P. James

Nofima - Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Tromsø, Norway

A. Jeffs

Department of Marine Science, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

H. Katow

Research Center for Marine Biology, Tohoku University, Asamushi, Aomori, Japan

Takaaki Kayaba

Kushiro Fisheries Research Institute, Hokkaido Research Organization, Kushiro, Hokkaido, Japan

Maeve Kelly

Scottish Association for Marine Science, Oban, UK

Addison L. Lawrence

Texas AgriLife Research Mariculture Laboratory, Texas A&M University System, Port Aransas, TX, USA

Hui Liu

Yellow Sea Fisheries Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Fishery Sciences, Beijing, China

A. Mortensen

Nofima - Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Tromsø, Norway

S. Okumura

School of Marine Biosciences, Kitasato University, Kitasato, Kanagawa, Japan

Yuichi Sakai

Mariculture Fisheries Research Institute, Hokkaido Research Organization, Muroran, Hokkaido, Japan

C. Shibuya

Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, Hirosaki, Aomori, Japan

S.I. Siikavuopio

Nofima - Norwegian Institute of Food, Fisheries and Aquaculture Research, Tromsø, Norway

Matthew Slater

Aquaculture Research Group, Knowledge and Technology Transfer, Alfred-Wegener-Institut Helmholtz Center for Polar and Marine Research,Bremerhaven, Germany

J. Stenton Dozey

National Institute for Water and Atmospheric Research Ltd, Wanganui, New Zealand

Jenny Sun

Senior Marine Research Institute, Gulf of Maine Research Institute, Portland, ME, USA

Joeharnani Tresnati

Fisheries Department, Faculty of Marine Science and Fisheries, Hasanuddin University, South Sulawesi, Indonesia

Ambo Tuwo

Marine Science Department, Faculty of Marine Science and Fisheries, Hasanuddin University, South Sulawesi, Indonesia

Tatsuya Unuma

Hokkaido National Fisheries Research Institute, Fisheries Research Agency, Kushiro, Hokkaido, Japan

Charles W. Walker

Molecular, Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, Center for Marine Biology and Marine Biomedical Research Unit, University of New Hampshire, Durham, NH, USA

Stephen A. Watts

Department of Biology, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, USA

Jane E. Williamson

Marine Ecology Group, Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia

Part IBiology and Exploitation of Echinoderms

Chapter 1Sea Urchin Ecology and Biology

Larry G. Harris and Stephen D. Eddy

Introduction

Sea urchins are widely distributed in polar, temperate, and tropical oceans, where they are conspicuous members of most benthic marine communities. They play an important ecological role as herbivorous grazers, and their ability to alter algal community states has made them the subject of numerous ecological studies (e.g., Elner and Vadas 1990; Tegner and Dayton 2000; Witman and Dayton 2001; Uthicke et al. 2009). Sea urchins are also used as a model organism in developmental studies and in schools to demonstrate cell division and early development; the purple urchin, Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, was one of the first animal species to have its entire genome sequenced (Sea Urchin Genome Sequencing Consortium 2006). There are about 850 living species of sea urchins, and at least 17 of these are commercially valued as food (), leading to significant sea urchin fisheries in many regions (Andrew . 2002; Lawrence and Guzman 2004). Because sea urchins often form dense aggregations when their populations increase, they are very vulnerable to overharvesting. Wild stocks in most regions where they are fished are greatly diminished and aquaculture has been proposed as a means to supply the continued market demand, most of which comes from Japan. The first section of this chapter discusses some of the ecological factors that affect sea urchin abundance, distribution, and vulnerability to overfishing. The second section discusses biological and physiological considerations that may be of interest to sea urchin aquaculturists, such as feeding, growth, reproductive control, and physiological adaptations relevant to intensive culture.